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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 

MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corpbration 


http://www.arcliive.org/details/compendiumOOgoodricli 


» 


A  NEW 

FAMILY  ENCYCLOPEDIA; 

OR 

COMPEIVDIUM 

OF 

UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE: 

COMPREHENDING 

A  PLAIN  AND  PRACTICAL  VIEW  OF  THOSE  SUBJECTS  MOST  INTERESTING 
TO  PERSONS,  IN  THE  ORDINARY  PROFESSIONS  OP  LIFE. 

KUttJJteateTJ  i»2  numerous  Bnsrabiiifls. 
SECOND  IMPROVED  EDITION. 


EDITED 
BY  CHARLES  A.  GOODRICH. 


PHILADELPHIA. 


1831. 


tJO 


1? 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1831,  by  Charles 
A.  Goodncl),  m  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  Connecticut. 


Part  First  contains         -----       240  pagea. 
Part  Second  contains         -       -       -       -  228  pages 

Whole  number  of  pages,      -       -       -       -       468 


PREFACE  TO  THE  gECOND  EDITION. 


The  First  Editiou  of  the  ibllowing  work,  having  met  with  a  more 
flattering-  reception  among  its  Patrons,  than  the  most  sanguine  hopes 
of  the  Editor  allowed  him  tx)  anticipate,  he  has  been  encouraged  to 
attempt  several  improvements  in  this  edition. 

In  making  these  improvements,  the  Editor  has  endeavored  to  ren- 
der the  plan  of  the  work  more  simple — has  erased  such  portions  as 
appeared  devoid  of  mterest,  or  utility,  and  substituted  therefor  more 
than  sixty  pages,  original  matter,  on  topics,  which,  it  is  beUeved, 
will  be  found  important  in  the  view  of  those  for  whose  benefit  the; 
work  is  designed. 

It  has  been  the  object  of  the  Editor  from  the  first  to  proceed  upon 
the  principle  of  selection  and  utility — to  embrace  so  lew  subjects, 
as  to  enable  him  "to  enlarge  upon  them,  according  to  their  relative 
importance  ;  and  to  treat  of  them  in  so  plain  and  practical  a  man- 
ner, as  to  render  the  work  intelligible  and  useful.  By  this  means, 
he  has  been  enabled,  he  trusts,  in  a  measure  to  avoid  a  serious  ob- 
jection, which  has  sometimes  been  made  to  the  portable  Encyclope- 
dias extant,  that  they  embrace  so  great  a  variety  of  articles,  as  to 
render  them  little  more  than  Dictionaries.  •  A  different  rourse  has 
been  here  adopted  ;  aru;!  it  gives  the  Editor  pleasure  to  know  that  it 
has  the  sanction  of  a  large  portion  of  his  patrons. 

To  the  friends,  who  have  aided  him,  and  lightened  his  task,  he 
takes  occasion  to  renew  the  expression  of  his  thanks,  especially  to 
the  author  of  the  article  on  Horticulture.  In  respect  to  that  article, 
the  Editor  is  requested  to  say,  that  it  is  chiefly  an  abridgement  ot' 
Cobbett's  excellent  system  of*^  gardening.  And  in  relation  to  several 
other  parts  of  the  work,  he  cJan  claim  no  other  merit,  than  that  of 
presepting  to  his  readers  a  condensed  and  faithful  compilation. 

The  nature- of  the  work  has  precluded  hi  tn,  in  many  instances, 
from  giving  credit  to  the  several  authors  of  whose  labors,  he  has 
availed  himself 

It  belongs  to  this  place,  therefore,  to  express  his .  obUgation  to 
Guy's  Pocket  Encyclopedia,  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  Mitchel's 
Pocket  Encyclopedia,  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge,  Library  of 
Entertaining  Knowledge,  Godman's  Natural  History,  Goldsmith's 
Natural  History,  Hooper's  Medical  Dictionary,  Family  Physician, 
American  Farmer,  New  England  Farmer,  Complete  Grazier, 
Loudon's  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  Clater's,  Hind's  and  Ma- 
son's Farming,  White  on  the  Diseases  of  Cattle,  Bigelow's  Tech- 
nology, Allen's  Mechanics,  T egg's  Book  of  UtiUty,  American 
Almanac,  &c.  &c. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.     MAN. 

GENERAL  INTRODDCTORY  REMARKS. 

Section  I. 

NATURAL   HISTORY,    STRUCTURE,   &C.    p.  14 — 29. 

Varieties  of  the  Human  Species — Intellectual  capacity — Difference  of  Form, 
Stature,  and  Complexion — Origin  of  the  North  American  Indians — Human  Struc- 
ture, viz.  Bones — Teeth — Muscles — Flesh — Skin — Absorbents — Cartilages — Mem- 
brane— Gland — The  Brain — Cerebrums-Cerebellum — Tlie  Spinal  Marrow — The 
Thorax,  or  Chest — Respiration — The  Windpipe — The  Lungs — The  Heart — An  Ar- 
tery—A Vein— Air— The  Blood — Thoracic  Duct— The  Abdomen— The  Liver— The 
Bile — The  Spleen,  or  Milt— The  Stomach— Of  Digestion— The  Gastric  Juice — The 
Intestines — The  Kidneys — The  Senses,  viz. — The  Eye — Feeling — The  Nose-^The 
Taste— The  Sexes. 

Section  ii. 

of  the  mind  and  its  faculties,  p.  29 — 35. 

The  Mind — Sensation — Memory — Imagination — Genius — Reasoi>— The  Will — 
Ghost — Knowledge — The  Passions. 


PART  II.  ALIMENTS. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  VARIOUS  ALIMENTARY  PROPERTIES  OF  ANIMAL 
AND  VEGETABLE  FOOD  ;  AND  THEIR  DIFFERENT  EFFECTS  UPON  THE 
HUMAN  CONSTITUTION,  p.  35 — 47. 

Section  I. 

OF   ARTIFICIAL   ALIMENTS,  p.  47 — 53. 

Bread — Starch— Sugar — Tea — Coffee— Chocolate — Rice— The  Yam— The  Plan- 
tain — Bread  Fruit,  &c. — Cheese,  Butter,  &e.   See  Agriculture. 

Section  II. 

OF    FRUITS,    p.   53—63. 

Oranges — The  Citron— The  Lemon — Olive— The  Almond — Tamarinds — Prunes 
—The  Cacao  Nut— The  Cocoa  Nut— The  Pomegranate— The  Fig— The  Banian,  or 
Indian  Fig  Tree— Raisins — Dates — Pine  Apple — Apple — Plum— Peach— Nectarine 
— Apricot— Cherry — Q,uince. 


FAMILY 


COISTENTS. 


Section  III. 

OF    DRINKS,    p.  63 — 73. 

Water — Wine — Method  of  Makin?  and  Pining  Wine — Currant  Wine — Method 
of  making  Currant  Wine — Cider — Method  of  making  Cider — Vinegar — Metliod  of 
making  Vinegar — Alcohol — Rum — Brandy — Geneva,  or  Gin — Arrack — Ale — Malt 
Method  of  making  Malt — Brewing — Hops. 

Section  IV. 

OF  condiments,  p.  73—81. 

Ginger — Nutmeg — Clove — Pepper — Cassia — Cinnamon — Salt — Method  of  ma- 
king Salt— Mustard— Ketchup. 

Section  V. 

or  animals,  p.  81 — 111. 

Domestic  Animals,  Sec  Agriculture — The  Lion — The  Tiger — Tiie  Puma,  or  Cou- 
gar—Domestic Cat— The  Dog— The  Camel— Lhmia— The  Giraffe — Rein  Deer— 
^fuoso — ^American  Elk — rElephant — Method  of  taking  tlie  Elephant — Gigantic, 
^  I  asf  odon,  or  Mammoth — Bear — Seal — Beaver. 

Section  VI. 

OP  fish.  p.  Ill — 117. 

The  Salmon  Fishery— ^od  Fishery — Herring  Fishery — Mackerel  Fishery — Shad 
The  Lobster — Oystcris — Tortoise — Whale — Method  of  taking  Whales, 

Section  VII. 

OF    FOWL.    p.    117 — 125. 

The  Cock— The  Hen—The  Turkey- The  Guinea  Hen— The  Goose— Duck- 
Wild  Pigeon— Carrier  Pigeon. 


,  PART  III. 

PRESERVATION  OF   HEALTH,   &C. 
Section  I. 

RULES  AND  hints  FOR  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  LIFE,  HEALTH,  &C.  p,  127 — 156. 

Rules  of  Sir  R.  Philips — Of  Dr.  Boorhaave— Experience  of  Howard— Hints  to 
Students — Q,uantity  of  Food — Abstinence — Exercise — Friction — Air — Sleep — Sleep- 
ing Apartments— Beds— CleanUness — Badiing— Contagion — Purifying  and  Disin- 
fecting Agents — Tobacco — Dr.  Rush's  View  of  the  Effects  of  certain  Liquors  upon 
the  body  and  minds  of  men — Of  Opium  and  Laudanum — Of  Wounds  cut  with 
sharp  Instruments— Of  Poisoned  Wounds— Mode  of  Treatment— Strains  or  Sprains 
— Treatment  of  Frozen  Limbs — Burns  and  Scalds — Dress  of  Children — Diet  of 
Children— Sleep — Ejcercise — Washing  and  Bathing  of  Cliildren— Teething- 
Summer  Complaint — Hooping  Cough — Croup — Measles. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CONTENTS. 


Section  II. 

OF    POISONS SUSPENDED    ANIMATION,    p.    156 — 164, 

Different  kinds  of  Poisons — Syraptoms,  and  Remedies — Stomach  Pump — Poison 
from  the  fumes  of  Burning  Charcoal,  Gas  from  Wells,  Caverns,  &c.  and  the  neceg- 
sary  Treatment — Drowning — Symptoms  of  apparent  Death  by  Drowning — Treat- 
ment— Choking — Treatment — Lightning,  and  its  Remedy. 

Section  III. 

FAMILY    DISPENSATORY,   p.  164 — 168. 

Weights  and  Measures  used  by  Apothecaries,  and  the  signs  by  which  they  are 
denoted — Recipes  for  the  making  of  Laxative  Pills — Pills  of  Aloes,  and  Petida — 
Hull's  Colic  Pills— Purging  Pills— Sir  H.  Halford's  Aj^erient  Pills — Strengthening 
Pills— To  Excite  Perspiration — Adhesive  Plaster— Anodyne  Plaster — Strengthening 
Plaster — Picra — Sweating  Powder,  or  Dover's  Powder — Elixir  Proprietatus — Tine, 
ture  of  Bark, .  or  Huxham's  Tincture — Tincture  of  Guaiac — Laudanum — Elixir 
Asthmatic — Linseed  Meal  Poultice — Bread  and  Water  Poultice— Mustard  Poultice — 
Yeast  Poultice — Simple  Ointment — Golden  Ointment — Sulphur  Ointment — Pile 
Ointment — BasiUcan  Ointment — Simple  Sirup — Sirup  of  Ginger — Sirup  of  Lemons 
— volatile  Liniment — Liniment  of  Oil  and  Lime — Camphorated  Oil— Opodeldoc. 


PART  IV. 

p.  168—340. 

Cotton  ;  Manner  of  raising  Cotton  ;  Process  of  Manufacturing  Cotton  into  Cloth  ; 
Silk  Manufacture  ;  Satin  ;  Velvet ;  Taffety  ;  Gauze  ;  Tabby ;  Brocade  ;  Stockings ; 
History  of  Silk;  Mulberry  Tree;  Mode  of  Cultivation;  Eggs  of  Silk  Worms; 
Hatching  the  Eggs  ;  Rearing  Silk  Worms  ;  Rising  of  ths Silk  Worms;  Picking  of 
the  Cocoons ;  Cocoons  kept  for  Use  ;  Cocoons  intended  for  Sale  ;  Manufacture  of 
Linen;  Of  Cambric;  Of  Lace;  Culture  of  Flax;  Culture  of  Hemp;  Art  of 
Tanning ;  Of  Currying  ;  Manufacture  of  Parchment ;  Of  Morocco  ;  Of  Glue  ; 
Of  Hats ;  Of  Buttons  ,  Method  of  Refining  Gold  ;  Art  of  Gilding  ;  Of  Silvering  ; 
Of  Coining ;  Process  of  Making  Tin  and  Tin  plate  ;  Solder ;  Melting  and  casting 
of  Metals  ;  Art  of  Casting  in  Sand  ;  Of  casting  Statues  ;  Of  Casting  Cannon  ;  Of 
Casting  Bells ;  Of  Casting  Printing  Letters  ;  Printing  ;  History  of  Printing ;  Art 
of  Common,  or  Letter-press  Printing ;  of  Rolling  press  Printing  ;  of  Calico  Print- 
ing ;  and  Stereotype  Printing;  Method  of  Making  Virnish;  Art  of  Japanning ; 
Method  of  making  Bricks ;  Manufacture  of  Tiles  ;  Pipes  ;  Pottery  ;  Delft- ware  ; 
Of  Porcelain,  or  Ciiina ;  Of  Glass ;  Ingredients  of  Glass ;  Method  of  making 
Bottles,  Phials,  Drinking  Glasses,  Window  Glass,  Plate  Glass,  for  Looking  Glasses, 
&c.  ;  Manufacture  of  Putty  ;  Pins  ;  Needles ;  Art  of  Bleaching  ;  Manufacture  of 
Woollen  Cloths;  Of  Camblet;  Of  Carpets;  Art  of  Dyeing  ;  Materials  for  Dyeing 
different  Colors  ;  General  Rules  for  Dyeing  all  Colors  ;  Soap ;  Candles ;  Wax ; 
Manufacture  of  Sealing- Wax ;  Of  Paper  ;  Architecture  ;  General  History  and  De- 
scription of  the  different  Styles  of  ancient  and  modern  Architecture,  &c  &c.  &c. 


10  FAMILY 


CONTEPTTS. 


PART  V. 

AGRICULTURE. 
GENERAL    INTRODUCTORY   REMARKS. 

Section  I. 

ON    NEAT    CATTLE,    &C  p.    3 — 42. 

Different  Breeds  of  Neat  Cattle  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States ;  Wild 
Cattle ;  Devonshire  Breed  ;  Sussex  Breed ;  Hereford  ;  Short  Horned  Cattle  ;  Long 
Horned  ;  Galloway  Breed ;  Highland  Breed  ;  Welsh  Breed  ;  Alderney  Breed ;  Va- 
rieties in  the  United  Slates  ;  Coke  Devon  Bull  Holkani ;  Wye  Comet ;  On  buying 
and  stocking  a  farm  with  Cattle  ;  Of  the  Bull ;  Method  of  managing  mischievous 
Bulls  ;  Of  the  Cow  ;  Description  of  a  Perfect  Cow  ;  On  the  Treatment  and  Rear- 
ing of  Calves  ;  Of  Steers  and  Draught  Oxen  ;  E^asy  method  of  accustoming  animals 
to  draw  ;  Mode  of  yoking  in  France  ;  Of  Grazing ;  Soiling  and  Stall  Feeding 
Neat  Cattle. 

Section  II. 

on  the  dairy,  &c,  p.  42—52. 

Of  Milch  Kine,  and  of  the  Pasture  and  other  Pood  best  calculated  for  Cows,  as  it 
resiiects  their  Milk  ;  Of  the  Management  of  Milk  and  Cream  ;  £md  the  Making  and 
Preserving  of  Butter  ;  Of  the  Making  and  Preserving  of  Cheese. 

Section  III. 

ok  the  breeding,  rearing,  and  management  op  horses,  p.  52 — 90. 

Brief  History  of  the  Horse  ;  Different  Breeds  of  Horses,  viz.  Barb  ;  Dongola 
Horse ;  Arabian ;  East  India  Horse  ;  Chinese  ;  Persian  ;  Toorkoman ;  Tartar  and 
Kalmuck ;  Turkish ;  German  ;  Swedish,  Finland  and  Norwegian  ;  Iceland ; 
Flemish  and  Dutch  ;  Spanish  ;  Italian  ;  English  ;  Roadster  or  Hackney  ;  Farmer's 
Horse  ;  Coach  Horse ;  Heavy  Draught  Horses  ;  Cleveland  Bays ;  Suffolk  Punch ; 
Clydesdale  ;  Heavy  Black  Horses  ;  Dray  ;  Cavalry  ;  Race  Horse ;  Darley  Arabi- 
an ;  Flying  Childers  ;  Eclipse  ;  Wellesley ;  Arabian  ;  Hunter ;  Galloways  and 
Ponies  ;  Welsh  Poney  ;  Highland  Poney  ;  Shedand  Poney  ;  Irish  Horse  ;  Ameri- 
can ;  Wild  Horse ;  Canadian  ;  Conestoga ;  English  Horse  in  the  United  States  ; 
Rules  for  judging  of  the  Age,  Action,  Hardihood,  and  Spirit  of  Horses;  Nicking  ; 
Pricking;  Foxing;  Docking;  Fattening;  Excessive  Fatigue;  Treatment  on  a 
journey  ;  On  the  management  and  Training  of  Colts ;  Castration. 

Section  IV. 

ON  THE  BREEDING,  REARING  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP,    p.    90 — 104. 

History  of  the  Sheep ;  Synopsis  of  the  different  Breeds  of  Sheep  in  Great  Bri- 
tain ;  Heath,  Linton  Short,  or  Forest  Sheep  ;  Exmoor  and  Dartmoor ;  Norfolk  ; 
Wiltshire  ;  Dorset ;  Leicester  ;  Lincolnshire  ;  Teeswater  ;  Romney  Marsh  ;  De- 
vonshire ;  South  Down  ;  Cannock ;  Ryeland  ;  Cheviot  ;  Merino ;  Sheep  in  the 
United  States  ;  Eissential  Requisites  to  a  good  Ram ;  Signs  of  a  Healthy  Sheep  ; 
Signs  of  Age  ;  Time  of  purchasing  ;  Breeding  Ewes  ;  Owning  of  Lambs  ;  Wean- 
ing ;  Winter  Management ;  Quantity  of  Food  ;  Manner  of  Feeding  ;  Salt ;  Fold- 
ing;  Marking. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  11 


CONTENTS. 


Section  V. 

ON  THE  BBEEDING,  REARING  AND  FATTENING  OP   SWINE,  p.  104—112. 

Different  Breeds  of  Swine  ;  Chinese  Breed  ;  Berkshire ;  Essex  Half  Black ; 
Sussex ;  Dishley  ;  Woburn  ;  Hampshire  ;  Northampton  ;  Shropshire ;  Yorkshire ; 
liincolnshire ;  Cheshire  ;  Swine  in  the  United  States  ;  Management  of  Sow^s  with 
Pig  ;  Pigs  ;  Store  Pigs  ;  Fatting  Hogs. 

Section  VI. 

DISEABES  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP  AND  SWINE,   p.  112—135, 

1.  Horses.  Botts;  Colic  ;  Inflammation  of  the  Bowels  ;  Lampas  ;  Bridle-sores  ; 
Pole  evil  ;  Stranguary  or  suppression  of  urine  ;  Of  Mange  ;  Glanders  ;  Treat- 
ment ;  Of  Shoulder  Strains  ;  Treatment ;  Of  Galls ;  Of  Wind  Galls  ;  Of  Ring 
Bone ;  Of  Broken  Wind ;  Of  Pounder  ;  Symptoms  of  a  Founder  ;  Remedy. 

2.  Of  Cattle.  Of  Colic,  or  Gripes;  Remedy;  Of  Jaundice,  or  Yellows; 
Of  Foul  in  the  Foot,  or  Hoof-Ail ;  Of  Grain  Sickness  ;  Of  Warts,  or  Horny  Ex- 
crescences ;  Of  Mange  ;  Of  the  Horn  Distemper  ;  Its  Treatment ;  Of  Udder  ;  111 ; 
Of  Sore  Teats;  Of  Lice. 

3.  Of  Sheep.  Of  Scab  ;  Its  remedy  ;  Of  Staggers,  or  Dizziness ;  Treatment ; 
Pinning  or  Scouring  ;  Of  Tick  ;  Cold  and  its  consequences ;  Foot  Rot ;  Bowel 
Sickness ;  Catarrhal  Affections  ;  Of  Poisons ;  Of  Wounds. 

4.  Of  Swine.  Measles  ;  Of  Mange  ;  Of  Murrain ;  Of  Diseases  of  the 
Lungs  ;  Of  Fever,  or  rising  of  the  Lights  ;  Of  Gargut ;  Of  Issues. 

5.  Veterinary  Pharmacopeia. 


PART  VI. 


ART   OP   GARDENING,   OR  HORTICULTURE. J).   138 — 176. 

Of  the  proper  Situation  of  Gardens ;  Soil  ;  Fencing  ;  Laying  out ;  Hot  beds ; 
Of  making  the  bed  ;  Of  the  management  of  a  hot-bed  ;  Propagation  and  Cultiva- 
tion ;  Sort  of  Seeds  ;  True-Seed  ;  Soundness  of  Seed  ;  Saving  and  Preserving 
Seed  ;  Of  Sowing  ;  Of  Transplanting  ;  Of  Cultivation ;  Alphabetical  List  of  the 
several  sorts  of  Plants,  and  the  proper  treatment  of  each. 

Propagation  of  Fruits ;  By  Cuttings  ;  By  Slips  ;  By  Layers ;  By  Suckers  ;  By 
Budding  ;  By  Grafting  ;  Of  Storks  ;  Of  Planting ;  Of  tlie  Cultivation  of  Fruit 
Trees  ;  List  of  the  different  kinds  of  Fruits,  and  the  proper  treatment  of  each  ;  Di- 
rections for  the  Culture  of  Grape  Vines, 

Management  of  Bees.  Bee ;  Female  or  Queen  Bee ;  Males  or  Drone*? ; 
Working  Bees  or  Neuters;  Swarming;  Hiving;  Wax;  Propolis;  Building  of 
Cells ;  Honey  ;  Bee  Bread  ;  Hives  ;  ^Bee-moth, 


PART  vn. 


arts  op  locomotion,  heating,  ventilation,  &c.  p.  176 — 201. 

Motion  of  Animals ;  Human  Strength ;  Aids  to  Locomotion  ;  Wheels ;  Broad 
Wheels  ;   Form  of  Wheels  ;  Mode  of  Attaching  a  Horse  ;   Rail  Roads. 

Of  Steam  Engines  ;  Of  Canals ;  Canals  of  Egypt  ;  China ;  Italy ;  Russia ; 
Sweden  ;  Denmark  ;  Holland  ;  Germany  ;  Spain  ;  France ;  Great  Britain  ; 
American  Canals  ;  Fuel;  Chimneys;  Telegraph;  Deaf  and  Dumb  Alphabet. 


12  FAMILY  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

■  r.  ■        -   ■-■ g- 

CONTENTS. 


PART  VIII. 

ON   CIVIL  POLITY. 
OP    GOVEHNMENT.   p.    201—217. 

Origin  and  History  of  Government ;  Of  the  different  Forms  of  Government ; 
Synopsis  of  the  Constitution  of  Maine ;  New  Hampshire  ;  Massachusetts ;  Ver- 
mont ;  Connecticut ;  Rhode  Island ;  New  York  ;  New  Jersey ;  Pennsylvania  ; 
Delaware  ;  Maryland  ;  Virginia  ;  North  Carolina  ;  South  Carolina  ;  Georgia  ; 
Alabama  ;  Louisiana  ;  Mississippi  ;  Tennessee  ;  Kentucky  j  Ohio  ;  Illinois  ;  In* 
diana  ;  Missouri  ;  United  States. 


PART  IX. 


STATISTICS,  p.  218 — 228. 

Popiilation  of  the  American  Colonies  in  1701  and  1749  ;  Settlements  of  the'several 
Colonies  ;  Expense  of  the  Revolutionary  War ;  Amount  of  Continental  Money  is- 
sued ;'  Loans  and  Grants  of  Money  from  France ;  Number  of  Troops  employed 
during  the  Revolution  ;  Naval  Force  of  the  United  States  ;  Adoption  of  the  Consti- 
tution by  the  several  States ;  Amount  of  money  expended  by  the  United  States  upon 
Works  of  Internal  Improvements ;  Amount  of  Public  Debt ;  Bank  of  the  United 
States  ;  Value  of  Exports  and  Imports  of  the  United  States  in  1829 ;  Domestic 
Exports  of  the  United  States  ;  Troops  furnished  by  each  State  during  the  Revolution  ; 
Total  Population  of  tlie  Earth  ;  Inhabitants  of  the  Earth  divided  according  to  their 
Religious  Belief 


FAMILY  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


COMPENDIUM  OF  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE. 


PART  I -MAN. 


A  knowledge  of  the  various  objects  of  nature  and  art  is  doubtless 
worthy  the  attainment  of  every  one.  An  acquaintance  with  these  ob- 
jects contributes  to  enlarge  the  mind — to  gratify  a  rational  curiosity — 
to  excite  admiring  views  of  the  Great  Author  of  all  things,  and  to  pre- 
pare for  a  wider  sphere  of  usefulness.  Yet,  it  cannot  be  denied,  that  a 
knowledge  of  oneself  is  of  higher  importance  still.  Without  self-know- 
ledge, man  must  be  ignorant  of  the  true  dignity  of  his  nature,  and  lost 
to  just  views  of  the  Divine  wisdom  and  goodness,  displayed  i^liis  com- 
position. 

Man,  it  has  been  well  observed,  is  a  compound|Bxistence,  made  up  of 
two  great  parts ;  the  Body,  and  the  Mind^  or  Soul.  The  body  was  form- 
ed of  the  dust  ;  but  it  is  a  frame  of  a  most  wonderful  nature.  The 
parts  of  which  it  is  composed — their  number — their  various  uses — de- 
pendencies and  operations, — the  arrangement,  by  which  they  are  formed 
into  a  system — the  faculties  attached  to  it,  of  seeing,  hearing,  smelling, 
tasting,  and  feeling — its  capacity  of  pleasure  and  pain — the  warnings 
which  it  is  fitted  to  give  of  approaching  or  commencing  evil — and  the 
power  which  it  so  variously  possesses  of  self  restoration,  are  all  wonder- 
ful, mysterious,  and  strongly  declaratory  of  the  skill,  and  benevolence 
of  the  Creator. 

But  the  Mind  or  Soul  is  of  a  still  more  wonderful  nature.  It  is  this, 
which  emphatically  gives  man  his  pre-eminence  over  other  beings,  by 
which  he  is  surrounded ;  and  entitles  him  to  be  considered  as  "  the  lord 
of  the  creation."  To  the  faculties  of  the  body  there  is  a  limit  ;  but  to 
the  immortal  mind  God  has  never  said,  "  Thus  far  shalt  thou  go,  but  no 
further."  Much  as  man  knows,  in  any  stage  of  his  progress,  he  may 
know  still  more  ;  and  may  become  still  more  exalted  and  lovely.  Not 
confined  to  the  present  system,  as  are  other  animals,  he  is  destined  to  an 
existence,  which,  in  point  of  duration,  will  run  parallel  with  that  of  his 
Maker. 

2 


14  FAMILY 


NATURAL  HISTORY,    STRUCTURE. 

It  will»  therefore,  naturally  belong  to  the  first  part  of  our  work,  to 
take  a  view  of  man,  considered  as  to  his  animal  and  intellectual  nature. 


SECTION  I. 

NATURAL  HISTORY,  STRUCTURE,  6lC. 

VARIETIES.— The  human  family  iAlivided  into  different  nations, 
which  are  scattered  abroad  upon  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  exhibit  sev- 
eral varieties  of  form  and  color.  These  divisions  aire  Jivf.  in  number  : — 
The  European,  ox  while  race — the  Tartar,  or  J^ong'ul — the  Jlfa/ay— the 
African^  or  Negro  race — and  the  Americ  in,  or  Copper-colored  race. 

1st.  The  European  race  is  distinguished  by  the  elegance  of  its  form, 
and  by  a  forehead  more  or  less  broad  and  prominent;  indicative  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  brain,  in  the  front  part  of  the  skull  ;  the  skin  is, 
however  fairer ;  the  hair  and  eyes  lighter  in  color,  in  the  more  temper- 
ate climates,  than  towards  the  south.  This  race  includes  all  the  in- 
habitants of  Europe,  (except  the  Laplanders  and  Finns,)  and  tlie 
descendants  of  Europeans  in  America,  and  other  portions  of  the  world. 
It  also  embraces  the  inhabitants  of  the  western  temperate  parts  of  Asia, 
as  far  as  the  river  Oby,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Ganges,  and  those  of 
the  northern  parts  of  Africa,  viz.  the  people  of  Barbary,  Egypt,  and 
Abyssinia,  and  the  Moors  of  Northern  Africa. 

2d.  The  Tartar  or  Mongul  race,  is  characterized  by  a  yellow  skin  ; 
straight  black  hair  ;  square  heads ;  large  and  flat  face  ;  small  and  flat 
nose  ;  round  and  j)rominent  cheeks  ;  and  pointed  chin.  This  variety 
includes  all  the  nations  in  Asia,  east  of  the  Oby,  Caspian,  and  Ganges, 
excepting  Malacca,  •it  embraces,  also,  the  tribes  which  inhabit  the 
frigid  zones  in  both  the  eastern  and  western  continents,  including  the 
Laplanders,  Samoiedes,  Ostiacs,  Tunguses,  Yakuts,  Tschutskis,  and 
Kamschadales  of  Siberia,  and  the  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders. 

3d.  The  Malay,  comprehends  the  inhabitants  of  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  Ceylon,  the  Asiatic  Islands,  New  Zealand,  and  Polynesia, 
with  the  exception  of  New  Holland,  New  Guinea,  New  Caledonia,  and 
Van  Dieman's  land.  This  variety  is  characterized  by  a  tawny  color  ; 
black  curled  hair,  which  is  soft,  thick,  and  abundant  ;  a  prominent 
forehead  :  thick,  wide,  and  flattened  nose  ;  and  moderately  projecting 
upper  jaws. 

4th.  The  Jlfrican  or  J^e^ro  variety,  is  spread  over  western  and 
southern  Africa,  it  is  found,  also,  upon  the  coasts  of  Madagascar,  and 
occupies  New  Holland,  Van  Dieman's  Land,  New  Caledonia,  and  New 
Guinea.  This  variety  is  characterized  by  a  black  color  ;  black  and 
woolly  hair;  thick  lips  ;  projecting  cheek  bones  ;  large  and  flat  nose  ; 
raised  chin  ;  retreating  forehead  ;  and  crooked  legs. 

5th.  The  American  or  copper-colored  race,  includes  all  the  aborigi- 
nal inhabitants  of  both  the  Americas,  exc«pt  the  Esquimaux  and 
Greenlanders.  This  race  is  of  a  copper  color,  resembling  that  of  rusty 
iron,  or  cinnamon  ;  coarse,  straight  black  hair  ;  high  cheek  bones ;  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  15 


INTELLECTUAL  CAPACITY. 


sunknu  eyes.  The  forehead  is  usually  short ;  the  nose  and  the  whole 
countenance  broad  ;  the  nostrils  open  ;  and  the  lips  thick.  The  beard 
is  thin  and  scanty.  Of  ihe  Indians  it  has  been  affirmed,  that  they  are 
destitute  of  beards  ;  but  this  only  occurs,  when  the  beard  has  been  era- 
dicated, at  the  expense  of  much  industry  and  suffering. 

INTELLKCTUAL  CAPACITY.— Of  all  the  varieties  of  mankind, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  white  man  exhibits  the  greatest  marks  of 
ingenuity  and  intelligence  ;  and  of  this  variety,  the  most  intelligent  will 
be  found  to  be  those  who  reside  in  temperate  climates.  Portions  of  the 
Mongul  race  exhibit  also  considerable  ingenuity,  evinced  particularly 
in  the  Hindoo  and  the  ChinesB ;  but  the  range  of  intellect  of  this  portion 
of  our  race  is  nevertheless  comparatively  circumscribed.  The  third,  or 
.Malay  race,  exhibits  no  small  variety  of  intellectual  endowment. 
While  none  of  the  tribes,  which  belong  to  this  race,  equal  the  Chinese 
and  some  others  of  the  Mongul  race,  few,  perhaps  are  so  sunken  aa 
some  portions  of  the  Negro  race.  This  last  race  exhibits  much  animal 
power,  yet  it  is  far  beneath  the  white  man  in  intellectual  capacity  ;  we 
see  the  Negro  in  the  Hottentot  at  its  lowest  grade.  The  copper- colored 
man,  we  may  be  certain,  is  also  far  beneath  the  European  in  his  intel- 
lectual capacity,  although  he  is  not  deficient  in  many  fine  traits  of  cha- 
racter. 

DIFFERENCE  OF  STATURE, FORM,  AND  COMPLEXION.— 

Three  causes,  a  writer  remarks,  may  be  regarded  as  concurring  in  the 
production  of  those  varieties  which  we  find  attached  to  the  different 
nations  of  the  globe.  First,  the  influence  of  the  climate  ;  tecond^  food, 
which  has  a  dependance  on  climate  ;  and  thirds  manners,  on  which  cli- 
mate has,  perhaps,  a  still  greater  influence. 

The  heat  of  the  climate  is  the  chief  cause  of  blackness  among  the 
human  species.  When  this  heat  is  excessive,  as  in  Guinea,  we  find  the 
people  are  perfectly  black  ;  when  a  little  less  severe,  the  blackness  is 
not  so  deep  ;  when  it  becomes  nearly  temperate,  as  in  Barbary,  the 
Mogul  empire,  and  Arabia,  the  men  are  only  brown  ;  and  when  it  is 
altogether  temperate,  as  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
the  men  are  white.  Some  varieties  are,  indeed,  produced  by  the  mode 
of  living  ;  all  the  Tartars,  for  example,  are  tawny,  while  Europeans, 
who  live  under  the  same  latitude,  are  white.  This  difference  may 
safely  be  ascribed  to  the  Tartars  being  always  exposed  to  the  open  air ; 
to  their  having  no  cities  and  fixed  habitations  ;  to  their  sleeping  con- 
stantly on  the  ground  ;  and  to  their  rough  and  savage  manner  of  living. 
These  circumstances,  are  sufficient,  at  least,  to  render  the  Tartars  more 
swarthy  than  the  Europeans,  who  want  nothing  to  make  life  easy  and 
agreeable. — Why  are  the  t  hinese  fairer  than  the  Tartars,  though  they 
resemble  them  in  every  feature  ?  Because  they  are  more  polished,  live 
in  towns,  and  practise  every  art  to  guard  themselves  against  the  injuries 
of  the  weather  ;  while  the  Tartars  are  perpetually  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  the  sun  and  air. 

When  the  cold  becomes  extreme,  it  appears  to  produce  effects  similar 
to  those  of  great  heat.  The  Samoiedes,  the  Laplanders,  and  the  natives 
of  Greenland  are  tawny.  Here  the  two  extremes  approach  each  other ; 
great  heat  and  great  cold  produce  similar  effects  on  the  skin,  because 
each  of  tliese  causes  acts  by  a  quality  common  to  both — the  dryness  of 


16  FAMILY 


ORIGINOF  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

the  air,  perhaps,  is  equally  great  in  extreme  cold,  as  in  extreme  heat. 
Both  cold  and  heat  dry  the  skin,  and  give  it  that  tawny  hue  which  we 
find  in  so  many  different  nations.  Cold  contracts  all  the  productions 
of  nature ;  the  Laplanders,  accordingly,  who  are  perpetually  exposed 
to  the  rigors  of  the  frost,  are  the  smallest  of  the  human  species. 

The  most  temperate  climates  produce  the  most  handsome  people,  and 
from  this  climate,  the  ideas  of  the  genuine  color  of  mankind,  and  of  the 
various  degrees  of  beauty  ought  to  be  derived. 
Although  the  climate  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief  cause  of  the  dif- 
>  ferenl  colors  of  men,  yet  food  greatly  affects  the  form  of  our  bodies  ; 
that  which  is  unwholesome  and  ill  prepared,  makes  the  human  species 
degenerate.  All  those  people  who  live  miserably,  are  ugly  and  ill  made. 
The  air  and  soil  have  considerable  influence  upon  the  figure  of  men, 
beasts,  and  plants.  In  the  same  province,  the  inhabitants  of  the  eleva- 
ted and  hilly  parts,  are  more  active,  nimble,  handsome,  and  ingenious, 
than  those  who  live  in  plains,  where  the  air  is  thick  and  less  pure. 

Every  circumstance  concurs  in  proving  that  mankind  are  not  composed 
of  species  essentially  different  from  each  other ;  that  on  the  contrary, 
there  was  originally  but  one  species  ;  who,  after  multiplying  and 
spreading  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth,  have  undergone  various 
changes  by  the  influence  of  climate,  food,  mode  of  living,  epidemic  dis- 
eases, and  the  mixture  of  dissimilar  individuals  ;  that,  at  first  these 
changes  were  not  so  conspicuous,  and  produced  only  individual  varie- 
ties, which  afterwards  became  specific,  because  they  were  rendered 
more  general,  more  strongly  marked,  and  more  permanent,  by  the 
continual  action  of  the  same  causes  ;  and  that  they  have  been  transmit- 
ted from  generation  to  generation,  as  deformities  or  diseases  pass  from 
parents  to  children. 

ORIGIN  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS.— This  is  a  subject 
which  has  justly  attracted  the  attention  of  philosophers,  and  produced 
many  interesting  researches.  It  would  obviously  be  impossible,  within 
our  narrow  limits,  to  give  our  readers  any  correct  idea  of  the  various 
theories  which  have  been  adopted,  to  account  for  the  peopling  of  Ameri- 
ca by  the  Indians.  The  received  opinion,  we  believe,  and  that  which 
seems  to  be  supported  hy  facts  is,  thai  the  aborigines  of  America  emi- 
grated to  America  from  the  continent  of  Asia. 

The  principal  objections  which  have  been  urged  against  this  doc- 
trine, so  far  as  we  know,  are,  the  two  following ;  Isl,  that  many  thou- 
sand years  must  have  elapsed  subsequent  to  the  creation,  before  the 
population  of  the  old  world  could  have  been  sufficiently  numerous,  to 
extend  to  its  remote  borders,  and  thence  attain  the  American  conitnent. 
Besides,  it  is  thought  to  reflect  upon  the  wisdom  of  the  Deity,  to 
permit  so  large  a  part  of  the  globe  to  remain  during  "  so  long  a  time'^ 
unpeopled. 

The  second  objection  is  drawn  from  the  number  of  different  langua- 
ges spoken  in  North  and  South  America,  which  Mr.  Jefferson  and  other? 
have  thought  incompatible  with  the  idea  of  so  recent  an  arrival  on  this 
continent,  as  even  three  or  foul*  thousand  years. 

In  respect  to  ihejirst  objection,  it  were  sufficient  to  reply,  that  it  as- 
sumes a  position  which  needs  itself  to  be  proved,  and  can  therefore  nc\:* 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  17 


ORIGIN  OF  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS. 

er  be  the  basis  of  solid  argument.  On  this  subject,  Dr.  Godman,  in  hia 
Natural  History,  observes ;  "  There  is  neither  extravagance  nor  impro- 
priety in  the  opinion,  that  the  two  continents  were  originally  one,  and 
being  continuous,  the  only  difficulty  is  removed,  that  could  be  urged 
against  the  approach  of  population  from  the  extremity  of  Asia.  But  in 
addition  to  all  the  reasons  that  can  be  urged  in  support  of  the  doctrine 
we  maintain,  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  that  there  are  strong  evidences, 
derived  from  astronomical  and  geological  observations,  proving-  the 
axis  and  poles  of  our  globe  to  be  not  now  precisely  where  they  origin- 
ally stood.  It  is  therefore  very  unfair  to  decide  against  the  probability 
of  peopling  America  from  the  extremity  of  Asia,  if  we  reason  from  the 
existing  climate  of  the  countries  adjacent  to  East  Cape,  or  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales,  the  two  nearest  points  of  Asia  and  America. 

"  The  greatest  difficulty  thrown  in  the  way  of  this  opinion,  was 
thought  to  be  the  striking  difference  between  the  Esquimaux  and  the 
common  Indians,  seeming  to  prove  that  they  were  derived  from  differ- 
ent races  or  kinds.  We  are  informed  in  Crantz's  History  of  Green- 
land, that  the  Moravian  Missionaries,  who  visited  the  countries  inhabit- 
ed by  the  Esquimaux,  were  much  surprised  to  find  that  they  were  in  all 
respects  similar  to  the  Greenlanders,  and  made  use  of  the  same  lan- 
guage ;  shewing  that  the  Esquimaux  had  sprung  from  the  same  race, 
and  had  gradually  reached  their  present  residence  from  the  extreme 
northern  parts  of  Europe.  This  fact,  now  rendered  undeniable  by 
more  recent  researches,  entirely  invalidates  the  conclusion,  that  the  Es- 
quimaux  were  derived  from  another  species.  The  resemblance  exist- 
ing between  these  people  and  the  Siberians,  Kamtschadales,  Tunguse, 
&c.  is  manifest ;  and  notwithstanding  they  differ  in  many  respects  from 
other  inhabitants  of  the  New  World,  they  are  undeniably  descended 
from  the  same  parent  slock,,  coming  from  different  parts  of  the  globe. 
The  copper-colored  natives  of  America,  who  are  the  most  numerous  of 
the  aborigines,  approach  more  closely  to  the  Asiatic  Tartars  in  color 
and  stature,  and  this  because  they  are  descendants  of  that  race  arriving 
in  America  from  the  extremity  of  Asia." 

In  respect  to  the  second  objection,  the  same  writer  observes  ;  "  Grant- 
ing, as  we  are  perfectly  willing  to  do,  the  great  lapse  of  time  which 
would  be  requisite  for  the  production  of  such  radical  changes,  we  do  not 
thiuk  the  objection  derived  from  the  languages  more  solid  than  those 
heretofore  mentioned.  As  far  as  the  researches  of  philologers  havd  ex- 
tended, we  do  not  find  that  there  is  so  much  difference  in  the  dialects 
of  our  aborigines,  as  the  arguments  of  these  objectors  would  seem  to 
imply.  Throughout  a  large  mass  of  this  liative  population,  a  very  per- 
ceptible connexion  of  language  is  apparent,  and  the  relation  to  a  parent 
stock  is  fairly  evident.  Even  allowing  that  the  amount  of  difference 
is  as  great,  as  could  be  desired  by  our  opponents,  the  comparison  of  the 
aboriginal  dialects  with  those  of  European  nations,  is  by  no  means  a 
correct  mode  of  deciding  the  point.  If,  according  to  our  idea,  people 
reached  this  country  at  different  times,  from  the  extreme  north  of  Eu- 
rope, or  the  northeast  of  Asia,  the  immense  extent  of  country  they  were 
gradually  to  be  scattered  over,  the  new  objects  by  which  they  were  sur- 
rounded, and  the  new  modes  of  life  they  assumed,  would  all  conspire  to 
produce  a  change  in  their  language  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  could 
take  place  on  the  old  continent,  where  their  wanderings  must  have  been, 
2* 


18  FAMILY 


HITMAN  STRUCTURE. BONES. 


not  only  comparatively  circumscribed,  but  their  modes  of  living  subject 
to  very  few  variations. 

"  But  in  the  present  condition  of  our  knowledge,  we  have  no  right  to 
state  tiiat  the  traces  of  affinity  between  the  American  dialects  are  en- 
tirely oblilernted;  it  would  be  far  more  correct  to  say,  that  we  do  not 
possess  the  means  of  making  the  necessary  inquiries  and  decisions  ;  our 
knowledge  of  their  language  is  confined  to  a  few  meagre  vocabularies, 
frequently  derived  from  persons,  whose  statements  cannot  be  relied  on, 
however  correct  their  intentions  may  have  been,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
almost  insuperable  difficulty  of  writing  such  languages  from  the  hearer's 
ifiea  of  their  pronunciation. 

"  But  whatever  apparent  difficulties  may  be  suggested  to  the  Asiatic 
origin  of  the  aboriginals  of  America,  the  circumstance  of  but  one  spe- 
cies of  the  human  race  existing  througliout  the  world  is  sufficient  to  re- 
duce us  to  the  necessity  of  acknowletiging  that  mankind  have  descend- 
ed from  one  parent  stock,  however  their  external  appearance  may  have 
been  modified  by  accident,  disease,  or  situation.  We  are  aware  that 
some  persons  talk  of  the  possibility  of  there  having  been  rarioxis  centres 
of  creation  to  the  human  race,  as  among  inferior  animals  ;  but  we  con- 
sider it  very  unphilosophical  to  suppose  the  existence  of  various  centres 
of  creation  for  the  same  species.^^  To  the  believer  in  Divine  Revela- 
tion, this  last  idea,  whatever  may  bethought  of  it  in  a  philosophical 
view,  will  doubtless  appear  repugnant  to  the  Scripture  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  human  species,  and  is  therefore  to  be  rejected. 

HUMAN  STRUCTURE.— The  animal  frame  is  composed  of  bones, 
muscles,  brain,  nerves,  arteries,  veins,  cartilages,  membranes,  glands, — 
also  of  chyle,  blood,  milk,  &c. 

BONES  are  white,  hard,  brittle,  and  almost  insensible  ;  they  support 
and  form  the  stature  of  the  body,  defend  its  viscera,  and  give  power  to 
the  various  muscles.  The  number  of  bones  in  the  human  body  is  gen- 
erally 240  ;  but  in  some  individuals,  who  have  two  additional  bones  in 
each  thumb  and  great  toe,  they  aqiount  to  248. 

TEETH,  a  set  of  bones,  situated  in  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  for 
the  purpose  of  mastication.  In  adults,  they  are  32  in  number,  or  16  in 
each  jaw-bone,  consisting  of  4  cutting,  2  canine,  and  10  grinders. 

The  teeth  are  of  various  sizes,  being  aiTanged  in  the  following  or- 
der ;four  in  front,  termed  cutting  teeth,  on  each  side  of  which  is  a  sharp 
pointed  canine  or  ei/e-looth  ;  adjoining  to  these  arejive  grinders  on  each 
side,  the  last  of  which  is  denominated  the  loofh  of  ici-idom,  because  it 
seldom  appears  before  the  25th  year.  The  front  and  eye  teeth  are  fur- 
nished with  only  one  root  each  ;  the  two  first  grinders  with  two  ;  and 
the  hindmost  generally  with  three  or  four ;  which  may  in  most  persons 
be  ascertained  by  the  number  of  small  tubercles  on  the  crowns.  The 
tooth  is  divided  into  two  principal  parts  ;  viz.  the  crown,  which  projects 
above  the  gums  ;  and  the  root,  that  is  enclosed  within  the  sockets. 
The  crown  is  a  hard,  fine,  glossy  white  enamel,  serving  to  defend  the 
substance  against  external  injury.  The  root  is  open  at  the  bottom, 
where  it  is  connected  with  vessels  and  nerves,  by  which  it  receives 
nourishment,  life  and  sensation. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  19 


MUSCLES. FLESH. SKIN. ABSOBBENTS. CARTILAGES. 

MUSCLES,  of  which,  it  is  said,  there  are  446  in  the  human  body, 
dissectible  and  describable,  are  parts  of  the  animal  body  destined  to 
move  some  other  parts,  and  hence  are  termed  the  organs  or  instruments 
of  motion.  They  are  composed  of  flesh  and  tendinous  fibres,  and  con- 
tairk  vessels  of  all  kinds. 

FLESR  is  the  fibrous  or  muscular  part  of  the  animal  body  :  mus- 
cular flesh  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  fibres  or  threads  ;  it  is 
commonly  of  a  reddish  or  whitish  color.  The  ancients  distinguished 
five  diffbrcnt  kinds  of  flesh  ;  but  the  moderns  admit  one  ouly^  Jleshj/ 
and  muscular  parts  being  with  them  the  same. 

SKIN  is  the  general  covering  of  the  body.  Though  apparently  a 
simple  membrane,  it  consists  of  several  parts.  The  outermost  is  the 
scarf-skin  :  it  has  no  nerves,  and  is  extended  over  every  part  of  the 
true  skin,  except  where  the  nails  are  ;  it  is  this  skin  which  is  raised  by 
the  application  of  a  blister ;  it  is  thickest  in  those  parts  accustomed  to 
labor  or  pressure,  as  the  hand  and  foot.  The  rete  mucosum  is  a  web-like 
mucous  substance  lying  between  the  scarf  and  true  skin,  which  chiefly 
gives  the  color  to  the  exterior  of  the  human  body.  It  is  black  in  the 
negro  ;  white,  brown,  or  yellowish  in  the  European.  The  true  skin  is 
a  very  sensible  membrane  extended  over  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  has 
nerves  terminating  so  plentifully  on  its  surface,  that  the  finest  needle 
cannot  prick  it  without  touching  some  of  them. 

ABSORBENTS  are  a  set  of  small  colorless  vessels,  which  pervade 
the  whole  surface  of  the  body  both  externally  and  internally.  Their 
office  is  to  take  up  whatever  fluids  are  effused  into  the  different  cavities, 
and  to  pour  out  their  contents  for  particular  uses.  For  the  purpose  of 
absorption  they  are  highly  irritable  at,  their  extremities,  and  are  very 
replete  with  valves  to  prevent  the  escape  or  return  of  their  contents. 
Their  number,  when  compared  with  other  vessels,  is  four  times  greater ; 
and  they  are  divided  into  lymphatics  and  lacteals,  according  to  their  re- 
spective offices,  the  former  conveying  lymph,  the  latter  chyle. 

CARTILAGES,  or  gristles,  are  smooth,  solid,  flexible,  elastic  parts, 
softer  than  bone,  and  seem  to  be  of  the  same  nature  :  some  even  be- 
come bones  by  time  ;  some  again  are  much  softer,  and  partake  of  the 
nature  of  ligaments.  They  terminate  those  bones  that  form  moveable 
joints,  and  in  some  instances  serve  to  connect  bones  together.  In  the 
nose,  ears,  and  eyelids  are  cartilages. 

A  MEMBRANE  is  a  thin,  white,  flexfible,  expanded  skin,  formed  of 

several  sorts  of  fibres  interwoven  together.     The  use  of  membrajies  is 

to  cover  and  wrap  up  the  parts  of  the  body  ;  to  strengthen  them,  and 

save  them  from  external  injuries  ;  to  preserve  the  natural  heat ;  to 

'join  one  part  to  another  ;  to  sustain  small  vessels,  &c. 

A  GLAND  is  an  organic  part  of  the  body,  destined  for  the  secretion 
or  alteration  of  some  peculiar  fluid,  and  composed  of  blood-vessels, 
nerves,  and  absorbents.  The  glands  are  designated  either  according  to 
the  particular  fluids  which  they  contain,  as  mucous,  sebaceous,  lym- 
phatic, salival,  and  lachrymal  glands ;  or  their  structure,  as  simple, 
compound,  conglobate,  and  conglomerate  glands.  The  vessels  and 
nerves  of  glands  always  come  from  the  neighboring  parts,  and  the  ar- 


20  FAMILY 


BRAIN. CEREBRUM. — CeREBELLUAl.  —  SPINAL   MARROW. 

teries  appear  to  possess  a  higher  degree  of  irritability.     Glands  appear 
to  the  eye  as  whitish  membranous  masses. 

The  BRAIN  consists  of  the  whole  of  that  mass  which,  with  its  sur- 
rounding membranes  and  vessels,  fills  the  greater  part  of  the  skull.  It 
is  said  to  be  larger  in  man,  in  proportion  to  the  nerves  belonging  to  it, 
than  in  any  other  animal.  It  consists  of  the  cerebrum,  cerebellum,  tuber 
annulare,  and  medulla  oblongata  ;  the  whole  weighs  usually  about 
forty-eight  or  fifty  ounces  ;  but  its  weight  varies  in  different  subjects. 

The  CEREBRUM,  which  is  by  far  the  largest  portion,  is  contained 
in  all  the  upper  part  of  the  skull ;  it  is  divided  into  a  right  and  left 
hemisphere  by  a  membrane  termed  falx.  Each  hemisphere  is  also 
again  subdivided  into  three  lobes,  thetwo  lying  in  the  front  portion  of 
the  skull  being  the  largest.  It  is  surrounded  with  membranes,  and  ac- 
companied with  blood-vessels. 

The  CEREBELLUM,  or  little  brain,i8  situated  in  the  back  part  of 
the  skull  beneath  the  posterior  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  membrane  called  the  tentorium.  It  is  divided  by  the 
falx  minor  into  two  hemispheres,  which  are  again  subdivided  into  lo- 
bules. 

The  Tuber  annulare  is  of  a  roundieh  form,  about  an  inch  in  length 
and  of  the  same  width.  From  the  tuber  annulare  arises  the  medulla 
oblongata,  which  forms  the  begmning  of  the  spinal  marrow. 

From  the  Brain  arise  nine  pairs  of  NERVES  ;  some  in  solid  cords, 
others  in  separate  threads  which  afterwards  unite  into  cords.  Of  these 
some  have  their  origin  in  the  cerebrum,  some  in  the  cerebellum,  some  in 
the  tuber  annulare,  and  some  in  the  medulla  oblongata.  From  these 
the  nerves  supplying  the  organs  of  smell,  sight ^  taste,  hearing,  Sind  feel- 
ing, m  part,  are  derived.  The  nerves  are  called  pairs,  not  because 
they  proceed  together  from  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow,  but  because 
they  proceed  from  the  opposite  lobes  of  the  brain,  or  from  opposite 
sides  of  the  spinal  marrow,  and  supply  similar  parts  on  each  side  of 
the  body  with  nerves.  And  hence  it  often  happens  in  paralysis,  or  pal- 
sy, that  on  one  side  of  the  body  all  the  nerves  perform  their  office  im- 
perfectly, while  on  the  other  side  no  diminution  of  nervous  energy  is 
evinced.  A  nerve  is  along  white  medullary  cord.  The  uses  of  the 
nerves  are  to  convey  impressions  to^he  brain,  from  all  parts  of  the  body, 
over  which  they  are  spread,  and  to  impart  motion,  by  exciting  the  mus- 
cles, to  the  whole  system.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  philosophers,  that 
tlie  nerves  contain  a  subtle  fluid,  by  means  of  which  impressions  are 
immediately  carried  to  the  brain  :  this  fluid  has,  however,  never  been 
seen  :  others  think  that  sensation  is  produced  by  what  has  been  termed 
vibration  ;  but  the  plain  truth  is,  we  are  at  present  ignorant  of  the  ^ 
means  by  which  sensation  and  muscular  motion  are  produced,  further 
than  that  we  know  both  are  the  effect  of  the  agency  of  the  nerves. 

The  SPINAL  MARROW,  or  medulla  spinalis,  is  acontmuation  of 
the  mfjdulla  oblongata  from  the  head  through  the  centre  of  the  spine, 
which  consists  of  a  series  of  bones  called  vertebral  supporting  the  body. 
From  the  spinal  marrow  are  given  out  thirty  pairs  of  nerves  :  these, 
in  conjunction  with  those  arising  from  the  brain,  communicate  energy 
and  feeling  to  the  whole  body  ;  and  also  by  their  extreme  sensibility 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  21 


SPINAL    MARROW. 


convey  to  the  brain,  the  mind,  or  soul,  the  slightest  as  well  as  the 
strongest  impressions  macie  qpon  the  different  organs ;  hence  our 
pleasures  and  onr  pains^  our  hopes^  onr fears,  and  our  affectioris. 

That  the  Brain,  as  a  whole,  is  the  organ  of  thought,  the  seat  of  the 
understanding,  and  the  place  where  the  emotions  of  the  mind  or  soul 
arise,  we  cannot  doubt ;  it  is  also  the  centre  of  sensation  and  muscular 
motion,  and  to  which  all  the  nerves  of  the  body  appear  subservient. 
But  to  what  other  particular  uses  the  different  parts  of  the  brain  are 
applied,  does  not  yet  appear  accurately  known. 

Phrenologists  have  pretended  to  throw  some  light  on  this  curious  and 
interesting  subject.  We  shall  confer  a  favor  on  our  readers,  we  trust, 
by  making  them  acquainted  with  some  of  the  results  of  their  investiga- 
tion. 

The  founder  of  the  system  of  phrenology — ^by  which  is  meant,  "  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  and  of  the 
organs  by  which  they  manifest  themselves," — is  Dr.  Gall,  a  physician 
of  Vienna,  who,  about  the  year  1796,  first  began  to  deliver  lectures  on 
the  subject.  In  1804,  Dr.  J.  G.  Spurzheim  became  associated  with 
him.  Under  the  auspices,  and  captivating  eloquence  of  these  gentle- 
men, the  system  has  acquired  some  credit,  in  several  parts  of  Europe. 

For  ourselves,  we  give  little  credit  to  it.  Its  tendency  is  obviously 
towards  the  gloomy  and  foolish  doctrine  of  materialism.  In  one  re- 
spect— in  regard  to  the  position,  and  size  of  the  brain — there  is  truth 
in  phrenology  ;  but,  of  the  particular  mapping  of  the  skull,  as  adopted 
by  the  phrenologists,  we  think  it  behooves  us,  at  present,  to  remain  in 
modest  doubt. 

Still,  as  a  subject  of  curiosity,  it  ie  not  without  interest.  And  in  or- 
der that  our  readers  may  judge,  in  respect  to  themselves,  what  is  the 
strength  of  their  intellectual  powers,  or  to  what  propensities  they  are 
most  inclined,  we  have  engaged  our  engraver  to  execute  the  outlines 
of  a  human  head,  skilfully  and  scientijically  divided  up,  or  mapped  out, 
in  the  language  of  the  science.  The  reader  will  notice  that  in  each 
division  is  supposed  to  lie  some  faculty,  or  propensity  of  the  mind. 
By  an  mspection  of  the  brain  itself,  or  the  living  man's  head,  tlie  phre- 
nologists affect  to  determine  what  faculty  or  propensity  predominates 
— whether  a  man  is  gifted  with  the  love  of  study,  or  inclined  to  idle- 
ness—whether he  is  peaceful  or  quarrelsome — timid  or  courageous — a 
wise  man,  or  a  fool.  We  leave  our  readers  to  apply  the  subjoined 
rules  for  themselves. 

The  numbers  which  follow,  refer  to  the  numbers  to  be  found  in  the 
maps  of  the  heads  below. 

1.  Here  lies  the  propensity  of  amativenesa  or  physical  love.  2.  Here^ 
the  propensity  of  philo  progeniiiveness,  or  love  of  children.  3.  Concen- 
traveness,  or  power  of  close  study,  (not  represented.)  4.  Adhesiveness^ 
or  disposition  to  friendship.  5.  Combativeness  or  quarrelsomeness.  6. 
Destructivene^,  or  desire  to  destroy,  and  murder.  7.  Constructiveness^ 
or  mechanical  skill.  8.  Acquisitiveness,  disposition  to  avarice,  theft,  &c. 
9.  Secretivenesa,  cunning,  deceit.  10.  Self-esteem,  on  the  top  of  the 
head,  (not  represented.)  11.  Love  of  approbation,  in  the  same  vicinity. 
l->.  Cautiousness.  13.  Benevolence.  14.  Veneration.  15.  Hope.  ^Q. 
i(/ea/»/3^,  or  love  of  the  sublime.     Fine  arts.     U.  Wonder.     IS.  Consci- 


22 


FAMILY 


THORAX. RESPIRATION. 


e'ltiou^ness.  19.  Firmntss.  20.  /nrfiwdua/;///,  love  of  philosophy.  21* 
Form,  or  power  of  imitating.  22.  Size,  ubility  to  judire  of  it.  23- 
U'dght  of  resistance,  powtr  to  judge  of  the  momentum  of  bodies.  24. 
Co /orir??,  ability  to  distinguish  between  nice  shades.  25.  Locality,  de- 
sire for  travelling.  26.  Order,  desire  to  see  every  tiling  in  its  place. 
27.  7'tm^  recollection  of  dates.  28.  JVumfr^r,  the  conception  of  num- 
ber, and  its  relations.  29.  Tune,  the  perception  of  melody,  (not  repre- 
sented.) 30.  Langna^;e,  faculty  of  acquirmg  language  easily.  31. 
Comparison,  power  of  perceiving  resemblances.  32.  Causality,  genius 
for  metaphysics.  33.  Wit,  disposition  to  view  objects  in  a  ludicrous  light. 


The  TFIORAX  or  Chest  consists  of  the  upper  portion  ofthe  trunk  of 
the  human  body  ;  it  is  inclosed  by  the  ribs,  having  the  sternum  or  breast 
bone  in  the  front,  and  a  portion  ofthe  bones  ofthe  back  behind.  It  is 
separated  from  the  liver,  stomach,  intestines,  &c.,-by  the  dinj/firagm,  or 
loidriff".  The  thorax  contains  the  lungs,  heart,  &c.,  and  niimerous 
blood  vessels,  nerves,  and  absorbents.  It  is  also  separated,  by  a  mem- 
brane called  mediastinum,  into  a  right  and  left  portion.  ^ 

The  RESPIRATION  is  that  action  ofthe  lungs  and  diaphragm  con- 
sisting of  the  processes  of  inspiration  and  expiration,  by  which  air  i* 
received  into,  and  expelled  from  the  thorax  or  chest.  The  quantity  of 
air  taken  into  the  lungs  at  each  natural  inspiration  is  supposed  to  be 
about  15  or  16  cubic  inches ;  the  number  of  respirations  made  in  a  min- 
ute is  about  20. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  23 


WINDPIPE. LUNGS. HEART. 


The  WINDPIPE  is  a  cartilaginous  and  membranous  canal,  through 
which  the  air  passes  into  and  from  the  lungs.  It  is  divided  by  anato< 
mists  into  three  parts, — the  larynx^  the  trachea^  and  the  bronchia. 

The  larynx  is  a  hollow  cartilaginous  organ  at  the  top  of  the  trachea. 
The  air  which  passes  through  it  during  respiration  produces  the  voice. 

The  trachea,  is  that  portion  of  the  wind-pipe  which  extends  from  the 
larynx  to  the  bronchia. 

The  bronchia  is  a  term  given  to  the  trachea  after  it  has  entered  the 
thorax,  or  chest;  here  it  separates  into  two  branches,  one  of  which  com- 
municates with  the  rigiit  and  the  other  with  the  left  lung. 

The  LUNGS  are  two  viscera  situated  in  the  thorax,  by  means  of 
which  we  breathe.  The  lung  in  the  right  cavity  of  the  chest,  is  divided 
into  three,  that  in  the  left  cavity  into  two  lobes.  They  hang  in  the 
chest,  attached  at  their  superior  part  by  means  of  the  trachea,  and  are 
separated  by  a  membrane  called  mediastinum.  They  are  furnished  with 
innumerable  cells  which  are  formed  by  a  continuation  of  the  trachea, 
the  bronchial  tubes  of  which  communicate  with  each  other ;  the  whole 
appears  not  unlike  a  honey-comb. 

The  most  important  use  of  the  lungs  is  for  the  process  of  respiration, 
by  which  the  circulation  of  the  blood  appears  to  be  immediately  sup- 
ported ;  and,  doubtless,  by  their  alternate  inflation  and  collapsing,  they 
contribute  with  the  diaphragm  to  promote  the  various  functions  of  the 
abdominal  viscera,  such  as  digestion,  &:c.  For  the  change  which  the 
blood  undergoes  in  its  passage  through  the  lungs,  see  the  following  ar- 
ticles. 

The  HEART  is  a  hollow,  strong,  muscular  viscus,  having  the  shape 
of  a  cone  or  pyramid  reversed.  Its  size  varies  in  different  subjects  ;  it 
is  generally  about  six  inches  long,  and,  at  the  base,  four  or  five  wide. 
The  younger  the  subject,  the  larger  is  the  heart,  in  proportion  to  the 
body.  It  is  often  smaller  in  tall  and  strong  men  than  in  others.  It  is 
situated  on  the  left  side  of  the  thorax,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  membrane 
called  pericardium  or  heart  purse ;  it  is  also  imbedded,  as  it  were,  in 
the  left  lung.  Its  weight,  with  the  pericardium,  is  usually  from  ten,  to 
fifteen  ounces.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood  :  of  course 
from  it  all  the  arteries  arise,  and  in  it  all  the  veins  terminate.  It  is  divi- 
ded internally  into  a  right  and  left  vtntricle ;  these  are  divided  by  a 
fleshy  septum.  Each  ventricle  has  two  orifices  ;  one  auricular,  through 
which  the  blood  enters,  the  other  arterious,  through  which  the  blood 
passes  out.  These  four  orifices  are  supplied  with  valves.  There  are 
also  two  cavities  adhering  to  the  base  of  the  heart  called  auricles.  The 
heart  has,  in  the  living  subject,  an  alternate  motion  consisting  of  con- 
traction and  dilatation,  called  s^ystole  and  diastole,  by  means  of  which 
the  blood  is  circulated  throughout  the  body.  The  heart  is  said  to  con- 
tract 4000  times  in  an  hour ;  hence,  as  each  ventricle  contains  one  ounce 
of  blood,  there  passes  through  the  heart  every  houf  4ti00  ounces,  or 
350  pounds  of  blood.  The  whole  mass  of  blood  is  about  twenty-eight 
pounds,  so  that  this  quantity  of  blood  passes  through  the  heart  thirteen 
or  fourteen  times  in  an  hour,  or  about  once  in  every  four  or  five  minutns. 
In  the  whale,  ten  or  twelve  galloi.s  of  blood  are  thrown  out  of  the  heart 


24  FAMILY 


ARTERY. VEIN. AIR. 


at  a  stroke,  with  an  immense  velocity,  through  a  tube  of  a  foot  diame- 
ter. 

An  ARTERY,  or  a  pulsating  blood-vessel,  is  a  cylindrical  canal  con- 
veying the  blood  immediately  from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body  for 
the  purposes  of  nutrition,  preservation  of  life,  generation  of  heat,  and 
the  secretion  of  ditferent  fluids.  The  motion  of  the  blood  in  the  arte- 
ries is  called  the  ^M/*e ;  it  corresponds  with  that  of  tlie  heart.  The 
pulse  may  be  felt  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  but  the  most  usual  place 
of  feeling  it  is  at  the  wrist.  From  seventy  to  eighty  pulsations  in  a  min- 
ute are  commonly  that  number  which  in  the  adult  subject  is  considered, 
as  far  as  the  pulse  is  concerned,  to  constitute  health.  In  children,  how- 
ever, the  pulse  is  much  quicker  than  this ;  and  in  old  persons  slower. 
Wounds  in  arteries  are  always  dangerous,  and  very  frequently  mortal ; 
hence  the  wisdom  evinced  in  the  structure  of  man  :  all  the  arteries  are 
deeply  imbedded  in  flesh,  or  other  surrounding  media,  while  the  veins, 
a  wound  in  which  is  comparatively  unimportant,  are  plentifully  scat- 
tered on  the  surface  of  the  bbdy.  The  blood  in  the  arteries  is  of  a  flo- 
rid red  color. 

A  VEIN  is  a  blood-vessel  which  returns  the  blood  from  the  various 
parts  of  the  body  to  the  heart.  The  veins  do  not  pulsate;  the  blood 
flows  through  them  very  slowly,  and  is  conveyed  to  the  heart  by  the 
contractility  of  their  coats,  the  pressure  of  the  blood  from  the  arteries, 
the  action  of  the  muscles,  and  respiration ;  and  it  is  prevented  from 
going  backwards  in  the  veins  by  valves,  of  which  there  are  a  great  num- 
ber. The  blood  in  the  veins  is  of  a  much  darker  red  tlian  that  in  the 
arteries.  • 

Before  we  treat  of  the  blood  itself,  it  may  be  useful  to  know  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  atmospheric  air,  so  essential  as  it  is  to  the  life  of  all 
warm  blooded  animals. 

AIR  was  for  many  ages  considered  as  a  simple  homogeneous  fluid  ; 
and  it  was  not  till  towards  the  end  of  the  last  century  that  it  was  found 
t(5  be  a  compound  body.     Common  air  is  composed  chiefly  of  two  gases, 
of  which  one,  oxygen,  forms  of  it  24  parts  by  weight,  and  the  other,  ni- 
trogen, forms  of  it  76  parts ;    or  about  21  parts  of  the  former,  and  79  of 
the  latter  by  bulk.     These  proportions  are  found  the  same,  in  whatever 
part  of  the  world  the  experiments  are  made,  or  from  whatever  height 
in  the  atmosphere  the  air  is  obtained.     It  ought  however  to  be  mention- 
ed, that  besides  these  ingredients,  common  air  contains  a  very  minute 
portion  oi  carbonic  addgan,   but  that  portion  is  in  general  so  small  as 
not  indeed  to  be  considered  of  any  moment.     Of  the  two  portions  of 
atmospheric  air,  the  oxygen  only  supports   animal  life  or  combustion.     j| 
Thus,  if  an  animal  be  inclosed  under  a  bell  glass  containing  atraospher-     ' 
ical  air,  it  will  live  in  it  till  all  the  oxygen  is  absorbed  by  its  breathing, 
and  then  it  instantly  dies;   the  same  takes  place  when  a  lighted  candle 
is  inclosed  under  similar  circumstances ;  hence  the  necessity  and  impor- 
tance of  this  fluid  to  animal  existence.     But  although  only  about  one- 
fourth  of  atmospheric  air  can  support  life,  it  yet  appears  that  such  a 
mixture  is  more  advantageous  for  animal  life  than  oxygen  alone ;  thus 
evincing  the  wisdom  of  that  mixture  found  every  where  as  atmospher- 
ic air.     In  what  state  of  combination  the  two  gases  are,   which  consti- 
tute common  air,  is  not  exactly  known  ;  but  we  well  know  that  a  more 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  25 


BLOdD. THORACIC  DUCT. — ABDOMEN. 

intimate  union  of  the  same  materials   produces  most  powerful  agents, 
namely,  the  nitrous  and  the  nitric  acids. 

The  BLOOD  is  a  red  fluid  of  a  saltish  taste,  of  a  somewhat  urinous 
smell,  and  glutinous  consistence,  which  circulates  in  the  heait,  arteries, 
and  veins,  conveying  nutrition,  heat,  and  excitement  to  the  whole  body. 
The  quantity  of  blood  in  the  human  body  is  estimated  to  be  about  twen- 
ty-eight pounds  in  an  adult.  Of  this,  four  parts  are  contained  in  the 
veins,  and  a  fifth  in  the  arteries.  The  blood  being  returned  by  the  veins 
of  a  dark  red  color  to  the  heart,  it  is  sent  from  that  viscus  into  the  lungs, 
to  undergo  some  material  change  by  coming  in  contact  with  atmospher- 
ic air  in  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs :  after  which,  as  has  been  stated,  it  is 
returned  to  the  heart  again  of  a  much  more  florid  color,  and  then  im- 
pelled into  the  arteries,  to  be  distributed  over  the  body.  The  heat  of 
the  blood  is  usually  about  98  degreps. 

THORACIC  DUCT,  an  important  vessel  called  the  trunk  of  the  ab- 
sorbents. It  is  of  a  serpentine  form,  and  about  the  diameter  of  a  crow- 
quill.  It  is  attached  to  the  bones  of  the  back,  and  extends  from  the  low- 
er opening  of  the  mtrfr/^  or  diaprahgm  (a  membrane  which  separates 
the  heart  and  lungs  from  the  stomach,  bowels,  and  other  abdominal  vis- 
cera,) to  the  angle  formed  by  the  union  of  the  left  subclavian  and  jugu- 
lar veins,  into  which  it  opens  and  evacuates  its  contents,  there  to  be 
mixed  with  the  blood.  These  contents  consist  chiefly  of  c%/e,  a  whi- 
tish or  milky  fluid,  separated  from  the  food  by  the  process  of  digestion, 
and  taken  up  by  the  absorbents  thickly  spread  over  the  intestines,  and 
by  them  conveyed  to  the  thoracic  duct. 

Such  are  the  offices  of  respiration  and  the  blood.  We  shall  now  pro- 
ceed to  consider  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  abdominal  viscera. 

The  ABDOMEN  consists  of  all  that  portion  of  the  trunk  of  the  hu- 
man body  situated  below  the  thorax.  It  contains  the  liver,  its  gall- 
bladder, the  stomach,  the  spleen,  the  pancreas,  the  intestines,  the  me- 
sentery, the  kidneys,  the  urinary  bladder,  the  omentum,  &c.  It  has  al- 
so numerous  blood  vessels,  nerves,  and  absorbents. 

The  LIVER,  which  is  the  largest  and  most  ponderous  viscus  in  the 
abdomen,  it  weighing,  in  adults,  about  three  pounds,  is  of  a  deep  red 
color.  It  consists  of  a  glandulous  mass,  interspersed  with  numerous 
blood  vessels.  It  is  situated  under  the  diaphragm,  inclining  to  the  right 
side  of  the  body,  having  the  stomach  beneath  it;  between  which  and 
the  liver  itself,  lies  the  gall-bladder^  with  which  it  is  of  course  intimate- 
ly connected.  It  is  divided  into  two  principal  lobes,  the  right  of  which 
is  by  far  the  largest.  Its  shape  approaches  that  of  a  circle  ;  it  is  attach- 
ed to  the  diaphragm  by  the  suspensary  and  other  ligaments.  It  is  lar- 
ger in  young  animals  than  in  old  ones. 

The  BILE  is  of  a  yellow-green  color,  about  the  consistence  of  thin 
oil ;  when  much  agitated  it  froths  like  soap  and  water.  Its  smell  is 
somewhat  like  musk ;  its  taste  is  bitter.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  species  of  soap  ; 
and  like  other  soap,  is  successfully  employed  to  remove  grease  from 
clothes,  &c.  The  gall-bladder  in  the  human  body  is  shaped  like  a  pear, 
and  is  generally  capable  of  containing  about  an  ounce.  It  is  firmly  con- 
nected to  the  liver.    In  the  elephant,  stag,  all  insects  and  worms,  this 

3 


26  FAMILY 


SPLEEN.—  STOMACH.  —  DIGESTION. 

reservoir  is  wanting,  the  bile  which  they  secrete,  passing  at  once  into 
the  intestinal  canal.  The  real  use  of  the  bile  does  not  even  now  seem 
to  be  accurately  ascertained.  It  appears,  however,  to  assist  in  separa- 
ting the  chyle  from  the  chyme^  to  excite  the  intestines  to  action,  and  to 
produce  the  healthy  appearance  ofthe  intestine  evacuations. 

The  SPLEEN,  or  Milt,  is  a  spongy  vi^cus  of  a  livid  color,  in  form 
somewhat  resembling  a  tongue,  but  its  shape,  situation  and  size  vary 
very  much.  It  is,  in  a  healthy  subject,  always  on  the  left  side  between 
the  false  ribs  and  the  stomach.  Its  general  length  is  six  inches,  breadth 
three,  and  one  thick.  It  is  connected,  by  the  blood  vessels,  to  the  sto- 
mach and  the  left  kidney.  It  is  larger  wiien  the  stomach  is  empty,  and 
smaller  when  compressed  or  evacuated  by  a  full  stomach.  The  uses  of 
the  spleen  have,  till  lately,  been  considered  as  unknown  ;  but  by  a  pa- 
per of  8ir  E.  Home,  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions,  it  appears  pro- 
bable that  this  viscus  is  a  reservoir  for  the  superabundant  serum,  lympli. 
globules,  soluble  mucus,  and  coloring  matter  carried  into  the  circula- 
tion immediately  after  digestion  is  completed. 

The  STOMACH  is  a  large  receptacle,  varying  in  its  capacity  from 
about  five  to  eleven  pints.  It  is  situated  under  the  left  side  ofthe  dia- 
phragm, its  left  side  touching  the  spleen,  and  its  right  covered  by  the 
thin  edge  ofthe  liver ;  its  figure  nearly  resembling  the  pouch  of  a  bag 
pipe,  its  left  end  being  most  capacious.  The  upper  side  is  concave,  the 
lower  is  convex.  It  has  two  orifices,  both  on  its  upper  part;  the  left, 
through  which  the  aliment  passes  from  the  mouth  through  the  gullet  or 
msophagus  io  the  stomach,  is  named  cardia;  the  right,  ihrougli  which 
it  is  conveyed  out  of  the  stomach  into  the  duodenum,  is  named  pylorus^ 
where  there  is  a  circular  valve  which  hinders  the  return  ofthe  ahment 
from  the  gut,  but  does  not  at  all  times  hinder  the  bile  from  flowing  into 
the  stomach.  The  stomach,  like  the  intestinal  canal,  is  composed  of 
three  coats  or  membranes. 

The  uses  of  the  stomach  arc  to  excite  hunger,  and,  partly,  thirst;  to 
receive  the  food  from  the  oesophagus,  and  to  retain  it,  till,  by  the  motion 
ofthe  stomach  and  the  admixture  of  various  fluids,  and  by  many  other 
changes  not  exactly  understood,  it  is  rendered  fit  to  pass  the  right  ori- 
fice ofthe  stomach,  and  afford  chyle  to  the  intes^nes  for  the  nutrition 
ofthe  body ;  or,  in  other  v/ords.  till  the  important  process 

Of  DIGESTION  is  completed.     The  chief  agent  in  this  process  is? 
beyond  question,  the  gastric  juice  ;  a  fluid  that  is  secreted  from  certain 
glands  in  the  stomach,  and  which  possesses  great  solvent  powers  in  re- 
gard to  numerous  animal  and  vegetable  substances.    The  food  being  duly   .Mfk 
masticated,  and  blended  with  a  considerable  portion  of  sahva,  is  propel-    %| 
led  into  the  stomach,  where  it  soon  undergoes  a  remarkable  change,  be- 
ing converted  into  a  pulpy  mass,  termed  chyme  ;    the  chyme  afterwards 
passes  from  the  stomach  into  the  small  intestines ;    here,  it  is  mixed 
with  bile,  and  separated  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  is  as  while  as 
milk,  and  called  chyle;    the  other  passes  ort  to  the  larger  intestines,  and 
is  voided  as  excrementitious  matter.     The  chyle  is  absorbed  by  the  lac- 
teals^  which  terminate  in  the  trunk  or  tube  called  thoracic  duct;     it  is 
there  mixed  with  variable  proportions  of  lymph,  and,  lastly,  with  the 
blood,  as  stated  under  that  article. 


£fr^XYCLOPEDIA.  27 


GASTRIC  JUICE. PANCREAS. INTESTINES. KFDN  KYS. 

The  GASTRIC  JUJCE  is  said  to  be  of  so  powerful  a  nature,  that 
after  death  the  stomach  is  occasionally  eaten  into  holes  by  its  action. 
And  it  is  also  said,  that  if  exposed  to  a  proper  temperature,  it  will  di- 
gest food  in  metal  tubes. 

The  PANCREAS,  or  Sweet-bread,  is  a  large  gland  of  the  salivary 
kind,  of  a  long  figure,  compared  to  a  dog's  tongue.  It  lies  across  the 
upper  and  back  part  of  the  abdomen,  under  the  stomach.  Its  use  is  to 
secrete  a  juice  called  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  appears  to  be  similar 
in  its  properties  to  saliva,  and  together  with  the  bile  helps  to  complete 
the  digestion  of  the  aliment.     It  communicates  with  the  duodenum. 

The  INTESTINES  consist  of  that  convoluted  tube  beginning  at  the 
right  orifice  of  the  stomach  called  pylorus,  and  ending  with  the  sphinc- 
terrecti.  The  length  of  this  canal  is  generally  six  times  the  length  of 
the  whole  human  subject.  It  is  divided  by  nature  into  two  parts.  The 
small  intestines  begin  from  the  stomach,  and  fill  the  middle  or  fore  part 
of  the  abdomen;  the  large  intestines  occupy  the  sides,  and  both  the  up- 
per and  lower  parts  of  the  same  cavity. 

The  KIDNEYS  aro  shaped  like  a  kidney-bean.  They  are  situated 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  back,  one  on  each  side.  They  are  generally 
surrounded  with  more  or  less  fat. 

The  SENSES  are  those  faculties  or  powers  by  which  external  ob- 
jects are  perceived.  The  sight,  touch  or  feeling,  hearing,  smell  and  laste^ 
are  called  the  senses.  The  organs  through  which  they  operate  are  the 
following : — 

The  EYE  is  the  organ  of  seeing.  The  eye  lids,  the  eye-lashes,  and 
the  eye  brows,  require  no  particular  description.  The  eye-ball  is  of  a 
globular  figure ;  it  is  composed  of  various  membranes;  but  those  p  -rts 
of  the  eye  deserving  the  most  notice,  are  the  iris,  the  pupil,  and  the  re- 
tina. The  iris  is  that  colored  circular  ring  situated  beneath  the  cri/s- 
talline  lens,  which  surrounds  the  central  or  dark  part  called  the  pupil. 
It  is  capable  of  expanding  or  contracting,  which  it  constantly  does,  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  light  which  is  thrown  upon  the  eye.  In  a 
very  bright  light  the  pupil  is  reduced  by  the  contraction  of  the  iris  to  a 
very  narrow  hole  ;  in  a  dark  place  the  pupil  is  so  much  enlarged,  as  to 
render  the  iris  scarcely  visible.  The  pupil  is  the  dark  round  opening 
in  the  middle  of  the  eye,  surrounded  by  the  iris,  and  through  which  the 
rays  of  light  pass  to  the  retina,  which  is  the  true  organ  of  vision,  and 
is  formed  by  an  expansion  of  the  pulp  of  the  optic  nerve.  Externally 
the  globe  of  the  eye  and  the  transparent  cornea  axe  moistened  by  a  fluid 
called  the  tears,  which  are  secreted  in  the  lachrymal  glands,  one  of 
which  is  situated  above  each  inner  corner  of  the  eye.  In  proportion  as 
the  eye  is  more  or  less  round,  is  the  sight  of  a  person  longer  or  shorter. 
Persons  of  short  sight  are  called  myopes,  of  long  sight,  preshyopes. 

TOUCH,  or  Feeling,  resides  in  every  part  of  the  body  that  is  sup- 
plied with  nerves.  The  sense  of  touch  is  most  exquisite  in  the  lips,  the 
tops  of  the  fingers,  the  tongue,  and  a  fQw  other  places. 

The  EAR  is  the  organ  of  hearing.  In  man  it  consists  of  an  external 
ear,  or  auricula,  and  an  internal  bony  cavity  with  numerous  circular 
and  winding  passages,  by  which  the  vibrations  of  the  air  are  collected 


28  FAMILY 


NOSE. — TASTE. — SEXES. 


and  concentrated,  and  by  a  peculiar  mechanism  conveyed  to  the  audi- 
tory nerves.  The  ear  is  supplied  with  peculiar  glands,  which  secrete 
an  unctuous  substance,  called  the  wax  of  the  ear.  The  external  au- 
ditory passage  proceeds  in  a  spiral  direction  to  the  tympanum  or  drum 
of  the  ear,  which  forms  a  complete  partition  between  this  passage  and 
tlie  internal  cavities.  Beyond  the  tympanum  is  a  hemispherical  cavi- 
ty which  leads  to  the  fauces^  or  opening  at  the  back  of  the  mouth :  this 
opening  is  of  a  trumpet  form.  The  inner  cavity,  including  the  wind- 
ing passage,  is  aptly  called  the  labyrinth  of  the  ear.  The  sense  of  hear- 
ing is  perhaps  still  more  important  than  that  o^  seeiTig  ;  but  as  we  can 
have  no  just  conception  of  the  real  state  of  social  existence  without 
either  of  these  senses,  it  is  idle  to  speculate  on  such  comparisons. 

The  NOSE  is  in  man,  and  most  of  the  superior  animals,  the  organ 
o^  smelling.  The  structure  of  the  nose  has  nothing  in  it  so  very  pecu- 
liar that  can  convey  any  idea  of  a  mechanical  organization  to  aid  the 
sense  of  smelling.  It  is  true,  the  nerves  of  the  nose  are  considerably 
expanded  over  the  nostrils,  and  are  defended  from  external  injuries  by 
a  peculiar  mucus  ;  but  it  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  what  are  the  es- 
sential organs  of  smelling.  The  nostrils  are  two  passages  of  the  nose 
which  communicate  interiorly  with  the  upper  part  of  the  mouth.  The 
use  of  the  nostrils  is  for  smelling,  respiration,  and  speech.  The  nose 
is  an  important  part  of  the  human  countenance ;  it  is  considered  in 
almost  all  countries  as  one  of  the  features  to  which  peculiar  merit  is 
attached. 

The  TASTE  resides  chiefly  in  the  tongue^  in  conjunction  with  the 
palate,  lips,  and  other  parts  of  the  mouth.  The  tongue  is  however  des- 
tined to  perform  much  more  varied  and  important  functions  than  that 
of  conveying  to  the  mind  the  taste  of  sapid  bodies.  It  is  the  tongue, 
in  conjunction  with  the  lips,  teeth,  palate,  and  throat,  which  produces 
the  sounds  of  language.  The  tongue  is  partly  muscular,  and  partly 
composed  of  membranes  and  cellular  substance.  Its  upper  side  is 
covered  with  papilla,  in  which  the  taste  more  immediately  resides.  The 
impression  of  sapid  bodies  on  the  organs  of  taste  is  modified  by  age, 
size,  habit,  and  the  more  or  less  frequent  application  of  strong  stimu- 
lants. The  state  of  the  stomach,  as  well  as  general  health,  is  often  in- 
dicated by  the  state  and  color  of  the  tongue.  In  health  the  tongue  is 
always  of  a  red  color ;  in  disease  it  varies  from  white  to  yellow,  and 
sometimes  is  almost  black.  In  health  the  tongue  is  always  more  or 
less  moist ;  in  disease  frequently  parched  and  dry  ;  this  last  condition 
is,  however,  produced  in  health  by  the  mere  absence  of  moisture,  evin- 
ced by  the  sensation  we  call  thirst.  _jM 

The  SEXES  differ  by  obvious  indications ;  but  there  are  some  not  ^ 
so  universally  recognized,  which  we  may  mention.  The  male  is  gen- 
erally of  a  larger  size  than  the  female,  and  more  robust ;  the  male  be- 
comes frequently  bald  on  the  top  of  the  head,  the  female  rarely  or  nev- 
er ;  the  male  has  always  more  or  less  beard,  the  female  rarely  any,  ex- 
cept as  old  age  approaches,  and  then  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  upper 
lip.  The  anatomical  diffeVences,  besides  the  obvious  ones,  are,  in  the 
female,  a  larger  pelvis  than  in  the  male,  more  delicate  muscles  and 
smaller  bones  ;  and  the  phrenologists  say,  that  the  female  skull  is  more 
elongated  than  the  male,  from  the  protuberance  in  the  middle  of  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  29 


MIND. SENSATION. 


back  part  of  the  skuW,  (which  they  denominate  philoprngeniiiveness^  or 
love  of  children,)  being  more  prominent.  The  mental  differences  of 
the  two  sexes  are  also  important ;  women  appear  to  possess  more  ima- 
gination and  less  judgment  than  men  ;  these  differences  are  unfortu- 
nately too  often  widened  by  mistakes  in  the  education  of  the  female 
mind. 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE    MIND    AND    ITS    FACULTIES. 

The  term  MIND  has  been  lately  applied  by  philosophers  to  the  intel- 
lectual portion  of  man,  as  being  a  more  correct  term  than  either  sovl  or 
understanding.  It  implies  that  part  of  our  being  which  is  occupied  in 
thoughl.  The  seat  of  the  mind  is  manifestly  the  brain  :  but  in  what 
part  of  It,  whether  the  whole,  or  in  the  pineal  gland,  as  Des  Cartes  main- 
tains, whore  he  says  all  the  nerves  terminate  ;  or  whether,  as  Soemmer- 
ing states,  the  fluid  contained  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  be  its  seat, 
is  unknown  :  all  such  opinions  being  mere  conjectures. 

The  mind,  or  soul,  has  been  usually  divided  into  a  certain  number  of 
faculties.  We  shall  consider  it  from  its  more  simple  to  its  more  com- 
plex state.  The  commonest  and  simplest  impression  made  upon  the 
mind  being  conveyed  to  it  by  either  of  the  senses,  is  called 

SENSATION.  Sensation  is  either  pleasurable  or  painful ;  in  pro- 
portion to  the  degree  of  pleasure  or  of  pain  produced  by  a  sensation, 
will  be  the  vividness  of  its  apprehension  by  the  mind.  An  apprehend- 
ed sensation  is  termed  perception  :  that  is,  when  the  mind  itself  per- 
ceives, recognizes  the  sensation, — when  it  becomes  the  subject  of 
thought  in  the  mind,  it  is  then  called  perception.  An  idea  is  a  resem- 
blance or  image  of  any  thing,  which,  though  not  seen,  is  conceived, — 
apprehended  by  the  mind  ; — an  idea  appears  to  be,  therefore,  nothing 
more  than  a  well-defined  and  apprehended  perception.  An  idea  may 
be  simple  or  complex,  true  or  false.  Simple  ideas  are  those  which  arise 
in  the  mind  from  sensation;  as  those  of  color  by  the  eye,  of  sounds  by 
the  ear,  heat  by  the  touch,  &c. ;  some  ideas  are  formed  by  sensation 
and  reflection  jointly,  as  pleasure,  pain,  power,  existence.  Complex 
ideas  are  infinite  ;  some  are  not  supposed  to  exist  by  themselves,  but 
arc  considered  as  dependencies  on,  or  affections  of  substantives,  as, 
triangle,  gratitude,  murder,  &c.  Combinations  of  simple  ideas  are 
such  as,  a  dozen,  a  score,  beauty,  theft,  <fec.  The  association  of  ideas, 
and  consequently  of  affections,  is  one  of  the  most  important  charac- 
ters of  tlie  human  mind,  and  the  great  source  of  our  happiness  or  misery. 

In  tracing  the  process  of  the  human  mind  in  acquiring  knowledge, 
we  observe  the  following  curious  analogies  or  gradations  ;  it  commen- 
ces with  a  simple  idea  or  thought  impressed,  which  is  connected  with 
simple  perception.  This  solicits  attention,  which,  according  to  its  de- 
grees of  importance,  disposes  to  observation,  consideration,  investiga- 

3* 


30  FAMILY 


MEMORY. 


tion,  contemplation,  meditation, reflection.  These  voluntary  operations 
of  the  mind  are  necessary  to  the  formation  of  clear  conceptions,  right 
understanding,  an  enlarged  comprehension  of  some  subjects,  nice  dis- 
cernment, and  accurate  discriminations  concerning  others:  these  acqui- 
sitions enable  us  to  abstract  essential  qualities  in  our  minds  from  tho 
subjects  in  which  they  are  seated,  to  assembie  others  in  new  combina- 
tions, to  reason,  to  draw  inferences,  and,  finally,  to  judge  or  decide  on 
their  merits  or  defects. 

MEMORY  is  that  quality  of  the  mind  by  which  it  is  enabled  to  call 
up,  generally  at  will,and  upon  suitable  occasions,  ideas,trains  of  thought 
which  have  been   previously  impressed  upon  it.     No  intellectual  pro- 
cess can  be  carried  on  without  memory:    where  the  memory  is  weak, 
there  the  intellect  will  be  found  weak  ;    where  the  memory  is   good» 
there,  in  general,  will  the  intellect  be  powerful.     In  nothing,  however, 
do  individuals  differ  more  from  each  other,  than  in  their  memories. 
Some  remember  one  kind  of  facts  and  things  well,  while  others  remem- 
ber thein  very  indifferently.     This  has  been  attributed  by  the  phrenol- 
ogists to  the  activity  and  size  of  particular  organs  in  the  brain  ;  and  it 
seems  to  us  probable  that  there  may  be  some  truth  in  this, — indeed  the 
phrenologists  assign  to  the  memory  many  organs  of  the  brain,  such  as 
those  of/or;/i,  size,  nei^ht,  color,  space,  order,  time,  number,  tune,  lan- 
guage.    But  whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  this,  we  believe  that  more 
depends  upon  the  exercise  oi  the  mind  in  any  given  course,  than  on  the 
original  conformation  ;    that,  in  order  to  make  the  memory  efficient,  it 
must  be  often  exercised  on  any  given  subject ;    and  that  the  most  im- 
portant knowledge,  if  not  occasionally  revived  by  repetition,   will  fre- 
quently vanish  from  the  mind.     The  notion  of  the  mind  being  a  store- 
house, and  that  ideas  once  deposited  there,  will  always  there  remain,  is 
extremely  fallacious.     It  is  true  they  frequently  do  so,  especially  those 
received  in  youth  ;    but  many  of  these,  without  repetition,  become  in 
time  obliterated.     Hence,  therefore,  the  necessity  of  not  only  the  pro- 
cesses oi  EDUCATION  to  improve  the  memory,  but  of  an  occasional  repe- 
tition  of  them,   in  order  that  they  may  be  efficient  and  useful  to  us  in 
after  life. 

Recolleclion  is  that  part  of  tho  memory,  which  consists  in  calling  up 
in  the  mind  the  knowledge,  which  has  been  previously  impressed  upon 
it.  Attention  and  repetition  help  much  to  fix  ideas  in  the  memory;  the 
ideas  which  make  the  most  lasting  impressions  are  those  accompanied 
by  pleasure  or  pain. 

The  powers  of  memory  of  some  persons  for  particular  subjects  are 
astonishingly  great.  Seneca  says  that  he  was  able,  by  the  mere  effort 
of  his  natural  memory,  to  repeat  two  thousand  words  upon  once  hear- 
ing them,  each  in  its  order,  though  they  had  no  connexion  with  each 
other.  He  also  mentions  that  Fortius  Latro  retained  in  his  memory  all 
the  declamations  which  he  had  ever  spoken,  and  never  found  his  mem- 
ory fail  in  a  single  word.  Cyneas,  ambassador  to  the  Romans  from 
king  Pyrrhus,  had,  in  one  day,  so  well  learned  the  names  of  his  specta- 
tors, that  on  the  next  he  saluted  the  whole  senate  and  all  the  populace 
assembled,  each  by  his  name.  Pliny  says,  Cyrus  knew  every  soldier  in 
his  army  by  name,  and  L.  Scipio  all  the  people  of  Rome.  Carneades 
would  repeat  any  volume  found  in  the  libraries  as  readily  as  if  he  were 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  31 


IMAGINATION.  —  GENIUS. REASON. 


reading.     Many  modern  instances  of  the  great  powers  of  memory  might 
be  also  adduced,  but  they  do  not  appear  necessary, 

IMAGINATION  is  that  particular  state  or  disposition  ofthemindby 
which  it  is  enabled  to  form  numberless  new  and  extraordinary  ideas 
which  are  not  the  immediate  result  of  external  impressions  or  of  recol- 
lection, and  hence  is  obviously  distinguished  from  perception  and  mem- 
ory. By  the  imagination  an  indiridual  creates  thoughts  entirely  his 
own,  and  which  never  might  have  existed  had  they  not  occurred  to  the 
individual  mind.  The  exercise  of  most  of  the  other  qualities  of  the 
mind  requires  calmness  and  composure.  The  imagination  delights  in 
the  most  heterogeneous  and  incoherent  combinations  and  most  extra- 
vagant circumstances.  These  visions  or  phantoms  are  nevertheless 
sometimes  impressed  upon  the  memory,  and  during  imperfect  or  dis- 
turbed sleep  present  themselves  and  produce  those  absurd  combinations 
which  occur  in  dreaming.  Although  the  flights  of  imagination  are  bold, 
yet  ihey  conform  in  some  degree  to  the  impressions  which  real  objects 
have  made  upon  the  sensorium.  And  hence  all  the  ideas  which  it  calls 
up  have  some  relation  to  prior  received  facts,  and  to  the  knowledge  ac- 
quired by  the  mind. 

Fancy^  conctils^  and  phantoms,  are  merely  species  of  which  the  imagi- 
nation is  the  genus.  Poets  and  painters  are  notoriously  the  subjects  in 
which  a  powerful  imagination  is  essential  to  the  eftectual  developements 
of  their  respective  arts. 

GENIUS  is,  in  numerous  instances,  allied  to  the  imagination.  It 
consists  in  that  natural  talent,  disposition,  or  aptitude,  which  one  man 
possesses  of  performing  something  in  preference  to  another,  with  pecu- 
liar facility  and  excellence.  Thus  men  are  said  to  have  a  genius  for 
painting,  poetry,  music,  &c. ;  meaning,  that  the  powers  of  their  minds 
enable  them  to  excel  in  those  particular  departments.  Although,  per- 
haps, minute  attention  to  the  genius  of  each  individual  is.not,  in  a  so- 
cial and  moral  view,  necessary  in  the  education  of  youth,  we  believe, 
nevertheless,  that  some  attention  to  this  subject  is  absolutely  necessary 
in  order  to  effectuate  the  best  developement  of  the  character.  And 
while  we  cannot  avoid  admiring  genius,  we  ought  never  to  forget  that 
its  best  exemplitication  is  when  combined  with  moral,  useful,  and  vir- 
tuous actions;  that  true  genius,  real  science,and  rational  religion, ought 
to  be  inseparable  companions. 

REASON  ;  that  process  of  the  mind  by  which  different  ideas  or 
things  are  compared,  their  fitness  or  unfitness  perceived,  and  conclu- 
sions drawn  from  such  comparisons  and  perceptions.  Judgment  is  a 
similar  operation  of  the  mind  ;  but,  as  its  name  imports,  it  is  that  act 
of  the  mind  by  which  it  concludes  and  determines  upon  certain  final 
results.  Thus  we  compare  the  sun  and  the  moon,  and  finding  the  sun 
greater  than  the  moon,  we  determine  or  judge  accordingly. 

The  WILL  is  a  state  or  disposition  of  the  mind,  consisting  in  be- 
ing disposed,  willing,  to  do  or  avoid  any  act,  or  to  obtain  or  avoid  any 
thing.  The  state  or  disposition  of  the  mind  called  the  will^'is  produced 
by  innumerable  agencies.  Some  of  these  arise  from  the  internal  feel- 
ing of  the  mind  itself;  others  from  external  objects,  as  heat,  light,  cold, 
human  society  ;    our  affections,  our  hopes,  our  fears,  our  pleasures  and 


FAMILY 


GHOST. KNOWLEDGE* PASSIONS. 


our  pains;  others  from  e.n  association  of  internal  feeling  with  external 
objects  ;  and  hence  the  incalculable  varieties  of  human  actions. 

GHOST;  a  spirit  or  apparition  of  some  deceased  person.  Thetin- 
cienls  supposed  every  man  had  tJiree  different  ghosts,  which,  after  the 
dissolution  oftlic  body,  were  variously  disposed  of.  They  were  dis- 
tinguished into  7/jfl7J'5,  spirittis.,  umbra  ;  the  manes  they  supposed  went 
to  the  infernal  regions ;  the  spiritux  ascended  to  the  skies  ;  and  the 
viiiOrn  hovered  about  the  tomb,  as  unwilling  to  quit  its  old  connections. 
1'he  superstitious  notions  of  ghosts,  spirits,  &c.  are  rapidly  declining  ; 
and  notu  ithstanding  all  the  polemn  tales  which  have  been  propagated, 
there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  any  real  spirits  or  celestial  agents 
liave  held  intercourse  with  man  since  the  establishment  of  Christiani- 
ty. The  history,  therefore,  of  modern  miracles,  appearances  of  the 
dead,  Szc.  will  be  always  found,  when  thoroughly  examined,  merely 
the  phantoiiis  of  a  disordered  imagination. 

In  quilting  this  subject  it  may  be  observed,  that  when  the  mind 
turns  inward,  t/tinkiuir  is  the  first  ojieration  that  occurs;  and  in  thiswe 
may  observe  a  great  va-iety  of  modifications,  and  whence  it  frames  to 
itself  distinct  ideas.  Thus,  the  perception  annexed  to  any  impression 
on  the  body  by  an  external  object  is  called  sensation.  When  an  idea 
occurs  without  the  presence  of  the  object,  it  is  called  remembrance  ; 
when  sought  for  by  the  mind,  and  brought  again  to  review  this  pro- 
cess, it  is  called  recollection ;  when  the  ideas  are  attempted  to  be  regis- 
tered in  the  memory,  it  is  attention;  and  when  the  mind  considers  any 
subject  in  a  variety  of  views,  successively  dwelling  upon  each,  it  is  cal- 
led study. 

KNOWLEDGE,  therefore,  from  this  short  view  of  the  mind,  it  will 
be  seen,  arises  from  those  impressions  and  ideas  which  we  receive  by 
the  medium  of  the  senses.  We  can  have  no  knowledge  further  than 
we  have  ideas.  A  man  may  be  said  to  know  all  those  truths  which 
are  lodged  m  his  memory  by  a  previous,  clear  and  full  perception.  In 
intuitive  knowledge,  the  mind  perceives  the  truth  as  the  eye  does  light; 
thus  the  mind  perceives  that  white  is  not  black,  and  that  three  are  more 
than  two.  This  part  of  knowledge  is  irresistible,  and  on  intuition  de- 
pends all  the  certainty  of  our  other  knowledge.  When  the  mind  is 
obliged  to  discover  the  agreement  or  disagreement  of  our  ideas  by  the 
intervention  of  other  ideas,  this  is  what  is  called  reasoning. 

Again.  Knowledge  includes,  f^f  course,  all  which  we  can  know. 
It  has  been  also  divided  into  useful  and  luxurious  knowledge.  The 
best  knowledge  is  that  which  enables  us  to  act  most  virtuously,  because 
virtue  is  the  foundation  of  genuine  happiness.  Learnin'j[,  properly  so 
called,  is  not  essential  to  a  virtuous  life,  although  considerable  know- 
ledge most  undoubtedly  is  so  ;  for  ignorance  is,  in  innumerable  instan- 
ces, the  parent  of  error  and  of  crime.  A  prudent  choice  in  our  pursuit 
of  knowledge  is  however  necessary,  in  order  that  we  may  avoid  an  idle 
and  useless  or  pernicious  waste  of  time. 

The  PASSIONS.  In  the  proper  management  of  the  Passions  con- 
sists mostly  human  wisdom.  As  cver}'^  effort  of  the  memory  or  im- 
agination arouses  some  associate  passion  or  affection,  the  mind  rarely 
continues  long  in  a  quiescent  state  ;    that  is,  entirely  divested  of  every 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  33 


PASSIONS. AFFECTIONS. 


thing  sensible,  and  unconscious  of  any  particular  feeling.  It  is  by  ob- 
serving such  associate  feelings,  that  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  the  na- 
ture and  operation  of  the  passions  (or  suffering)  of  the  mind,  and  dis- 
cover three  distinct  modes  or  states  of  passion,  which  differ  from  sim- 
ple feeling  only  in  duration  and  intensity,  but  not  in  quality.  The 
state  called  passion  is  violent  and  transitory  ;  emoiion  is  less  so  ;  and 
affection  is  the  least  violent  and  most  permanent.  Hence  we  distin- 
guish between  the  lowest  and  highest  degree  of  feeling  by  the  terms 
passion,  emotion,  and  affection,  which  are  always  employed  to  express 
the  sensible  effects  of  objects  or  ideas  concerning  them  on  the  mind. 
The  word  passion^  therefore,  is  strictly  and  properly  used  to  designate 
the  first  feeling,  impression,  or  percussion,  as  it  were,  of  which  the 
mind  is  conscious  from  some  impulsive  cause  ;  by  which  it  is  wholly 
acted  on  without  any  efforts  of  its  own,  either  to  solicit  or  escape  the 
impression.  This  passion  or  state  of  absolute  passiveness,  iu  conse- 
quence of  any  sudden  percussion  of  mind,  is  necessarily  of  short  dura- 
tion. The  strong  impression  immediately  produces  a  reaction  corres- 
pondent to  its  nature,  either  to  appropriate  and  enjoy,  or  avoid  and  re- 
pel the  exciting  cause.  This  reaction  is  very  significantly  denominated 
emotion^  which  is  applicable  to  the  sensible  effects  produced  on  the 
mind  in  consequence  of  a  particular  agitation.  Emotions,  then,  al- 
though oflen  erroneously  used  as  synonymous  with,  are  only  the  effects 
of  passions. 

The  term  Affection  always  implies  a  less  violent,  and  generally 
more  durable  influence,  which  persons  and  things  have  on  the  mind. 
It  is  usually  associated  with  ideas  of  good,  but  there  exists  no  necessa- 
ry connexion.  Hence  we  find  that  the  term  passion  is  applicable  to 
all  the  violent  impressions  made  on  our  minds  by  the  perception  of 
something  very  striking  and  apparently  interesting  ;  emotion,  to  the 
external  marks  or  visible  changes  produced  by  the  force  of  the  passion 
on  the  corporeal  system  ;  and  affection,  to  the  less  violent,  more  delib- 
erate, and  more  permanent  impressions,  by  causes  which  appear  suffi- 
ciently interesting.  The  range  of  affection  may  extend  from  those 
stronger  feelings,  which  border  upon  emotions,  to  the  mildest  sensa- 
tions of  pleasure  or  displeasure,  which  we  can  possibly  perceive.  In 
like  manner  the  desire  of  any  thing  under  the  appearance  of  its  good- 
ness, suitableness,  or  necessity  to  our  happiness,  constitutes  the  passion 
of  l'>ve  ;  the  desire  of  avoiding  any  thing  hatful  or  destructive  consti- 
tutes hatred  or  aversion;  the  desire  of  a  good  which  appears  probable, 
and  in  our  power,  constitutes  hope ;  but,  if  the  good  appear  impro- 
bable or  impossible,  it  constitutes  fear  or  dfspair.  The  unexpected 
gratification  of  desire  is  joy ;  the  desire  of  happiness  to  another  under 
pain  or  suffering  is  compassion ;  and  the  desire  of  anothers  punish- 
ment, according  to  this  hypothesis,  is  revenge  or  malice. 

The  desire  of  happiness  is,  then,  it  ajipears,  the  spring  or  motive  of 
all  our  passions.  Some  wise  and  reasonable  motive  seems  certainly 
necessary  to  all  wise  and  reasonable  actions.  To  act  without  a  motive, 
would  be  the  same  as  not  to  act  at  all ;  that  is,  such  an  action  would 
answer  no  further  or  better  end  than  not  acting ;  but  whatever  wise 
ends  are  intended  by  the  passions,  if  they  are  not  kept  under  due  regu- 
lation and  restraint,  they  soon  become  the  sources  of  our  misery.  Au- 
thors have  arranged  the  passions  into  grateful  and  ungrateful,  primi- 


34  FAMILY 


THE  PASSIONS. 


live  and  derivative,  Sic. ;  but  the  simplest  classificatiou  is  into  the  seljisk 
and  the  social^  according  to  the  exciting  cause  :  in  the  former,  the  idea 
ofgood  predominates;  in  tlie  latter,  that  of  evil.  The  only  emotions, 
which  cannot  be  considered  as  connected  either  with  the  selfish  or  so- 
cial feeling,  with  self-love  or  apprehension,  are  surprise,  astonishment, 
and  icojider :  these  are  excited  by  something  novel,  embarrassing,  or 
vast  and  incomprehensible  in  the  object,  without  any  reference  to  its 
peculiar  nature  ;  and,  exerting  their  influence  indiscriminately  in  pas- 
sions  of  the  most  opposite  characters,  are  aptly  denominated  introduc- 
tory emotions.  The  passions  and  affections  founded  on  self-love,  and 
excited  by  the  idea  of  good,  are  joy,  cheerfulness,  mirth,  contentment ; 
pride,  vanity,  haughtiness,  arrogance,  &;c. ;  desires  inordinate,  as  glut- 
tony, drunkenness,  lust,  &c.,  avarice,  rapaciousness,  emulation,  ambi- 
tion, and  hope.  The  passions  and  affections  operating  on  the  principle 
of  self  Jove,  in  which  the  idea  of  evil  is  immediately  pregent  to  themind, 
are  sorrow,  grief,  melancholy,  discontent,  vexation,  &c.  The  virtuous 
affections  inspired  by  sorrow,  are  patience,  resignation,  humility  ;  and 
fear,  terror,  despair,  remorse,  cowardice,  doubt,  shame,  &;c.  Fortitude, 
courage,  intrepidity,  are  virtuous  affections,  excited  only  by  exposure 
to  those  evils,  which  are  usually  productive  of  fear,  to  which  they 
are  diametrically  opposite.  To  this  class  also  belong  anger,  resent- 
ment, indignation,  and  peevishness ;  fortitude,  courage,  and  intrepidity, 
are  likewise  influenced  by  anger,  with  which  they  are  always  more  or 
less  blended. 

The  passions  and  affections  derived  from  the  social  feeling,  which 
extends  its  regards  to  the  state,  conduct,  and  character  of  others,  and 
their  relative  circumstances,  deportment,  merit,  and  dispositions,  as 
contrasted  with  ourselves,  may  be  classed  under  the  cardinal  affections 
of  love  and  hatred,  in  which  the  idea  of  good  or  evil  is  predominant. 
The  benevolent  desires  and  dispositions  appear  in  the  parental,  filial, 
fraternal,  conjugal,  and  friendly  affections. 

Sympathy  is  that  inward  feeling,  which  is  excited  by  the  situation  of 
another,  or  which  harmonizes  with  the  condition  and  feelings  of  its 
object ;  in  this  manner  it  may  become  a  passion,  an  affection,  or  a  dis- 
pojition.  Sympathy  indicates  a  susceptible  mind,  and  impels  men  to 
plunge  into  water,  or  rush  into  flames,  to  succour  a  fellow  creature. 
The  sympathetic  affections  are  very  numerous,  and  discriminated  by 
various  appellations.  They  may  be  considered  as  they  respect  distress, 
such  as  compassion,  mercy,  commiseration,  condolence,  pity,  generosi- 
ty,liberality,  charity,  and  condescension  :  as  they  relate  to  prosperity, 
in  the  sensations  of  joy,  gladness,  happiness,  &:c.  at  the  good  fortune 
of  others  ;  and  as  they  proceed  from  sympathetic  imitation,  or  affec- 
tions derived  from  good  opinion,  euch  as  gratitude,  thankfulness,  ad- 
miration, esteem,  respect,  veneration,  awe,  reverence,  with  the  devia- 
tions of  fondness  and  partiality.  The  passions  occasioned  by  displa- 
cency,  in  which  evil  is  the  predominant  idea,  are  of  two  kinds  ;  those 
in  which  malevolent  dispositions  are  indicated,  and  those  of  simple  dis- 
approbation, without  any  mixture  of  malevolence.  Those  arising  from 
malevolent  dispositions  are  hatred,  envy,  rancour,  cruelty,  &c.  ;  anger, 
rage,  revenge,  resentment,  and  jealousy.  The  displacency  occasioned 
by  unfavorable  opinions  gives  rise  to  horror,  indignation,  contempt,  dis- 
dain, and  irrision.     The  five  grateful  passions,  as  they  have  been  call- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  35 


VIKTTJK. ALIMENTS. 


ed,  of  love,  desire,  hope,  joy,  and  pleasing  recollection,  enhance  each 
other;  so  do  the  five  ungrateful  ones  of  hatred,  aversion,  fear,  grief, 
and  displeasure. 

As  happiness  and  misery,  virtue  and  vice,  depend  almost  entirely  on 
the  proper  exercise  of  the  passions  and  affections,  the  study  of  their 
nature  and  influence  should  become  a  distinct  and  primary  branch  of 
education.  Virtue^  therefore,  consists  not  only  in  an  exemplary  desire 
of  regulating  all  our  thoughts  and  pursuits  by  right  principles,  but  also 
by  so  acting  as  to  produce  beneficial  results  to  others  as  well  as  to  our- 
selves. Vice  is  distinguished  by  unhappy  effects,  by  conduct  and  pro- 
pensities opposed  to  those  of  virtue,  and  consists  in  depraved  affections 
and  ungoverned  passions.  Religion  is  evinced  by  a  laudable  desire 
of  rectitude,  of  yielding  obedience  to  the  divine  command,  and  habitu- 
al solicitude  to  obtain  the  divine  favor.  Devotion  is  the  religious  tem- 
per or  disposition  applied  to  prayers  and  meditations  vv'hich  deeply  in- 
terest the  affections.  Superstition  is  a  consecrated  self-interest,  without 
either  love  or  regard  to  the  supposed  duties  it  enjoins,  or  to  its  object. 
He  who  imagines  that  the  divine  favor  is  to  be  gained  by  a  strict  atten- 
tion to  frivolous  ceremonies  is  superstitious.  i\  tenacious  reverence 
for  unimportant  sentiments,  with  a  disposition  towards  those  whose 
opinions  are  opposite,  constitutes  bigotry.  An  incessant  desire  to  pro- 
pagate some  particular  sentiment,  or  principle,  to  make  proselytes,  from 
whatever  motive,  is  called  zeal.  The  decided  ascendancy  of  some  partic- 
ular object  in  the  mind  is  denominated  a /^amcw,  as  a  passion  for  music, 
Sic.  When  this  predilection  occupies  all  our  thoughts,  an  d  incites  us  to  the 
most  vigorous  exertions  with  such  an  ardor  and  constancy  as  to  brave 
all  difficulties,  it  is  termed  enthusiasm.  Even  our  motives  form  va- 
rious species  of  desire,  which  characterize  the  prevailing  disposition  ; 
such  as  integrity,  fidelity,  loyalty,  honesty,  industry,  honor,  &c. ;  or 
treachery,  treason,  fraud,  artifice,  deceit,  cruelty,  &c. ;  according  as 
they  are  influenced  by  worthy  or  unworthy  dispositions.  An  invinci- 
ble predilection  to  some  one  thing,  opinion,  or  sentiment,  extreme  con- 
tempt for  all  other  kinds  of  knowledge,  and  an  obstinate  opposition  of 
private  opinion  as  the  only  counterpoise  to  public  sentiment,  without 
any  regard  to  the  weight  of  evidence  on  either  side,  are  the  invariable 
features  o^ fanaticism. 


PART  II. 

ALIMENTS. 


Aliments  are  those  materials,  from  which  the  different  orders  of 
created  beings  derive  their  nourishment.  To  most  animals,  nature  has 
assigned  but  a  limited  range  of  aliment  ;  but  to  man  an  extensive 
choice  has  been  allotted.  The  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  fruits, 
grains,  roots,  and  herbs,  flesh,  fish,  and  fowl,  all  contribute  to  his  suste- 
nance. 


36  FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


It  is  an  interesting  inquiry,  How  aliments  so  diversified  in  structure, 
and  sensible  qualities,  become  assimilated  in  one  system,  and  contribute 
to  our  support  ?  To  this  question,  it  may  bo  answered,  that  all  organi- 
zed beings,  animal  as  well  as  vegetable,  are  composed  principally  of 
carbon^  hydrogen^  oxygen^  nitrogen^  Ume.,  sulphur.,  and  phosphorus. 
Different  combinations  of  these  elements  make  up  the  whole  of  their 
material  systems. 

Now,  then,  as  the  human  frame  is  composed  of  the  above  materials, 
its  daily  waste  must  be  supplied,  by  substances  which  yield  these  ma- 
terials. These  are  to  be  found  in  various  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances, used  by  man  as  food.  This  food,  when  masticated,  is  received 
into  the  stomach,  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  gastric  fluid, 
a  powerful  solvent  of  animal  and  vegetable  matters.  Here,  it  soon  un- 
dergoes an  important  change,  being  reduced  to  a  soft  and  similar  mass 
called  chyme.  From  the  stomach,  the  digested  chyme  passes  into  the 
intestines ;  where,  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  bile,  the  pancreatic  and 
mucous  secretions,  it  undergoes  still  further  changes  ;  the  result  of  all 
which  is  the  formation  and  separation  of  a  bland,  white,  milky  fluid, 
called  chyle.  The  chyle  is  sucked  up  by  numerous  vessels,  called  ab- 
sorbent lacteals,  to  whose  orifice  it  is  every  where  exposed,  in  passing 
through  the  intestinal  canal.  These  absorbents  after  numerous  com- 
munications, terminate  in  one  common  trunk,  by  which  the  chyle  is 
mixed  with  the  blood,  and  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  heart  and  ar- 
teries. Circulated  now  through  the  lungs,  it  undergoes  new  changes, 
from  the  respiration  of  the  atmosphere  ; — it  is  incorporated  with  the 
common  circulating  mass,  and  becomes  itself  blood,  the  fountain  from 
which  all  the  other  constituent  parts  of  the  body  are  formed,  and  re- 
newed. 

Such  is  a  concise  account  of  the  manner,  by  which  animal  and  vege- 
table substances  contribute  to  the  support  of  the  human  frame — a  pro- 
cess, though  complex,  taken  in  all  its  parts,  yet  easily  understood ;  and 
when  understood,  eminently  calculated  to  draw  forth  admiration,  in 
view  of  the  wisdom  of  God. 

The  gastric  fluid  of  man  is  capable  of  digesting  a  great  variety  of 
animal  and  vegetable  matters.  And  the  structure  of  his  body,  his  in- 
stinct and  experience,  clearly  indicate,  that  his  Maker  designed  him  to 
derive  his  aliment,  from  both  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms. 

We  say  from  both,  for  it  is  obvious  that  neither  is  suited  to  form  the 
whole  of  our  daily  aliment.  Animal  food  is  more  nutricious  ;  but, 
from  its  heating  and  stimulating  nature,  when  exclusively  used,  it  ex- 
hausts and  debilitates  the  system,  which  it  at  first  invigorates  and  sup- 
ports. And  it  is  matter  of  observaiion  and  experience,  that  those  per- 
sons, who  confine  themselves  to  animal  diet,  become  heavy  and  indo- 
lent ;  the  tone  and  excitabiUty  of  their  frame  are  impaired  ;  they  are 
afflicted  with  indigestion,  and  numerous  other  infirmities. 

On  the  other  hand,  vegetables  are  ascescent,  and  less  stimulating ; 
they  are,  also,  less  nourishing,  and  of  more  dilficult  assimilation,  than 
food  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom.  A  pure  vegetable  diet  seems 
insufficient  to  raise  the  human  system  to  all  the  strength  and  vigor  of 
which  it  is  capable. 

Some  eastern  nations,  indeed,  and  thousands  of  individuals  of  every 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. ^ 

'       ALIMENTS. 


nation,  live  almost  entirely  on  vegetable  aliment.  But  these,  it  is  re- 
marked, are  seldom  so  robust,  so  active,  so  brave,  as  men  who  live  on 
a  mixed  diet  of  animal  and  vegetable  food. 

In  truth,  a  mixed  diet  of  animal  and  vegetable  food,  it  is  believed, 
is  the  best  suited  to  the  nature  and  condition  of  man.  The  propor- 
tions, in  which  these  should  be  used,  we  shall  not  attempt  to  settle. 
But  generally  the  quantity  of  vegetable  food  should  exceed.  Indeed, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  sedentary  men  should  ever  use  animal  food, 
more  than  once  a  day.  Inhabitants  of  warmer  climates  require  less 
than  those  of  higher  latitudes,  and  the  sedentary  of  every  climate  less 
than  those  who  labor. 

All  the  products  of  vegetation  are  far  from  being  equally  nutritious. 
Some,  indeed,  instead  of  being  alimentary,  are  highly  noxious  to  ani- 
mal life.  The  wax,  resins,  and  balsams,  the  astringent,  bitter,  and  nar- 
cotic principles  are  often  used  medicinally  ;  but  never  as  food,  and 
those  vegetables  which  abound  in  these  cannot,  with  safety,  be  used  as 
aliments. 

The  alimentary  principles  of  vegetation  are  gwm,  or  mucilage,  star cf*^ 
gluten,  jell.,  fixed  oil,  sugar,  and  acids  ;  and  the  different  vegetables, 
and  parts  of  vegetables,  are  nutritious,  wholesome,  and  digestible,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  and  proportion  of  these  principles,  contained  in 
them. 

The  lightest  kind  of  nourishment  is  afforded  by  the  mucilage,  jelly 
and  acids  of  vegetables.  The  sugar  and  fixed  oils  are  more  nutritive  ; 
but  not  so  digestible.  The  starch  and  gluten  are  the  most  nutritive  ; 
and  together  with  mucilage,  are  at  the  same  time,  the  most  abundant 
principles  contained  in  those  vegetables,  from  which  man  derives  his 
sustenance.  Of  these,  the  gluten  approaches  nearest  the  nature  of 
animal  substances.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  rice,  millet,  and  Indian 
corn,  abound  in  farinaceous  matter,  a  compound  of  the  most  nutritive 
alimentary  principles  of  vegetables. 

Wheat  flour  contains  by  much  the  largest  quantity  of  gluten  ;  the 
flour  of  other  nutritive  grains,  but  very  little  of  it.  It  is  this  large 
proportion  of  gluten,  which  gives  the  superiority  to  wheat,  over  all 
other  grains.  Starch  and  mucilage,  are  the  chief  alimentary  princi- 
ples of  other  grains  ;  and  hence,  the  bread  formed  from  them  is  inferi- 
or to  that  made  of  wheat. 

Rice  is  the  chief  sustenance  of  some  nations  ;  and,  when  boiled, 
afibrds  an  agreeable  and  nourishing  food  of  easy  digestion,  and  not  so 
apt  to  sour  on  the  stomach,  as  some  other  grains.  Barley  bread  is  vis- 
cid and  not  very  digestible.  Rye  bread  is  ascescent,  and  not  so  easily 
digested  ;  but  useful  in  costive'  habits,  from  its  tendency  to  open  the 
bowels.  Oat  bread  is  nutritive  and  wholesome,  and  easy  to  be  digest- 
ed. The  flour  of  millet  forms  but  indifterent  bread,  but  excellent, 
wholesome,  and  nourishing  pottages  and  puddings.  Indian  corn  is  nu- 
tritive and  laxative. 

The  seeds  of  leguminous  plants,  such  as  peas,  and  beans,  afford  a 
great  quantity  of  alimentary  matter  ;  though  less  than  the  grains  we 
have  noticed.  The  nutritious  matter  is  a  compound  of  starch  and 
mucilage.    Theu:  flour  is  sometimes  formed  into  bread ;  but  it  is  coarse 

4 


FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


and  indifferent,  and  not  easily  digestible.  These  seeds  are  not  more 
nutritive,  but  generally  more  palatable,  and  wholesome,  wlitn  green, 
3'oung,  and  tender,  and  simply  boiled,  than  when  fully  ripened  and  ba- 
ked. Yet,  with  some  constitutions,  they  are  apt  to  produce  flatulency, 
and  disorder  of  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

The  potatoe,  either  boiled  or  roasted,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful, 
is,  perhaps,  after  the  grains,  one  of  the  most  wholesome,  and  most  nu- 
tritive vegetables,  in  common  use.  Its  alimentary  properties  are  great 
as  is  proved  by  general  experience,  and  especially  by  tiiat  of  the  Irish 
peasantry,  a  robust  and  hardy  race,  who  derive  tlicir  principal  suste- 
nance from  this  invaluable  root.  Wheti  mixed  witli  wJicat,  it  forms  a 
wholesome  and  nutritive  bread.  The  sweet,  or  Spanish  potatoe,  yam, 
and  artichoke,  come  near  to  the  potatoe  in  their  nutritive  properties; 
but  do  not  equal  it.  The  roots  of  parsnips,  turnips,  and  carrots,  con- 
tain a  considerable  quantity  of  mucilage,  and  a  small  portion  of  saccha- 
rine matter.  When  boiled,  they  are  considerably  nutritive ;  and  by 
most  stomachs  easily  digested. 

The  beet,  both  white  and  red,  contain  a  large  proportion  of  sugar. 
They  are  fine  for  cattle  ;  but  cannot  be  safely  used  in  great  quantities 
by  raan,  a^  they  are  apt  to  induce  flatulence  and  indigestion. 

In  some  roots,  as  in  the  onion,  leek  andgarhc,  the  nutritive  principle 
is  found  combined  with  an  acrid  principle,  which  renders  them  less  fit 
for  the  purposes  of  aliment.  This  principle,  however,  is  lessened  by 
boiling,  and  then  they  are  lightly  nutritive  and  mucilaginous.  The 
radish,  too,  is  an  acrid  root ;  and,  though  much  used,  afl^ords  little  nu- 
triment, while  it  is  apt  to  produce  flatulence,  and  disorder  of  the  stom- 
ach. 

In  some  seeds,  called  kernels,  as  in  the  hardnut  and  filbert,  walnut, 
almond,  cocoa  nut,  cashew  nut,  chocolate  nut,  we  find  oil  combined 
with  their  farina.  Tiiis  renders  them  nutritious  ;  but,  at  the  same  time, 
indigestible.  When  freely  used  ihey  are  sure  to  produce  flatulence, 
thirst,  nausea,  pain  of  the  stomach,  and  headache  ;  more  especially,  if 
from  age  they  have  become  rancid.  Hence,  they  should  be  used  sparing- 
ly, at  any  lime. 

Chocolate,  which  is  prepared  from  the  chocolate  nut,  forms  a  well 
knov,'n,  wholesome,  nutritious  aliment,  employed  in  many  cases  as  a 
restorative.  Cocoa,  which  is  prepared  from  the  same  nut,  is,  however, 
less  oily  ;  and,  on  this  account,  decidedly  preferable  for  weak  stomachs 
to  the  chocolate. 

Fixed  oil  is  contained  in  many  vegetables,  and  is  sometimes  obtained 
by  expression,  and  is  highly  nutritive.  Olive  oil  is  much  used  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  the  world,  particularly  in  Italy,  and  the  south  of  France. 
In  these  countries,  it  is  used  in  lieu  of  butter.  In  other  countries,  it  is 
used  chiefly  as  a  sauce,  or  condiment  to  salJads  and  fish.  With  many 
stomachs  it  disagrees,  being  too  heavy  and  indigestible. 

The  leaves,  stalks  and  flowers  of  vegetables  contain  much  less  nu- 
tritious matter  than  the  seeds  and  roots,  already  noticM.  They  are 
cooling  and  aperient,  however,  and  sure  to  correct  the  stimulant,  and 
binding  effects  of  animal  food.  The  vegetables  to  which  these  remarks 
apply  are  cabbage,  colewort,  cauliflower,  brocoli,  sea-kale,  endive, 
lettuce,  purslane,  spinage,  and   asparagus.      Of  these,  there  is  none 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ALIMENTS. 


more  lender,  or  more  wholesome  than  spinage.  Of  the  varieties  of 
cabbage,  the  brocoli  and  cauliflower  are  ihe  most  easily  digested,  and 
least  flatulent.  The  asparagus  is  an  excellent  vcgetagle,  agreeable  and 
wholesome,  tolorably  nutritious,  and  besides,  is  diuretic.  The  endive 
and  lettuce  arc  chiefly  used  as  sallads.  Lettuce  has,  also,  some  de- 
gree of  narcotic  and  soporific  effect,  a  quality,  which  depends  on  the 
bitter,  milky  juice  contained  in  the  leaf  stalks.  Parsley  is  slightly 
aromatic,  littio  nutritive,  and  chiefly  used  to  season  broths,  sallads,  &c. 
Celery  is  highly  relished  by  many  people,  as  a  sallad  ;  but,  raw,  is  not 
easily  digested. 

Of  fruits,  such  as  the  peach,  apricot,  plum,  cherry,  date,  fig,  pear, 
apple,  mulberry,  orange,  lemon,  it  may  be  observed,  that  they  do  not 
abound  in  nutritive  qualities.  Their  nourishment  depends  upon  the 
mucilage,  and  sugar,  they  contain.  Together  with  these  principles,  and 
water,  many  of  them,  also,  contain  the  different  vegetable  acids,  the 
malic,  citric,  tartaric,  &c. ;  and  it  is  this  combination,  which  renders 
thorn  so  agreeable  to  the  taste,  and  so  generally  relished  by  man. 

From  this  combination  of  principles,  too,  may  bo  estimated  the  ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  they  possess,  as  aliments.  They  are  nour- 
ishing, in  proportion  to  the  mucilage,  joily  and  sugar,  which  they  con- 
tain ;  cooling,  and  aperient,  and  antisceptic,  in  proportion  as  they  are 
watery  and  acidulous.  Tiiey  are  not  qf  themselves  capable  of  long 
supporting  the  strength,  and  renewing  the  waste  of  the  system  ;  but, 
conjoined  with  other  more  nutritious  aliments,  ripe  fruits  are,  in  their 
season,  safe,  useful,  and  often  highly  beneficial  adjuvants  to  our  diet. 
They  obviate  and  correct  the  stimulant,  and  sceptic  effect,  of  animal 
food  ;  open  the  body,  and  cool  and  refresh  the  system.  Hence,  they 
are  found  so  emenintly  useful  in  febrile,  inflammatory  and  scorbutic 
affections.  Indeed,  in  the  sea  scurvy,  a  disease  arising  from  the  too 
exclusive  use  of  a  stimulating  animal  diet,  the  sub-acid  fruits  are  sov- 
ereign remedies.  By  the  same  properties,  however,  they  are  hurtful, 
in  cases  of  gravel,  stone,  and  diabetes.  Intemperately  eaten,  fruits 
have  in  all  constitutions,  and  particularly  in  the  nervous,  dyspeptic, 
and  hysteric,  produced  great  disorder  of  the  stomach,  and  bowels,  chol- 
ic,  diarrhoea,  and  cholera.  Upon  the  whole,  as  a.pnrt  of  our  daily  diet, 
fruits  are  safe,  and  useful ;  but,  excepting  under  particular  circumstan- 
ces, they  ought  not  to  form  the  whole  of  any  one  meal,  and  should 
never  be  indulged  into  satiety. 

The  pulpy  fruits,  such  as  the  fig,  and  apple  tribe,  are  more  nutritive 
than  the  more  watery,  acidulous  fruits,  as  the  orange,  grape  and  berry. 
The  former,  too,  when  conserved,  boiled  or  baked,  afford  a  light  and 
wholesome  nourishment.  The  sub-acid  fruits,  as  goose  berries,  and 
currants,  are  advantageously  made  into  tarts,  jellies,  &;c.  The  nour- 
ishment derived  from  them  is  not  great ;  but  they  are  wholesome,  an- 
tisceptic and  cooling. 

We  shall  next  speak  of  animal  substances.  The  alimentary  princi- 
ples of  which,  are  gelalin,  albumen,  Jib  rinc  and  oil,  or  fat. 

Gelatin,  or  animal  jelly,  is  a  colorless,  transparent,  tremulous  sub- 
stance, found  in  calves'  feet,  in  the  skin,  tendons,  and  bones  of  all  ani- 
mals.^   Glue  and  isinglass  are  specimens  of  dried  gelatin.     Animal  jel- 
ly, when  properly  prepared,  is  very  nutritious,  and  well  adapted  to  per 
wns  in  cv  convalescent  state. 


40  FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


Albumen  is  distinguished  from  gelatin,  by  its  coagulating  on  the  ap- 
plication of  heat.  The  white  of  an  egg  presents  us  with  the  best  and 
most  familiar  example  of  albumen.  It  exists  in  the  serum  of  blood, 
and  the  curd  of  milk  ;  and  forms  a  principal  part  of  the  cartilages, 
membrane,  hoofs,  horns,  feathers,  quills,  and  hair  of  animals.  As  an 
aliment,  it'is  highly  nutritive ;  it  is  not  used  as  a  separate  article  of  diet, 
except  as  it  exists  in  the  white  of  an  egg. 

Fibrin  is  the  chief  constituent  of  muscular  flesh.  It  is  a  white, 
lough,  elastic,  fibrous  substance,  insoluble  in  water,  and  contains  more 
nitrogen  than  any  of  the  other  principles.  It  is  readily  dissolved  by 
the  gastric  fluid,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  strongest,  and  most  stim- 
ulant of  aliments. 

Animal  oil,  or  fat,  is  a  nutritious,  component  part  of  animal  substan- 
ces ;  but  less  easily  digested,  than  the  other  alimentary  principles. 

Animal  aliment,  may  be  distinguished  into  fluids  and  solids.  The 
only  fluids,  which  can  be  regarded  as  alimentary,  are  the  blood  and 
milk  of  animals. 

The  blood  is  composed  of  the  three  alimentary  principles,  fibrin,  albu- 
men, and  gelatin  ;  it  contains,  besides,  water,  the  red  globules,  and 
some  saUne  matters.  Blood  is  a  heavy  and  indigestible  aliment,  in 
whatever  way  prepared. 

Milk  is  the  fluid  secreted  by  the  female  of  the  mammalia  class,  for  the 
nourishment  of  their  young.  It  consists  of  oil,  albuminous  and  saccha- 
rine matter,  water,  and  some  saline  matters.  Hence,  it  will  be  seen, 
that  as  it  contains  both  animal  and  vegetable  principles,  it  is  a  sort  of 
mixed  aliment.  It  is  nutritious  and  wholesome ;  but  not  equally 
well  digested  by  every  stomach.  It  sometimes  oflfends  in  two  ways  ; 
first,  coagulating  very  firmly  in  the  stomach,  it  occasions  sickness,  and 
is  afterwards  rejected  by  vomiting  ;  secondly,  becoming  acid,  it  gives 
rise  to  flatulence,  heart  burn,  gripings  and  diarrhoea.  Still,  most  peo- 
ple bear  milk  well ;  but,  when  it  sits  too  heavily  on  the  stomach,  it  is 
advantageously  diluted  with  water.  Sometimes,  again,  it  agrees  bet- 
ter, after  having  been  boiled,  though  it  is  then  more  apt  to  produce  cos- 
tiveness. 

Butter,  the  oily  part  of  milk,  is  nutritious ;  and,  when  moderately 
used,  is  wholesome.  Like  the  other  animal  oils,  however,  it  is  too 
heavy  to  be  used  by  itself.  Curd,  separated  from  the  whey,  is  an 
agreeable  and  nutritive  aliment,  differmg,  however,  but  little  from 
uncoagulaled  milk.  Cheese,  which  is  curd  subjected  to  strong  pres- 
sure, is  highly  nutritious  ;  but,  as  an  aliment,  is  diflicult  of  digestion, 
especially  when  new.  Buttermilk  is  moderately  nutritious.  It  is, 
moreover,  somewhat  acid,  and  thus  affords  a  wholesome,  cooling  beve- 
raffe,  grateful  and  very  useful  in  a  heated,  or  feverish  state  of  the  body. 
Whey  contains  in  solution,  the  saccharine  and  saline  parts  of  the  milk, 
with  a  small  portion  of  the  animal  principles.  Its  nutritive  powers  are 
not  great. 

Eggs  come  next  to  be  considered.  Those  of  the  common  domestic 
fowl  are  the  best.  Though  eggs  of  different  fowls  differ  less  in  alimen- 
tary properties  than  might,  at  first,  be  expected.  The  chief  difference 
consists  in  some  variety  of  flavor.  The  white  of  an  egg  consists  al- 
most entirely  of  albumen.     The  yolk  contains  albuminous  matter,  oil. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  41 


ALIMENTS. 


gelatin  and  water.  Thus  the  egg  is  formed  of  the  most  nutritive  ali- 
mentary principles.  It  is  a  rematk  of  Dr.  Cullen, ''  that  a  smaller  bulk 
of  tJiis,  than  of  any  other  food,  will  satisfy  and  occupy  the  digestive 
powers  of  most  men." 

Of  the  solid  parts  of  animals,  almost  all  are  alimentary  ;  and  accord- 
ing to  the  nature,  proportion  and  state  of  combination  of  the  principles 
of  which  they  are  formed,  they  are  more  or  less  nourishing,  and  more 
or  less  easy  of  digestion. 

The  white  parlSy  comprehending  the  skin,  cellular  texture,  the  mem- 
branes, ligaments,  cartilages  and  tendons,  which  consist  almost  entirely 
of  gelatin,  and  condensed  albumen,  unless  they  have  been  much  soft- 
ened and  dissolved  into  jelly,  by  long  boiling,  are  more  difficult  of  di- 
gestion, and  afford,  even  then,  a  nutriment  of  a  lighter  and  less  stimu- 
lating nature,  than  that  derived  from  other  parts,  containing  a  due  ad- 
mixture of  the  other  alimentary  principles. 

Cow-heel,  calf  head,  sheep-head,  and  trotters,  afford  examples  of  this 
kind  of  aliment,  which,  unless  extremely  well  boiled,  is  far  from  being 
easily  digested. 

The  gelatin  of  bones  is  digestible,  and  alimentary,  only  after  it  has 
been  extracted  and  dissolved  in  water. 

Tripe,  the  stomach  of  ruminating  quadrupeds,  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
white  membranous  parts,  in  composition  and  aUmentary  properties. 
The  stomach,  however,  circulates  more  red  blood,  contains  besides  a 
certain  portion  of  muscular  fibre,  is  more  animalised,  and  furnishes  ac- 
cordingly a  more  savoury  aliment,  perhaps  a  more  nourishing  one,  than 
those  parts  entirely  formed  of  gelatine. 

We  find  it  more  difficult  to  estimate  the  alimentary  qualities  of  the 
glandular  parts  of  animals.  The  spleen  and  kidneys  are  enumerated 
by  Celsus,  with  those  aliments,  which  afford  a  bad,  and  the  liver  with 
those  which  yield  a  good  juice.  All  that  we  can  venture  to  say  on  this 
subject  is,  that  the  glandular  parts  of  young  animals,  if  freed  from  the 
odour  of  their  peculiar  secretions,  are  agreeable,  and  sufficiently  nu- 
tritive aliments.  The  pancreas,  or  sweet  bread,  is  the  most  delicate, 
the  least  stimulating,  and  perhaps  the  most  digestible.  The  spleen  is 
a  coarse,  and  not  very  digestible  aliment.  The  brain,  too,  is  heavy, 
and  apt  to  disagree  with  some  stomachs.  The  liver,  especially  that 
of  young  animals,  and  of  some  birds,  is  by  many  esteemed  a  great  de- 
licacy, and  appears  to  be  very  wholesome.  The  liver  of  many  fishes 
abounds  in  oil. 

The  muscular  flesh,  which  constitutes,  indeed,  the  chief  part  of  our 
food,  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom,  appears  to  be,  upon  the  whole, 
the  most  nourishing,  the  most  wholesome,  and  the  most  easily  digested 
of  any. 

Its  advantages  in  these  respects  may  well  be  attributed  to  its  peculiar 
composition — a  just  assemblage  of  all  the  alimentary  principles.  For 
the  flesh,  besides  containing  the  largest  quantity  of  fibrin,  has,  also,  a 
due  proportion  of  gelatin,  albumen,  and  fat.  And,  indeed,  the  alimen- 
tary properties  of  different  kinds  ef  flesh,  appear  to  depend,  in  a  great 
measure,  on  the  proportions  and  aggregation  of  these  principles.  Thus 
the  flesh  of  young  animals  contains  more  gelatin,  and  less  fibrin,  than 

4* 


FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


that  of  the  full  grown  and  older ;  and  yields,  at  the  same  time,  a  light- 
er nutriment,  and  of  less  easy  digestion.  Very  old,  hard,  tough  flesh, 
contains,  again,  too  little  gelatin,  and  fat;  the  fibrin  has  become  firm- 
er and  less  soluble  ;  and,  therefore,  such  meat  is  less  succulent,  less  di- 
gestible, and  less  nutritive,  than  the  same  kind  of  flesh,  in  its  prime. 
By  boiling,  the  gelatin  and  a  portion  of  albumen  are  extracted ;  and 
hence,  perhaps,  it  is,  that  boiled  meat  is  less  nourishing  and  digestible 
than  roasted  flesh,  which  retains  all  its  principles. 

Muscular  flesh  contains  a  larger  quantity  of  red  blood,  from  which, 
indeed,  it  derives  its  color,  than  any  of  the  other  parts  of  animals,  com- 
monly employed  as  aliment.  Whether  or  not  any  of  its  alimentary 
quaUties  may  depend  on  this  circumstance,  we  cannot  confidently  say. 
But  red-colored  flesh,  is  certainly  a  stronger,  and  more  nourishing  food, 
than  the  white-colored  muscle — the  flesh  of  the  ox,  for  example,  than 
that  of  the  rabbit. 

QJiemists  have  detected  another  principle  in  muscular  flesh,  to  wiiich 
they  have  given  the  name  of  extractive.  This  principle  is  soluble  in 
alcohol,  of  a  brownish  red  color,  an  aromatic  odor,  and  strong  acrid 
taste. 

The  particular  flavors  of  flesh  have  been  attributed  to  this  principle, 
which  may  probably  add,  also,  to  its  stimulant  properties,  if  not  to  its 
nutritive. 

The  flesh  of  quadrupeds  is  more  largely  consumed  than  that  of  any 
other  class  of  animals.  But,  as  might  be  supposed,  they  difler  consid- 
erably in  their  alimentary  properties. 

Bull-beef  is  tough,  dry,  of  a  disagreeable  flavor;  and  is,  therefore,  sel- 
dom eaten.  This  affords  us  one  example  of  the  great  amelioration  of 
the  alimentary  qualities  of  the  flesh  of  annuals  by  castration;  for  ox 
beef  is  at  once  agreeable,  nourishing,  wholesome,  and  tenderer,  even 
than  the  flesh  of  the  cow.  Veal,  the  flesh  of  the  young  animal,  is  more 
delicate,  and  more  gelatinous,  than  beef ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  less 
nourishing,  less  stimulant,  and,  in  general,  not  so  easily  digested.  It 
is  less  animalizcd,  and  therefore  less  putrescent,  than  almost  any  other 
flesh.  Indeed,  the  jelly  and  broth  of  very  young  veal  is  disposed  to 
become  even  acescent. 

Mutton  is  esteemed  one  of  the  best  aliments ;  it  is,  also,  one  of  the 
most  common.  The  flesh  of  the  uncastrated  animal  is  hardly  eatable. 
Wedder  mutton,  not  under  two  years  old,  is  agreeable,  tender,  and  suc- 
culent; at  five  years,  it  has  probably  attained  its  highest  perfection. 
Ewe  mutton  is  much  inferior  to  it.  Lamb  bears  the  same  relation,  in 
its  alimentary  properties,  to  mutton,  that  veal  does  to  beef.  It  is  less 
stimulant,  and  less  nutritive  than  mutton.  But  if  the  lamb  have  been 
properly  nursed  for  six  months,  or  a  hltle  more,  and  not  weaned,  as  is 
too  often  done,  at  two  months  old,  it  affords  a  most  agreeable,  suffi- 
ciently nourishing,  and  digestible  aliment. 

Goat's  flesh  is  coarser,  and  in  every  respect  inferior  to  that  of  the 
sheep.     The  flesh  of  the  kid  is  suQicicntly  tender  and  dehcate. 

Venison  is  an  aliment  in  great  estimation.  It  is  very  nutritive,  and 
easily  digested.  The  flesh  of  the  young  fawn  is  tender,  succulent  and 
gelatinous  ;  but  the  most  nutritive  and  best  flavored  is  that  of  the  full 
grown  animal,  of  four  years  old,  or  more.    The  best  season  for  killing 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  43 


ALIMENTS. 


it,  is  in  the  month  of  August ;  for  in  the  rutting  season,  September  and 
October,  the  animal  becomes  lean,  and  its  flesh  rank,  tough,  and  ill-fla- 
vored. The  flesh  of  the  female  is  at  all  times  inferior  to  that  of  the 
male.  The  fallow  deer  is  commonly  better  fattened  than  the  stag,  and 
its  flesh,  upon  the  whole  is  tenderer.  That  of  the  roe-buck  is  also  ve- 
ry tender ;  but  it  is  inferior  in  flavor,  and  other  qualities,  to  the  fallow 
deer. 

Pork  is  an  aliment,  without  doubt,  highly  nutritious ;  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  fat,  with  which  it  abounds,  not  so  digestible.  It  is  stimu- 
lant, and  savory,  though  its  particular  flavor  is  not  agreeable  to  every 
one.  It  yields,  however,  to  those  with  whom  it  agrees,  much  nourish- 
ment. By  the  ancients,  it  was  regarded  as  the  strongest  of  all  aliments ; 
and  was,  therefore,  much  employed  in  the  diet  of  the  alhletae,  or  persons 
who  engaged  in  the  public  games.  The  flesh  of  llio  boar  is  strong, 
coarse,  and  ill-flavored ;  that  of  the  sow,  wliich  has  farrowed,  is  also 
disagreeable.  The  flesh  of  the  castrated  anirqal  is  freed  from  this  ill- 
flavor  ;  it  is  also  fatter,  tenderer,  and  more  digestible.  The  flesh 
of  the  sucking  pig,  like  that  of  other  young  animals,  abounds  in  gelatin, 
and  affords  a  more  delicate,  hghter,  and  less  stimulant  aliment,  than 
that  of  the  full  grown  animal. 

The  hare  and  rabbit  aflford  agreeable  and  wholesome  food.  The 
former  is  more  dense,  higher  flavored,  and  more  stimulant  than  the  lat- 
ter ;  the  flesli  of  which  is  white  and  delicate,  and,  of  the  young  rabbit, 
very  tender,  and  easily  digestible. 

The  aliment  obtained  from  birds  is,  in  general,  less  nourishing  than 
that  derived  from  the  mammiferous  quadrupeds.  The  flesh  of  those 
birds  which  feed  on  grain  and  fruits,  is  the  most  delicate,  and  most  easi- 
ly digested. 

The  flesh  of  v/ater- fowl,  and  such  as  devour  fish,  insects,  and  the 
like,  is  commonly  very  alkalescent,  oily,  strong  flavored,  highly  nour- 
ishing, but  heavy,  and  of  more  difficult  digestion. 

The  birds  in  most  common  use,  and  yielding,  at  the  same  time,  the 
best  aliment,  belong  to  the  gallinaceous  family.  '  Their  flesh  is  white, 
of  the  most  agreeable  and  delicate  flavor,  little  heating;  and,  when  not 
too  old,  succulent,  nutritive,  and  easily  digested.  To  this  order  belong 
the  Dunghill  fowl,  Pheasant,  Turkey,  Peacock,  Guinea  hen.  Partridge, 
and  Quail.  The  flesh  of  the  goose,  domestic  and  wild,  of  the  duck, 
widgeon  and  teal,  is  very  nourishing  ;  but  considerably  heating,  and 
strong  flavored.  They  are  not,  therefore,  so  well  suited  to  the  weak 
and  delicate,  as  the  fowls  above  named  ;  nor  are  they,  in  general,  so 
easily  digested.  The  woodcock,  snipe,  plover,  and  some  other  of  this 
family,  (Gralloe,)  are  savory  and  v/ell  flavored  aliments,  moderately 
stimulant,  wholesome  and  sufficiently  digestible.  Pigeons  afford  a  very 
riph  and  stimulant  food.  The  different  species  of  the  lark  furnish  a 
delicate  and  lighter  aliment. 

Of  amphibious  animals,  the  sea  turtle,  land  turtle,  frog  and  viper  on- 
ly, are  used  as  aliment.  The  flesh  of  the  turtle  is  white,  tender  and 
nourishing.  The  rich  fat,  with  which  it  abounds,  is  not  so  easily  digest- 
ed. But  if  plainly  dressed,  the  turtle,  upon  the  whole,  affords  a  whole- 
some and  nutritious  aliment,  not  very  different  from  the  flesh  of  young 
quadrupeds.    The  frog  is  not  known,  it  is  believed,  as  an  aliment  in  the 


44  FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


United  States.  The  hinder  legs  alone  are  served  up  in  France,  and 
some  other  countries  ;  but,  though  the  flesh  has  a  white  and  delicate 
appearance,  it  is  insipid  and  not  very  nourishing.  In  Italy,  the  viper 
broth  is  still  used.  But  there  is  no  good  reason  to  suppose  that  it  pos- 
sesses any  peculiar  properties  as  a  restorative. 

We  shall  next  speak  offish.  Fishes  circulate  but  little  red  blood  ; 
and  their  temperature  hardly  exceeds  that  of  the  element  in  which  they 
live.  Their  muscular  parts  have  little  color,  and  their  texture  is  soft. 
These  abound  most  in  a  watery,  gelatinous,  and  albuminous  matter,  and 
their  fibrin  possesses  less  elasticity  and  cohesion,  than  that  of  the  flesh 
of  terrestrial  animals.  Their  oil,  too,  is  thinner,  and  not  concressable, 
like  that  of  quadrupeds  and  birds.  They  afford  a  less  nourishing  ali- 
ment than  flesh,  weight  for  weight ;  and  are  of  more  difficult  digestion 
and  assimilation.  In  some  particular  constitutions,  fish  not  only  disa- 
grees with  the  stomach,  producing  flatulence,  sickness  and  vomiting, 
but  occasions  more  general  and  lasting  disorder,  if  continued.  Yet, 
many  fish  afford  an  aliment,  abundantly  wholesome  to  most  i)eoplo. 
And  from  being  less  stimulant,  they  are,  in  some  cases,  better  adapted 
to  the  sick  and  convalescent,  than  the  richer  aliment  of  flesh. 

The  red-blooded  fish,  and  those  which  abound  with  oil,  are  more 
stimulant,  and  more  nutritive,  than  the  white-blooded.  But  they  are, 
also,  heavier,  and  more  apt  to  disagree  with  the  stomach,  especially  of 
the  delicate  and  dyspeptic.  The  cod  and  whiting,  for  example,  afford 
a  much  lighter  aliment,  than  the  salmon,  the  eel,  the  mackerel,  and  the 
herring.  Sea  fish  are,  also,  upon  the  whole,  more  nourishing  and  more 
palatable,  than  those  which  inhabit  the  rivers  and  fresh  water. 

A  very  great  variety  offish  is,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  used  as 
aliment.  But  it  is  enough  to  have  marked  the  general  qualities  of  this 
kind  of  food.  And,  indeed,  there  seems  so  little  real  difference  in  the 
alimentary  properties  of  those  genera  and  species,  commonly  employ- 
ed, that  to  be  more  particular  than  we  have  been,  would  be  an  useless 
and  unprofitable  labor,  even  could  we  do  this  with  any  tolerable  degree 
of  certainty. 

The  flesh  of  the  Crab,  Lobster,  Craw  fish,  Prawn,  Shrimp,  White 
Shrimp,  bear  a  close  resemblance  in  flavor,  color,  and  texture  to  fish  ; 
from  which,  indeed,  they  do  not  greatly  differ  in  alimentary  properties. 
There  is  little  or  no  oil  in  their  composition  ;  and  they  are  said  to  yield 
less  ammonia,  during  their  decomposition,  than  flesh  or  fish  do.  They 
are  in  general  of  more  difficult  digestion,  and  are  allowed  to  afford  less 
nourishment.  The  meat  contained  in  the  body  of  the  crab  is  rich,  high 
flavored,  more  stimulant,  and  probably  more  nutritive ;  but  extremely 
heavy,  and  apt  to  disagree  with  the  stomach  and  bowels.  The  flesh 
within  the  claws  is  lighter  and  more  wholesome.  The  lobster  is  es- 
teemed more  delicate  and  palatable  than  the  crab.  It  is  also  moderate- 
ly nourishing,  but  not  very  digestible.  Both,  indeed,  are  apt  in  some 
constitutions  to  occasion  great  disorder,  cholic,  fever,  itching,  and  efflo- 
rescence of  the  skin.  The  craw  fish  is,  in  alimentary  properties,  nimi- 
lar  to  the  lobster.  The  prawn  and  shrimp  are  delicate,  and  well  flavor- 
ed foods  of  the  same  kind.  The  decoction  or  broth  of  the  three  last,  is 
much  used  on  the  continent,  and  much  extolled,  though  without  any 
sufficient  reason,  as  purifying  and  restorative. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  45 


ALIMENTS. 


Of  shell  fish  not  many  are  used  as  articles  of  diet.  Those  which  are 
esteemed  the  best  are  the  cockle,  oyster,  mussel,  and  snail.  All  these 
abound  in  soft  mucous  and  albuminous  matter,  coagulable  by  heat,  on 
which  their  alimentary  powers  would  seem  to  depend.  They  furnish 
us  with  almost  the  only  example  of  any  animal  food,  that  is  ever  eaten 
in  the  raw,  and  even  living  state.  Of  these,  the  best  is  unquestionably 
the  oyster,  which  is  highly  esteemed  in  the  raw  and  live  state  ;  and 
with  the  healthy  and  robust  stomach  it  commonly  agrees  well. 

But  with  the  weak  and  dyspeptic,  it  often  occasions  considerable  dis- 
order, and  does  not  appear  to  be  easily  digested.  Indeed  there  are  ma- 
ny, whose  stomachs  do  not  appear  faulty  in  other  respects,  w^ho  cannot 
digest  raw  oysters;  and  yet  bear  them  well  enough  when  roasted,  stew- 
ed or  boiled.  They  appear  therefore  to  be,  on  the  whole,  mors  gene- 
rally wholesome  and  digestible  in  the  last  state,  than  raw.  A  few  raw 
oysters,  eaten  before  dinner,  appear  sometimes  to  increase  the  appetite, 
an  etTect  which  is  to  be  attributed  rather  to  the  salt,  than  to  the  oyster 
itself.  The  nourishment  afforded  by  this  kind  of  food  does  not  appear 
to  be  very  great.  Where  they  do  not  disagree  with  the  stomach,  oys- 
ters are,  therefore,  sometimes  usefully  taken  as  alight  restorative  ali- 
ment, by  the  feeble  and  c«msumptive,  when  more  stimulant  and  nour- 
ishing food  would  be  improper.  The  other  shell  fish  are  similar  in  ali- 
mentary properties  to  the  oyster,  though  greatly  inferior  in  delicacy  and 
flavor,  and  much  less  fitted  to  be  eaten  raw.  The  mussel,  in  particular 
constitutions,  has  occasioned  distressing,  and  even  dangerous  symp- 
toms; sickness  and  pain  of  the  stomach,  violent  retching,  fever,  heat, 
pain,  swelling  of  the  eyes,  face,  mouth,  and  throat,  and  erysipelatous 
inflammation  of  the  skin,  especially  if  eaten  in  the  months  of  July  and 
August. 

Scarcely  any  of  the  various  alimentary  substances  employed  by  man 
are  used  in  the  raw  and  crude  state,  in  which  they  are  presented  to 
him  by  nature.  Almost  all  of  them  are  previously  subjected  to  some 
kind  of  preparation  or  change. 

The  preparatory  changes  to  which  our  food  is  usually  subjected,  are 
produced  by  the  application  of  heat,  and  by  the  admixture  of  water,  and 
of  condiments  or  seasonings. 

By  the  application  of  heat  to  vegetables,  the  more  volatile  and  wa- 
tery parts  are,  in  some  cases,  dissipated.  The  different  principles,  ac- 
cording to  their  peculiar  properties,  are  extracted,  softened,  dissolved, 
or  coagulated  ;  but  most  commonly,  they  are  forced  into  new  combina- 
tions, so  as  to  be  no  longer  distinguishable,  by  the  forms  and  proper- 
ties, which  they  formerly  possessed. 

When  in  the  preparation  of  bread,  a  baking  heat  is  applied  to  the 
paste  formed  of  flour  and  water,  a  complete  change  is  effected  in  the 
constituent  principles  of  this  mixture,  so  that  in  making  the  analysis 
of  bread,  the  proximate  ingredients  of  flour  are  not  to  be  found  in  it. 
A  new  substance,  bread,  has  been  produced,  which  is  more  digestible  in 
the  human  stomach,  more  wholesome,  and  more  nutritive,  than  the  ma- 
terials from  which  it  is  formed. 

In  like  manner,  the  leguminous  seeds,  and  farinaceous  roots,  are 
greatly  altered  by  the  application  of  heat.  The  raw  potatoe,  for  exam- 
ple, is  watery,  ill  flavored,  extremely  indigestible,   and  even  unwhole- 


46  FAMILY 


ALIMENTS. 


some.  By  roasting,  or  boiling,  it  becomes  dry,  friable,  farinaceous, 
sweet,  and  agreeable  to  the  taste,  wholesome,  digestible,  and  highly 
nutritive.  Little  is  lost,  and  nothing  is  added  to  the  potatoe  by  this 
preparation  ;  yet  its  properties  are  greatly  changed  ;  its  principles,  in 
short,  liave  suffered  a  derangement  and  new  collocation. 

Other  examples  of  such  changes  are  presented  to  us,  in  the  boiling, 
roasting  and  baking  of  many  fruits  ;  in  which  processes,  wc  sometimes 
find  acid  destroyed,  saccharine  matter  formed,  mucilage  and  jell}'  ex- 
tracted, and  combined  anew,  so  that  the  product  shall  be  more  palata- 
ble, wholesome,  and  nourishing,  than  the  raw  material. 

Even  in  the  simple  boiling  of  the  various  pot-herbs,  and  esculent 
rootp,  the  effect  does  not  seem  confined  to  the  mere  softening  of  the 
fibres,  the  solution  of  some,  and  coagulation  of  others  of  their  juices 
and  principles ;  not  their  texture  only,  but  their  flavor,  and  other  sen- 
sible qualities,  have  undergone  a  change,  by  which  their  alimentary 
properties  have  been  improved. 

In  general,  vegetable  substances,  after  having  been  thus  prepared, 
are  more  wholesome,  less  flatulent,  and  more  digestible,  than  in  their 
crude  state. 

The  changes  produced  in  animal  substances  prepared  for  our  tables, 
by  heat,  are  different  according  to  the  manner,  in  which  it  is  applied, 
in  the  various  processes  of  roasting,  baking,  frying,  broiling,  stewing, 
and  boiling. 

In  the  usual  way  of  roasting  meat,  there  is  little  loss  of  the  succu- 
lent or  nutritive  principles  of  the  flesh  ;  they  are  not  even  greatly 
changed,  for  if  the  meat  have  not  been  overdone,  they  may  still  be  ob- 
tained from  it,  by  the  usual  modes  of  analysis.  Some  changes,  howev- 
er, both  of  texture  and  composition,  it  has  certainly  suffered.  It  is  more 
tender  than  before,  and  much  higher  flavored.  Roasting  seems,  there- 
fore, the  simplest,  and,  upon  the  whole,  the  best  mode  of  preparing  the 
flesh  of  animals.  It  is  wholesome,  and  highly  nourishing ;  and,  in 
general,  more  easily  digested,  than  when  prepared  in  any  other  way. 
It  is  often  found  to  sit  more  easily  on  the  stomach,  and  to  be  sooner  di- 
gested by  the  dyspeptic  and  feeble,  than  boiled  meat,  or  broth. 

By  the  methods  of  baking  and  stewing,  the  whole  of  the  alimentary 
principles  are  also  preserved  ;  but  not  unchanged  ■;  for  in  these  process- 
es, by  the  longer  continuance  of  heat  and  moisture,  the  meat  is  more 
disorganized,  the  jelly,  oil,  and  albumen,  are  separated,  dissolved,  mixed, 
or  combined  anew.  These  preparations  are  accordingly  savory,  rich, 
and  glutinous,  very  nourishing,  without  doubt;  but  not  near  so  easily 
digested,  as  meat  simply  roasted  or  boiled.  Above  all,  the  whole  vari- 
ety of  slews,  meat  pies,  and  the  like,  are  extremely  apt  to  disagree  with 
find  disorder  the  stomachs  of  the  gouty  and  dyspeptic: 

In  boiling,  part  of  the  soluble  principles  is  always  extracted  by  the 
water;  but,  if  the  process  have  not  been  carried  too  far,  the  flesh  is 
still  sufficiently  succulent  and  juicy  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  very  ten- 
der, abundantly  nourishing,  and  by  most  people  easily  oiough  digested. 
Boiled  meat  has  less  flavor  than  roasted,  and  appears  to  be  somewhat 
less  stimulant.  Over-boiled  meat,  from  which  the  greater  part  of  tho 
soluble  principles  has  been  extracted,  is  dry  and  insipid,  less  soluble  in 
the  stomach,  and  much  less  nutritious. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 47 

ARTIFICIAL   ALIMENTS. 

Boiling  is,  also,  employed  with  the  more  immediate  intention  of  ex- 
tracting and  dissolving  the  more  soluble  parts  of  animal  matters,  as  in 
the  preparation  of  soups,  broths,  and  jellies.  These  are  necessarily 
lighter,  or  more  nourishing,  according  to  the  quality  and  parts  of  the 
meat  used  in  their  preparation. 

TJie  lighter  and  less  costly  broths  afford  an  aliment  abundantly 
wholesome.  The  richer  soups  are  heavy,  and  liable  to  all  the  incon- 
veniences of  stewed  meats.  Though  soups  are  less  nourishing  than 
the  solid  meat,  from  which  they  are  extracted,  they  do  not  appear  to  'je 
always  so  easily  digested  ;  and,  indeed,  those  who  are  liable  to  stomach 
complaints,  generally  find  that  plain  roasted  and  boiled  meat  sits  easier 
with  them,  than  any  kind  of  soup  or  broth. 

Under  the  head  of  aliment,  it  is  usual  to  conclude  condiments  and 
drinks.  Of  these  we  shall  treat,  sutficient  for  our  purpose,  in  the  sub- 
sequent pages  of  our  work.  We  shall,  therefore,  next  proceed  to  some 
additional  observations  upon  various  aliments  of  a  more  detailed  and 
miscellaneous  character. 


SECTION  I. 


ARTIFICIAL    ALI3IENTS. 

BREAD.  At  the  head  of  the  vegetable  class  stands  bread  ;  that  ar- 
ticle, which,  from  general  use,  has  received  the  name  of  "the  staff  of 
life."     Of  the  manner  of  making  it,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak. 

It  is  made,  as  is  well  known,  from  different  species  of  grain  ;  ichcat, 
barlcyy  rye-,  oats,  &c. ;  but  of  all  the  articles  of  which  bread  is  made, 
none  is  so  nutritious  as  that  which  is  obtained  from  wheat.  This  arises 
from  the  fact,  that  wheat  contains  not  only  more  nutritive  matter  as  a 
whole,  but  it  also  contains  considerably  more  gluten  than  any  otJier  grain 
with  which  we  are  at  present  acquainted.  Of  1000  parts  oi^ Middlesex 
icheat,  according  to  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  the  whole  quantity  of  nutri- 
tive matter  is  955  parts  ;  of  these,  mucilage,  or  starch,  forms  765,  and 
j:iulen  190.  An  analysis  of  some  Sicilian  wheal  produced  961  parts  of 
nutritive  matter,  of  which  722  parts  were  mucilage,  or  starch,  and  239 
gluten.  In  short,  it  appears  from  numerous  experiments,  that  wheat 
generally  contains  at  least  double  the  quantity  of  gluten  found  in  most 
other  grain,  as  well  as  considerably  more  starch  than  either  oats,  beans, 
or  peas.  Norfolk  barley,  however,  contains  more  starch  than  wheat; 
but  as  its  proportion  of  gluten  is  much  less  than  in  that  grain,  it  is  nei- 
ther so  nutritious,  nor  will  it  make  such  good  bread  as  wheat.  It  ap- 
pears, too,  that  no  grain  which  does  not  contain  a  considejcable  quanti- 
ty of  gluten  will  make  good  bread ;  the  gluten  being  essential  to  the 
raised  or  porous  appearance  of  it.  Gluten  is,  besides,  a  peculiar  sub- 
stance, which  approaches  much  nearer  to  the  nature  of  animal  matter 
than  any  other  vegetable  production,  and  hence  we  may  learn  why  it  is 
more  likely  to  assimilate  with,  and  nourish  the  animal  body.  Gluten 
yields,  by  destructive  distillation,  ammonia,  and  appears  to  be,  in  oth- 
er  respects,  similar  to  the  substance  found  in  animals  called  albumen. 


48  FAMILY 


STARCH. SUGAR. 


We  may  just  add,  that  wheat  contains,  besides  the  ingredients  above 
mentioned,  a  portion  of  sugar  ;  and  as  unferraented  flour,  when  taken 
into  the  stomach,  almost  immediately  enters  into  active  fermentation, 
producing  flatulence,  and  other  unpleasant  consequences,  the  necessity 
for  its  being  first  fermented,  and  afterwards  baked,  to  complete  the  pro- 
cess, so  as  to  render  tlie  bread  suitable  for  the  stomach,  is  apparent. 

STARCH,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding  article,  forms  a  large 
portion  of  the  composition  of  wheat,  as  well  as  innumerable  other  veg- 
etable substances.  It  is  well  known  as  a  white  powdery  substance,  in- 
soluble in  cold,  but  readily  soluble  in  hot  water,  when  at  a  temperature 
between  160°  and  180°.  Its  solution  is  gelatinous,  and,  by  careful 
evaporation,  it  yields  a  substance  resembling  gum  in  appearance.  It 
appears  that  in  their  ultimate  elements  starck  and  sugar  difier  little  in 
composition,  and  hence  it  often  happens  that  the  former  is  converted 
into  the  latter.  Starch  is  nevertheless  much  better  calculated  for  hu- 
man food  than  sugar,  as  it  does  not  appear  to  undergo  in  the  stomach 
that  peculiar  change  which  saccharine  matter  frequently  does,  produ- 
cing flatulence  and  other  unpleasant  symptoms.  Besides  the  use  of 
starch  as  food,  in  various  vegetables,  it  is  used  for  many  purposes  in 
the  arts  and  manufactures ;  and  also  occasionally  as  a  medicine. 

SUGAR,  or  Saccharum,  is  the  general  basis  of  sweetness  in  all  veg- 
etable substances.  It  is  found  also  in  milk,  and  a  few  other  animal  se- 
cretions. It  is  obtained  from  various  vegetables  in  considerable  quan- 
tity, but  more  commonly  from  beet  root^  and  from  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
maple,  a  tree  growing  plentifully  in  the  back  settlements  of  North 
America.  But  most  of  the  sugar  used  is  obtained  from  a  reed  or  cane 
growing  in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  southern  part  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Common  sugar  cane,  saccharum 
qfficinarum,  has  flat  leaves  and  panicled 
flowers  ;  it  has  a  jointed  reed-root,  from 
which  ascend  four  or  more  shoots  (pro- 
portionable to  the  age  and  strength  of 
the  root,)  eight  or  ten  feet  high,  accord- 
ing to  the  goodness  of  the  ground ;  in 
some  moist  soils,  the  cane  has  measured 
twenty  feet,  but  such  are  seldom  so  pro- 
ductive. This  species  of  the  sugar  cane 
has  three  varieties,  the  white,  the  red, 
and  the  elephantine  sugar  cane.  It  is  a 
native  of  both  the  Indies,  and  also  of  the 
islands  of  the  South  Sea.  It  may  be 
increased  by  slips  or  suckers  from  the 
root,  or  by  cuttings.  In  its  natural  climate  it  is  planted  by  cuttings  in 
parallel  furrows,  where  it  comes  to  perfection  in  about  fourteen  months ; 
when  ripe,  the  reeds  are  cut  off"  at  a  joint  near  the  root,  cleared  of  the 
leaves,  tied  up  in  bundles,  and  sent  to  the  mills,  where,  being  cut  in 
short  pieces,  they  are  squeezed  till  all  the  juice  is  obtained  from  them.  * 
It  is  then  evaporated,  with  the  addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  un- 
til ii  becomes  thick,  when  it  is  transferred  into  wooden  coolers,  where 
a  portion  concretes  into  a  crystallized  mass,  which  is  drained  and  ex- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  49 


SUGAR. TEA. 


ported  to  this  country,  under  the  name  of  muscovado,  or  raw  sugar. 
The  remaining  liquid  portion  is  called  molasses  or  treacle,  which  in  the 
West  Indies,  with  other  refuse  saccharine  matter,  is  commonly  con- 
verted into  rum. 

Sugar  is  rejined  by  boiling  it  in  pans  with  lime  water,  mized  with  a 
certairi  portion  of  bullock's  blood.  The  albumen  of  the  blood  mixes 
with  the  impurities  of  the  sugar,  which,  rising  to  the  surface,  are  skim- 
med off.  Occasionally,  we  believe,  the  whites  of  eggs  and  butter  are 
also  used.  When  the  sugar  is  sufficiently  purified,  it  is  placed  in  cool- 
ers, where  it  is  violently  agitated,  till  it  becomes  thick  and  granulated ; 
it  is  then  poured  into  conical  earthen  moulds,  previously  soaked  in  wa- 
ter, and  again  agitated.  When  sufficiently  cold,  the  moulds,  with  the 
sugar  in  them,  aie  set  with  their  broad  oids  upwards,  in  earthen  pots, 
wlien  the  first  portion  of  liquid  molasses  runs  down ;  pipe-clay,  mixed 
witii  water,  to  the  consistence  of  thick  cream,  is  now  laid  upon  the  su- 
gar about  an  inch  tliick  ;  the  water,  leaving  the  pipe-clay,  descends 
through  the  sugar,  washing  out  the  molasses  and  other  colouring  mat- 
ter. The  process  of  claying  is  often  repeated.  The  loaves  are  after- 
wards dried  in  a  stove. 

TEA,  Thea,  or,  as  the  Japanese  call  it,  Jeah,  is  the  leaf  of  a  tree  or 
shrub  growing  in  several  provinces  of  China,  Japan,  and  Siam ;  an 
infusion  of  which  is  in  general  use  as  drink,  and  called  also  tea.  The 
tea-plant  likes  valleys,  the  feet  of  mountains,  and  a  stony  soil  ;  it  is 
likewise  found  in  mountainous  and  rocky  districts.  Its  seed  is  usually 
sown  in  places  exposed  to  the  south  ;  and  bears  three  years  after  sown. 
The  root  resembles  that  of  the  peach  tree  ;  the  leaves  arc  green,  sharp- 
ish at  the  point,  and  pretty  narrow,  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  and  jagged 
all  around.  The  flower  is  much  Uke  that  of  the  wild  rose.  The  fruit 
is  of  ditt'erent  forms,  round,  long,  or  triangular;  of  the  ordinary  size  of 
a  bean,  containing  two  or  three  peas,  including  each  a  kernel.  These 
peas  are  the  seed^  by  which  the  plant  is  propagated.  Botanists  have, 
in  fact,  distinguished  two  tea  shrubs  ;  one  they  call  Tkea  bohea,  or  the 
Bohea  tea  plant ;  the  other  Thea  viridis,  or  Green  tea  plant ;  but  it  is 
probable  that  more  species,  or  at  least  more  varieties  exist  than  two,  as 
the  numerous  kinds  and  qualities  of  teas  would  seem  to  indicate. 

The  tea  tree  is  a  branchy,  evergreen  shrub,  growing  to  the  height  of 
four  or  five  feet,  although  some  have  asserted  that  it  reaches  thirty. 
The  best  time  to  gather  the  leaves  of  tea  is  while  they  are  yet  small, 
young  and  juicy  ;  when  gathered,  they  are  passed  over  the  vapour  of 
boiling  water  to  moisten  them  ;  they  are  then  laid  on  porcelain  plates, 
which  are  heated  ;  and,  by  thus  drying  the  leaves,  they  curl  up  in  the 
manner  they  arc  brought  to  us.  It  is  very  rare  to  find  tea  perfectly 
pure  ;  the  Chinese  always  mixing  other  herbs  with  it  to  increase  the 
quantity,  though  among  them  it  is  sold  at  a  price  moderate  enough ; 
from  three-pence  to  nine-pence  per  pound.  The  seasons  for  collecting 
the  leaves  are  April,  June,  and  September. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  about  the  properties  of  tea.  The 
reason  why  the  gout  and  stone  are  unknown  in  China,  is  ascribed  to 
the  use  of  this  plant ;  which  is  further  said  to  cure  indigestion,  dispel 
wind,  &ic.  From  analytical  experiments  on  tea,  made  some  time  since 
at  the  Royal  Institution,  no  deleterious  proj)erties  were  detected  in 

5 


50  FAMILY 


COFFEE.  —  CHOCOLATE. 


either  green  or  black  tea ;  nor  has  there  been  in  green  tea  discovered 
the  least  particle  of  copper.  The  injurious  effects  of  tea,  if  indeed  any 
be  produced  by  it,  may  be  attributed,  we  presume,  to  the  hoi  water 
rather  than  to  the  tea. 

COFFEE  is  a  seed  or  berry,  brought  ori- 
ginally from  Arabia  Felix,  used  for  making 
a  drink  of  the  same  nature.  By  coffee  we 
usually  mean  the  drink  itself,  prepared  from 
those  berries.  Its  origin  is  not  well  known  ; 
some  ascribe  it  to  the  prior  of  a  monnstery, 
who,  being  informed  by  a  goatherd  that  his 
cattle,  sometimes  browzing  on  this  tree, 
would  wake  and  caper  all  night,  became  de- 
sirous of  proving  its  virtue  ;  accordingly  he 
first  tried  it  on  his  monks,  to  prevent  their 
sleeping  al  matins.  Others  refer  the  inven- 
tion of  coffee  to  tJie  Persians,  from  w  hom  it 
was  learned  in  the  fifieenth  century,  by  a 
mufti  of  Aden,  a  city  near  iIjc  mouth  of  the 
Red  Sea:  and  who,  having  tried  its  virtues 
himself,  and  found  that  it  dissipated  the 
fumes  which  oppress  the  head,  inspired  joy, 
opened  the  bowels, and  prevented  sleep  with- 
out his  being  incommoded  by  it,  recommend- 
ed it  first  to  his  dervises,  with  whom  he  used  to  spend  tiie  night  in 
prayer.  Their  example  brought  coffee  into  fashion  at  Aden  :  there  the 
professors  of  the  law,  for  study,  artisans  to  work,  travellers  to  walk  in 
the  night,  in  short,  almost  every  person  drank  coffee.  Thence  it  pass- 
ed to  Mecca,  and  from  Arabia  Felix  to  Cairo,  and  from  Egypt  to  Syria 
and  Constantinople.  Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  first  who  brought 
it  into  France ;  and  a  Greek  servant,  called  Pasqua,  brought  it  into 
England  in  1652,  and  setting  up  the  profession  of  coffee-man,  first  in- 
troduced the  drink  among  us  ;  though  some  say  Dr.  Harvey  had  used 
it  before. 

CHOCOLATE,  a  kind  of  cake,  or  confection,  prepared  from  certain 
drugs;  the  basis  or  principle  whereof  is  the  carao  nut,  or  chocolate  nut, 
a  nut  about  the  size  of  an  almond,  of  which  from  thirty  to  a  hundred 
are  contained  in  a  pod  shaped  like  a  cucumber,  and  very  different  from 
the  cocoa  nut,  with  which  it  is  apt  to  be  confounded,  from  the  similari- 
ty of  pronunciation.  The  drink  prepared  from  the  cake  is  also  called 
chocolate,  and  is  usually  drunk  warm,  being  esteemed  not  only  an  ex- 
cellent nourishing  food,  but  also  a  good  medicine  ;  or  at  least  a  diet  for 
keeping  up  the  warmth  of  the  stomach,  and  assisting  digestion.  The 
Spaniards  were  the  first  who  brought  chocolate  into  use  in  Europe. 

The  thin  shell  of  the  cacao  nut,  ground  like  coffee,  and  boiled  in  wa- 
ter, yields  a  beverage  resembling  chocolate,  but  less  rich,  and  is  used  as 
zn  economical  and  wholesome  breakfast  by  the  name  o^cacao ;  and  for 
delicate  stomachs  is  much  better  adapted  than  the  oleous  compound. 

RICE,  orysa^  a  grain  or  seed.  It  is  frequent  in  Greece,  Italy,  Spain, 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  America.  The  grains  of  rice,  which 
grow  in  clusters  are  severally  inclosed  in  yellow  rough  cases.     Rico 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


51 


RICR. YAM. PLANTAIN,    OR    BANANA. 

grows  in  marshy  places.  A  weak  spirit,  termed  arrack^  is  drawn  from 
rice.  Rice  is  Ie?s  nutritious  than  wheat,  and  forms  a  very  useful  light 
food  for  patients  unc'er  the  influence  of  medicine.  The  best  rice  comes 
from  Carolina ;  an  inferior  sort  from  the  East  Indies.  The  mountain 
rice,  the  paddt/  of  the  Hindoos,  grows  in  mountainous  and  other  dry 
soils  of  India. 

It  is  said  that  America  is  indebted  for  thie  grain  to  a  small  bag  of  it, 
which  was  formerly  given  as  a  present  from  a  Mr.  Dubois,  treasurer  of 
the  East  India  Company,  to  a  Carolina  merchant. 

A  wet  and  morassy  soil  and  hot  climate  appear,  in  general,  necessa- 
ry to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  The  parts  of  the  farms  or  plantations,  in 
which  it  is  grown,  are  usually  so  situated,  as  to  admit  of  being  flooded; 
and,  in  many  places,  reservoirs  of  water  are  formed  for  this  purpose. 
These  reservoirs  have  sluices,  by  which  the  rice  fields  may  be  inunda- 
ted at  pleasure.  In  reaping  the  crop,  the  laborers  gerierally  work  knee 
deep  in  water  and  mud  ;  and  as  the  rice  is  cut,  the  sheaves  are  put  on 
drays,  which  follow  the  reapers,  and  are  thus  carried  out  to  be  spread 
on  the  dry  ground.  The  rice  thus  produced  has  the  name  of  marsh 
rice,  and  is  that  which  is  chiefly  exported  to  Europe. 

The  YAM  is  a  root,  the  produce  of  a  creeping  plant  whose  stalks  pro- 
ceed to  a  considerable  distance,  putting  out  roots  from  the  joints,  by 
which  it  becomes  soon  multiplied.  The  roots  consist  of  blue  or  brown 
round  or  oblong  tubers,  each  tuber  weighing  two  or  three  or  sometimes, 
twenty  pounds.  They  vary  greatly  however,  in  size,  shape,  and  color. 
The  inside  of  the  yam  is  white,  and  in  mealiness  resembles  the  potato. 
When  dressed  they  are  somewhat  like  that  root;  they  are  considered 
nutritive,  and  easy  of  digestion  ;  they  are  the  common  food  of  the  slaves 
in  the  West  Indies  ;  and  if  kftpt  from  moisture  may  be  preserved  for 
many  years.  They  are  ground  into  flour,  and  made  into  bread  a,nd 
puddings.  The  plant  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  precisely  the  same  as 
we  propagate  potatoes,  namely,  by  cutting  the  root  in  pieces,  preserrinj? 


an  eye  in  each  piece. 


The  PLANTAIN 
or  Banana,  (though, 
they  are  thought  by 
some  to  be  distinct 
species,)  are  generally 
spoken  of  together,  as 
having  more  points  of 
resemblance  than  of 
dissimilarity.  They 
grow  in  the  same  re- 
gions, and  are  applied 
to  the  same  uses. 

The  plantain  is  of 
considerable  size  ;  it 
rises  with  a  herbace-f 
ous  stalk,  about  fiv« 
or  six  inches  in  dian}- 
eter  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground, but  taper* 
ing  upwards  to  ths 
height  of  fifteen  or 


5-2  FAMILY 


I'LANTAIN  OR  BANANA. 


twenty  feet.  The  leaves  are  in  a  cluster  at  the  top ;  they  are  very  large, 
being  about  six  feel  long  and  two  feet  broad  ;  the  middle  rib  is  strong, 
but  the  rest  of  the  leaf  is  tender,  and  apt  to  bo  torn  by  the  wind.  The 
leaves  grow  with  great  rapidity  after  the  stalk  has  attained  its  proper 
height.  The  spike  of  flowers  rises  from  the  centre  of  the  leaves  to 
the  height  of  about  four  feet.  At  first,  the  tlowers  are  enclosed  in  a 
sheath,  but,  as  they  come  to  maturity,  that  drops  nfl'.  The  fruit  is 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  and  bent  a  little  on 
one  side.  As  it  ripens,  it  turns  yellow  ;  and  when  lipe,  it  is  filled  with 
a  pulp  of  a  luscious  sweet  taste. 

The  Banana  is  a  shorter  and  rounder  fruit  than  the  plantain  :  the 
Btem  is  also  different, — that  of  the  plantain  being  wholly  green,  while 
the  banana  is  spotted  with  purple.  The  banana  is  not  s;o  luscious  as 
the  plantain,  but  is  more  agreeable. 

The  banana  is  found  in  equinoctial  Asia  and  America,  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  Africa,  and  of  the  islands  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans, 
wherever  the  mean  heat  of  the  year  exceeds  75"  of  Farenheit.  The 
banana  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting  objects  for  the  cul- 
tivation of  man. 

The  banana  is  not  known  in  an  uncultivated  state.  The  plant  is 
propagated  by  suckers.  It  is  ten  or  eleven  months  after  the  sucker 
has  been  planted,  before  the  fruit  is  ready  to  gather.  The  stalk  is  then 
cut,  from  which  sprouts  put  forth  which  bear  fruit  again  in  three  months. 
They  are  exceedingly  productive.  A  spot  of  a  little  more  than  a  thou- 
sand square  feet  will  contain  from  thirty  to  forty  banana  plants.  A 
cluster  of  bananas  produced  on  a  single  plant,  often  contains  from  one 
Imndredand  sixty,  to  one  hundred  and  eighty  pounds.  But  reckoning 
the  weight  of  a  cluster  only  at  forty  pounds,  such  a  plantation  would 
produce  more  than  four  thousand  pounds  of  nutritive  substance.  M. 
Humboldt  calculates  that  as  33  pounds  of  wheat,  and  99  pounds  of 
potatoes  require  the  same  space  as  that  in  which  four  thousand  pounds 
of  bananas  are  grown,  the  produce  of  bananas  is  consequently  to  that 
of  wheat  as  133 :  1,  and  to  that  of  potatoes  as  44  :  1. 

The  ripe  fruit  of  the  banana  is  preserved  like  the  fig,  by  being  dried 
in  the  sun.  This  dried  banana  is  an  agreeable  and  healthy  aliment. 
Meal  is  extracted  from  the  fruit,  by  cutting  it  in  slices,  drying  it  in  the 
gun,  and  then  pounding  it. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA, 


53 


BREAD  FRUIT  TREE. ORANGES. 

BREAD-FRUIT  Tree,  a  tree  grow- 
ing at  Otaheit^  and  other  Soath  Sea 
Islands  ;  it  was  brought  to  the  notice  of 
Europeans  by  Captain  Cook.  It  has 
the  height  and  proportion  of  a  middle^ 
sized  oak  ;  the  leaves  are  often  a  foot 
and  a  half  long,  oblong  shaped,  and  in 
color,  consistence,  and  sinuosity,  resem- 
bling those  of  the  fig-tree,  and  exuding 
a  milky  juice  on  fracture.  The  fruit  is 
about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  new-bom 
child's  head,  covered  with  a  reticulate 
skin,  and  containing  a  core  in  its  centre. 
The  eatable  part  lies  between  the  skin 
'  and  the  core,  is  as  white  as  snow,  and 
of  the  consistence  of  new  bread.  It  is 
prepared  for  food  in  various  ways.  It 
affords  much  nourishment,  and  there- 
fore is  esteemed  very  proper  for  laboring 
people.  Attempts  have  been  latterly 
made  to  naturalize  this  tree  in  the  West 
Indies ;  it  can  only,  it  is  said,  be  propagated  by  suckers  or  layers. 

CHEESE,   Butter,  See  article  Agriculture — Management  of  the 
Dairv. 


HONEY,  See  bees. 


SECTIOxX.  II. 


FRUITS. 

ORANGES  make  a  considerable  article 
of  merchandize.  Those  called  China  oran- 
ges were  first  brought  into  Europe  from 
China  by  the  Portuguese  ;  and  it  is  said, 
that  the  very  tree  whence  all  the  European 
orange  trees  of  this  sort  were  produced,  is 
still  preserved  at  Lisbon.  The  China  or- 
ange is  not  so  hardy  as  the  Seville,  and  rare- 
ly produces  good  fruit  in  England  ;  nor  are 
the  leaves  of  the  tree  near  so  large  or  beau- 
tiful as  those  of  the  Seville  orange.  There 
is  a  great  variety  of  sweet  oranges  both  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies,  some  of  which 
are  much  more  esteemed  than  those  now  in 
Europe  :  but  as  they  are  much  tenderer, 
they  will  not  thrive  in  that  country  with 
the  common  culture.  There  are  several  va- 
rieties of  the  orange  tree,  but  they  may  all 
be  referred  to  the  sweet,  or  China  orange, 
and  the  bitter,  or  Seville  orange,  the  juice  of 
which  is  sour.  Those  most  esteemed,  and 
5* 


54  FAMILY 


CITRON. LEMON. OLIVE. 


that  are  made  presents  of  as  rarities  in  the  Indies,  are  no  larger  than  a 
billiard-ball.     The  juice  is  cooling  and  antiscorbutic. 

The  se^ds  of  oranges  ought  never  to  be  swallowed  ;  a  case  of  a 
young  lady  in  England  has  recently  occurred,  in  which  her  death  was 
in  all  likelihood  caused  by  several  orange  seeds  lodgings  for  a  long  time 
in  the  intestines. 

The  CITRON  is  the  produce  of  a  tree,  much  resembling  the  lemon 
tree.  A  citron  has  the  same  qualities  as  the  lemon,  but  it  is  larger, 
higher  colored,  and  has  a  brisker  smell.  It  is  au  agreeable  fruit,  and 
serves,  like  that,  to  cool  and  quench  the  thirst.  Genoa  is  the  great 
European  nursery  for  this  sort  of  fruit.  The  Florentine  citron.  Miller 
says,  is  in  such  great  esteem,  that  the  single  fruits  are  sold  at  Florence 
for  two  shillings  each,  and  are  sent  as  presents  to  the  courts  of  princes. 
This  kind  is  rot  to  be  had  in  perfection  in  any  other  part  of  Italy  ex- 
cept the  plain  between  Pisa  and  Leghorn,  and  if  transplanted  to  other 
parts  it  loses  much  of  its  excellence.  From  citrons  'are  produced  es- 
sences, oils,  confections,  waters,  &;c. 

The  LEMON  is  a  variety  of  the  citron  tree.  There  are  several 
sub-varieties  of  this  tree,  some  of  which  are  sour,  and  others  again 
sweet.  The  lemon  grows  naturally  in  that  part  of  India,  which  is  sit- 
uated beyond  the  Ganges  ;  but  its  transmigration  to  Europe  belongs 
to  the  invasion  of  the  West  by  those  mighty  caliphs,  who  from  the 
heart  of  Southern  Asia,  extended  their  conquests  to  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees,  leaving  every  where  traces  of  their  power  and  of  their  know- 
ledge. The  lemon,  thus  transported  by  the  Arabs  into  every  part  of 
their  vast  empire,  where  it  would  grow,  was  found  by  the  crusaders  in 
Syria  and  Palestine,  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  By  them 
it  was  introduced  into  Sicily  and  Italy  ;  though  it  is  probable  that  at 
the  same  period,  it  was  already  multiplied  in  Africa  and  Spain. 

Lemon-jaice  is  one  of  the  most  cooling  and  antiseptic  vegetable  pro- 
ductions :  it  improves  the  taste,  and  corrects  the  putrid  tendency  of 
animal  food  in  the  summer.  Hence,  lemonade  affords  a  grateful  and 
cooling  beverage  for  febrile  patients  (but  it  should  be  used  moderately, 
for  all  acids  have  a  tendency  to  produce  stone,  gravel,  and  gout,  when 
too  freely  taken.) 

Esmice  of  Lemon  is  obtained  from  the  exterior  rind  of  the  fruit,  ei- 
ther by  compression  or  distillation  ;  it  is  often  an  impure  essential  oil, 
as  found  in  the  shops. 

The  OLIVE,  is  an  evergreen  tree  common  to  the  woods  of  the  south 
of  France,  Spain  and  Italy.  It  rarely  exceeds  twenty  feet  in  height  ; 
it  has  lanceolate,  grey,  ferruginous  leaves,  downy  or  silvery  under- 
neath ;  the  flowers  are  small  and  white  ;  the  fruit  is  a  drupe  of  au 
oblong  form,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  long,  and  black 
when  ripe.  Of  the  olive  there  are  several  varieties.  Abroad  it  is 
propagated  by  shoots,  which  are  grafted  to  produce  good  sorts.  In 
England  it  is  propagated  by  layers.  The  most  valuable  part  of  this 
tree  is  the  fruit;  from  which,  when  ripe,  is  obtained  the  olive  oil,  so 
well  and  universally  known  as  food  and  as  a  medicine.  Olives  are 
brought  mto  this  country  pickled  as  a  condiment ;  but  they  are  neither 


good  nor  wholesome  food. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  55 


ALMOND.S.— TAMARINDS. PRUNES. CACAO. 


Tho  growth  of  olives  and  the  manufacture  of  the  oil  furnish  a  con- 
siderable employment  to  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  f'rance  and  Italy. 
The  importation  of  olive  oil  into  Great  Britain  amounted,  in  1827,  to 
about  four  thousand  live  hundred  tons,  paying  a  duty  of  eight  guineas 
per  ton. 

The  ALMOND  is  a  fruit  inclosed  in  a  thick  stone,  and  under  a  thin 
skin.  The  tree  that  produces  the  almond  is  pretty  tall,  and  resembles 
a  peach  tree.  It  is  frequent  in  Germany,  France,  Spain  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries,  and  also  in  Barbary.  The  flowers  of  this  tree  are 
ranged  in  the  rose  manner  :  the  pistil  becomes  a  fleshy  fruit,  contain- 
ing a  seed  which  ^s  tlie  almond,  and  which  drops  out  when  the  fruit  is 
arrived  at  maturity.  There  are  two  kinds,  sweet  and  bitter  ;  and  it 
has  been  said  that  the  same  tree,  by  a  difference  in  culture,  has  yielded 
both.  In  flavor,  bitter  almonds  resemble  water  distilled  from  laurel 
leaves,  and  contain  Prussic  acid,  which,  in  a  pure  state,  is  extremely 
poisonous.  Sweet  almonds  are  of  a  soft  grateful  taste  ;  and  are  re- 
puted cooling,  healing,  and  nutritive.  The  oil  of  almonds  is  a  safe 
emollient  in  pains  arising  from  the  stone  or  gravel  ;  in  coughs  and 
hoarseness  ;  and  for  costivenoss  and  gripes  in  children.  The  quantity 
of  almonds  imported  annually  into  Great  Britain  is  estimated  at  430 
tons,  on  which  a  duty  is  paid  of  j£l8,000. 

TAMARINDS  are  brought  from  the  East  and  West  Indies.  Some 
call  them  Indian  dates,,  others  Indian  acacia.  The  tree  which  yields 
this  fruit  is  called  by  the  Indians,  tamarinds,  and  by  the  Portuguese 
tamarindos.  It  is  not  unlike  our  ash  ;  its  leaves  resemble  those  of  fe- 
male fern  ;  its  flowers  are  joined  eight  or  ten  together,  like  those  of 
the  orange  tree.  Its  fruit  is  a  pod,  from  two  to  five  inches  or  more  in 
length,  covered  at  first  with  a  green  rind,  which  afterwards  becomes 
brown,  and  contains  a  blackish  acid  pulp,  among  which  are  found  seeds 
resembling  lupines.  Tamarinds  must  be  chosen  large,  the  pods  unbro- 
ken, and  of  a  brisk  taste.  Those  put  up  in  small  casks  and  preserved 
in  sugar,  not  syrup,  are  the  best.  They  are  laxative,  cooling,  and  good 
to  quench  thirst.  These  trees  grow  to  a  great  magnitude  in  their  na- 
tive countries  ;  but  in  Europe  they  are  preserved  as  curiosities  by  those 
who  are  lovers  of  rare  plants. 

PRUNES  are  plumbs  dried  and  baked  in  an  oven,  or  in  the  sun. 
The  prunes  chiefly  used  among  us  are  black,  and  are  chiefly  imported, 
we  believe,  from  France.  Great  quantities  are  used  by  the  English 
and  Dutch.  Prunes  are  slightly  laxative.  The  prunello  brignole,  or 
French  plum,  is  less  dried  thiU  the  common  prunes,  and  much  more 
grateful  to  the  taste. 

The  CACAO  nut,  mentioned  under  chocolate,  is  the  seed  or  fruit  of 
the  chocolate  tree,  which  grows  in  several  parts  of  the  West  Indies. 
It  resembles  our  cherry  tree  ;  but  is  so  very  delicate,  and  the  soil  it 
grows  in  so  hot,  that  to  guard  it  from  the  sun,  it  is  always  planted  in 
the  shade  of  another  tree,  called  mother  of  cacoa.  Within  the  pod  of 
the  fruit  is  formed  a  tissue  of  white  fibres  ;  in  the  middle  of  these  fibres 
are  contained  ten,  twelve,  or  even  forty  grains  or  seeds  of  a  violet  color, 
and  as  dry  as  acorns.  Each  grain,  which  is  covered  with  a  little  rind, 
separates  into  five  or  six  unequal  pieces,  in  the  middle  whereof  is  a 


56  FAMILY 


COCOA. POME«  RAN  ATE. — FIG. 

kernel,  having  a  tender  bud,  very  difficult  to  preserve.  Of  this  seed, 
witU  the  addition  of  other  ingredients,  chocolate  is  made.  Some  Span- 
iards have  made  five  thousand  pounds  i)cr  annum  from  a  single  garden 
of  cacaos;  In  several  parts  of  America,  tlie  cacao  grains  are  used  by 
the  Indians  as  money  ;  twelve  or  fourteen  are  esteemed  equivalent  to 
a  Spanish  real,  or  Hve-pence  three  farthings  sterling. 

The  COCOA  jiut  is  the  fruit  of  a  tree  of  the  family  of  palms.  It  is 
of  a  large  size,  being  sometimes  near  a  foot  in  length.  Like  a  walnut, 
it  has  a  soft  external  huyk,  from  the  fibres  of  which  cordage  may  be 
made.  This  husk,  in  its  early  stale,  is  edible,  and  agreeably  acid.  The 
hard  shell  is  sometimes  mounted  with  silver,  for  drinking  cups,  or  sugar 
basins.  \'\  ithiu  the  shell  is  a  large  white  kernel,  pleasant  to  the  taste, 
inclosing  a  very  grateful  fluid,  called  milk  of  cocoa.  An  oil  like  that 
of  almonds,  may  be  obtained  from  the  kernel. 

The  POMEGRANATE  is  a  fruit  in  the  form  of  an  apple  or  quince, 
full  of  seeds  or  kernels,  inclosed  within  a  reddish  pulp,  sometimes 
sweet,  sometimes  acid.  It  is  so  nailed,  either  from  the  abundance  of  its 
grain  or  kernels,  pomum  gta7ialuiit,  a  kernelled  apple,  or  from  the 
country  where  it  was  auciently  produced,  viz.  Grenada.  The  pome- 
granate is,  however,  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  grows  to  the 
general  height  of  an  apple-tree  ;  the  branches  are  a  little  prickly  ;  the 
leaves  resemble  those  of  the  great  myrtle  ;  the  fruit,  which  is  compo- 
sed of  red  angular  grains,  is  inclosed  in  little  distinct  cells,  the  whole  of 
which  are  enveloped  by  a  thick  and  highly  astringent  outer  rind. 
Pomegranates  are  by  some  esteemed.  Of  the  kernels  are  made  syrups 
and  preserves  ;  the  peel  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  astringent 
matter. 

A  FIG  is  a  most  delicious  fruit,  the  produce  of  a  tree  of  the  same 
name^  Figs  are  of  several  kinds  ;  the  black  and  the  violet  colored  are 
the  worst ;  the  white  are  esteemed  the  best.  They  are  dried  either  by 
an  oven  or  the  sun,  and  in  this  state  they  arc  used  both  as  medicine 
and  food.  The  best  figs  are  the  produce  of  Italy,  Spain,  Provence,  &c. 
The  islands  of  the  Archipelago  yield  figs  in  great  abundance,  though 
inferior  in  goodness  to  those  of  Europe.  The  Greeks  in  those  islands 
cultivate  them  with  wonderful  care  and  attention,  making  them  their 
principal  food,  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  riches  of  the  country. 
Figs  are  gathered  in  autumn,  and  generally  laid  on  a  rack  or  hurdle  to 
dry  in  the  sun.  They  are  found  to  contain  mucilage,  sugar,  and  some 
oil.  They  are  very  nourishing;  yet  when  eaten  freely,  they  often  pro- 
duce much  inconvenience.  They  are  used  to  make  gargarisms  against 
disorders  of  the  throat  and  mouth  :  they  are  also  applied  externally  to 
soften  and  promote  the  maturation  or  suppuration  of  tumors,  particu- 
larly when  toasted  and  applied  to  swelled  gums. 

BANIAN,  or  INDIAN  FIG  TREE.  This  tree  deserves  notice,  not 
as  a  fruit  tree,  but  from  its  being  a  sacred  tree  with  the  Hindoos  in  the 
East  Indies,  from  the  vast  size  that  it  attains,  and  from  the  singularity 
of  its  growth-  The  fruit  does  not  exceed  that  of  a  hazel  nut  in  bigness  ; 
but  the  lateral  branches  send  down  shoots  which  take  root,  till,  in  the 
course  of  time,  a  single  tree  extends  itself  to  a  considerable  grove.  This 
remarkable  tree  was  known  to  the  ancients.  Strabo  mentions  that  af- 
ter the  branches  have   extended  about  twelve  feet  horizontally,  they 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  57 

THE   BAMAN    TREK. RAISINS. 


THE  BAiNIAN  TREE, 
shoot  down  in  the  direction  of  the  earth,  and  there  take  root  themselves  ; 
and  when  they  have  attained  maturity,  they  propagate  onward  in  the 
samjD  manner,  till  the  whole  becomes  like  a  tent  supported  by  many 
columns. 

Some  specimens  of  the  Indian  fiar-tree  are  mentioned  as  being  of  im- 
mense magnitude.  One  near  Mangee.  twenty  miles  to  the  westward  <jf 
Patna,  in  Bengal,  spread  over  a  diameter  of  370  feet.  The.  entire  cir- 
cumference of  the  shadow  at  noon  was  1116  feet,  and  it  required  920 
feet  to  surround  the  fifty  or  sixty  stems  by  which  the  tree  was  support- 
ed. Another  covered  an  area  of  1700  square  yards  ;  and  many  of  al- 
most equal  dimensions  are  found  in  different  parts  of  India  and  Cochin 
China,  where  the  tree  grows  in  the  greatest  perfection. 

RAISINS  are  grapes,  prepared  by  suffering  them  to  remain  on  the 
vine  till  they  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  then  drying  them  in  the  sun  or  in 
ovens,  to  fit  them  for  keeping,  and  for  some  medicinal  or  culinary  pur- 
poses. There  are  various  kinds  ;  as  raisins  of  Damascus,  which  are 
brought  to  us  flat  and  seeded,  of  the  size  of  the  thumb,  whence  we  may 
judge  of  the  extraordinary  bulk  of  the  grape  when  fresh.  Travellers 
mention  bunches  that  weighed  twenty-five  pounds.  Their  taste  is 
faintish  and  disagreeable.  There  are  numerous  other  sorts,  which  are 
denominated  from  the  place  where  they  grow,  &c.  ;  as  the  raisins  of 
Calabria,  Malaga,  Muscadine  raisins,  &c. 

About  8(K)0  tons  of  raisins,  or  dried  grapes,  are  annually  imported 
into  England,  at  a  duty  of  about  £160,000.  A  considerable  quantity 
of  undried  grapes  are  also  imported,  principally  from  Portugal,  in  jars, 
among  saw-dust.  The  value  of  those  so  imported,  is  about  £  10,000. 
The  currants  of  commerce,  which  are  so  extensively  used  in  England, 
and  of  which  about  6000  tons  are  annually  imported  into  that  country, 
are  small  dried  grapes,  principally  from  the  Ionian  islands. 


58 


FAMILY 


■:;:-^iC 


DATES ;  Ihe  fruit  of 
an  oblong  shape  of  seve- 
ral kinds  of  palm  trees, 
which  are  found  in  the 
Levant,  Arabia,  Persia, 
and  Africa,  and  parts  of 
Soutii  America.  The 
tree  is  said  to  be  beauti- 
ful, shooting  up  to  the 
height  of  fifty  or  sixty 
feet,  without  branch  or 
division.  "When  it  at- 
tains this  height,  its  di- 
ameter is  from  a  foot  to 
«^  eighteen  inches.  The 
"^main  stems  of  the  leaves 
■'  are  from  eight  to  twelve 
feet  long,  firm,  shining,  and  tapering,  and  each  embracing  at  its  inser- 
tion a  considerable  part  of  the  trunk.  Before  the  fruit  is  ripe,  it  is  rath- 
er rough  and  astringent ;  but,  when  perfectly  matured,  is  much  of  the 
nature  of  the  fig;  has  an  oblong  drupe,  or  stone,  with  a  deep  furrow 
running  longitudinally  in  the  middle  of  the  pulp.  Some  dates  are 
black,  some  white,  some  brown,  some  again  are  round,  like  apples,  and 
very  large.  They  are  generally  oblong,  fleshy,  yellow,  somewhat  lar- 
ger than  the  thumb's  end,  and  very  agreeable  to  the  taste.  Some  are  no 
bigger  than  a  pea,  and  others  as  big  a  pomegranate. 

The  medullary  part  of  the  date  tree  has  the  consistency  of  sago. 
But  the  true  sago  is  obtained  from  another  kind  of  date  tree,  which  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is  the  Sago  palm,  a  single  trunk  of  which 
in  its  fifteenth  year,  sometimes  furnishes  six  hundred  pounds  of  sago. 
A  single  acre  of  land,  it  is  said,  will  support  435  s«go  palms,  which  will 
annually  produce  1 '■20,500  lbs.  of  sago. 

There  is  scarcely  any  part  of  the  true  date  tree  which  is  not  servicea- 
ble to  man,  either  as  a  necessary,  or  a  luxury.  When  fully  ripened,  the 
fruit  yields,  by  strong  pressure,  a  delicious  syrup,  which  serves  for  pre- 
serving dates,  or  other  fruits  ;  or  the  fruit  may  be  made  into  jellies  and 
tarts.  The  stalks  of  the  bunches  of  dates,  hard  as  they  are  in  their 
natural  state,  as  well  as  the  kernels,  are  softened  by  boiling,  and  in  that 
condition  are  used  for  feeding  cattle.  By  distillation  they  afford  ardent 
spirit.  From  the  sap,  or  juice  of  ihe  tree,  is  made  palm  v.'ine.  The 
fibrous  parts  of  the  date  tr.e  are  made  into  ropes,  baskets,  mats,  and 
various  other  articles  of  domestic  use  ;  and  so  are  the  strings  or  stalk, 
which  bear  the  dates.  The  cordage  of  the  ships  navigating  the  Red 
Sea  is  almost  exclusively  of  the  inner  fibrous  bark  of  the  date  tree.  The 
trunk  answers  well  for  posts,  railings,  and  other  coarse  purposes.  Even 
the  leaves  of  the  date  palm  have  their  uses.  Their  great  length,  and 
comparatively  small  breadth,  and  their  toughness,  rend'^r  them  very 
good  materials  for  the  construction  of  coarse  ropes,  baskets,  panniers, 
mats,  fa.is,  ha!s,  &c.  Large  quantities  of  these  leaves  are  annually  im. 
ported  into  tht  United  States.  It  is  reported,  that  no  less  than  one 
million  of  hats  huve  recently,  within  a  single  year,  been  manufactured 
in  the  state  of  Massachusetts  alone. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


59 


PINE-APPLE. APPLE. 


We  shall  only  add,  that  the  date  palm  is  a  very  slow  growing  tree. 
In  a  soil  and  climate  most  congenial  to  it,  old  trees  do  not  gain  above  a 
loot  in  height  in  five  years,  so  that  supposing  the  increase  uniform,  the 
age  of  a  tree  sixty  feet  high,  cannot  be  less  than  300  years.  In  some 
countries  in  the  Kast,  date  trees  pass  from  one  person  to  another,  in 
the  course  of  trade,  and  are  sold  by  the  single  tree ;  and  the  price  paid 
to  a  girl's  father,  on  marrying  her,  often  consists  of  date  trees. 

PINE-APPLE. 
— This  fruit  is 
justly  esteemed 
for  the  richness 
of  its  flavor,  as 
it  surpasses  all 
the  known  fruits 
in  the  world. — 
The  fruit  is  sup- 
posed to  have 
its  name,  from 
the  cones  of  the 
pine  tree,  which 
it  somewhat  re- 
sembles. There 
are  many  spe- 
cies of  pine  ap- 
ples, most  of 
them  natives  of 
South  America, 
some  of  Airica, 
and  one  or  two 
of  the  East  In- 
dies ;  but  that 
most  known  and 
propagated,  is 
the  Bromelia  an- 
anas^ a  native  of  America.  Pine-apples  have  been  long  cultivated,  in 
the  hottest  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  where  they  are  plentiful  and 
good.  They  have,  also,  been  introduced  into  European  gardens,  so  as 
to  produce  fruit. 

APPLE.  The  apple  is  distinguished  as  the  fruit  of  the  colder  cli- 
mates. It  is  at  once  the  most  brisk  and  refreshing  of  any  of  the  com- 
mon hardy  orchard  fruits.  It  remains  longest  in  season,  is  used  in  the 
greatest  number  of  ways,  and  therefore  is  the  most  generally  cultiva- 
ted. It  is  cultivated  throughout  Europe,  as  far  as  the  60°  of  latitude. 
It  has  been  observed,  by  a  distinguished  traveller,  that  the  commoner 
fruit  trees,  such  as  apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  apricots,  grow  in  the 
open  air,  wherever  oaks  thrive. 

The  apple  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  East;  whence  it  was  in- 
troduced into  Europe,  and  thence  into  England  ;  from  which  country 
it  has  been  brought  to  the  United  States.  We  have,  however,  an  indif- 
ierent  crab  apple,  which  is  indigenous  to  the  country. 

The  alimentary  properties  of  the  apple  are  not  great ;  but,  when  fnl- 


60  FAMILY 


APPLE. PEAK. 


\y  ripe,  they  are  not  unwholesome,  in  diBeases  of  the  breast,  says  Dr. 
Willie,  such  as  catarrhs,  coughs,  consumptions,  &c.  ihey  are  of  con- 
siderable service  ;  for  tliese  beneficial  purposes,  however,  they  ought 
not  to  be  eaten  raw,  but  either  roasted,  stewed,  or  boiled.  With  regard 
to  their  sensible  proncrties,  apples  have  been  divided  into  spicy,  acidu- 
lated, and  watery.  The  first  contaih  the  least  proportion  of  water,  are 
of  a  most  delicate  flavor,  and  on  account  of  their  vinous  qualities,  arc 
not  apt  to  excite  flatulence.  Pippins,  on  the  contrary,  though  affording 
more  nutriment,  are  more  fibrous,  and  consequently  more  difficult  to 
digest.  These  belong  to  the  second  class.  Lastly,  those  sweet  and 
tender  apples,  which  are  very  sweet  and  palatable,  are  the  least  fit  to 
be  eaten  m  a  raw  state,  unless  with  the  addition  of  bread  or  biscuit. 

To  preserve  apples  well  is  obviously  a  great  desideratum.  Fessen- 
den,  from  an  English  journal,  recommends  the  use  of  dry  pit  sand. 
Glazed  earthen  jars  are  to  be  provided,  and  the  sand  to  be  thoroughly 
dried.  A  layer  of  sand  an  inch  thick  is  then  placed  in  the  bottom*  of 
the  jar  ;  above  this,  a  layer  of  fruit,  to  be  covered  with  a  layer  of  band 
an  inch  thick,  then  lay  a  second  stratum  of  fruit,  covcing  again  with 
an  inch  of  sand.  An  inch  and  a  half  of  sand  may  be  placed  over  the 
uppermost  row  of  fruit.  The  jar  is  now  to  be  closed,  and  placed  in  a 
dry  situation,  as  cool  as  possible,  but  entirely  free  from  frost. 

On  the  preservation  of  apples,  the  following  excellent  observations 
are  from  the  pen  of  Noah  Webster,  Esq.  "  It  is  the  practice  of  some 
persons  to  pick  apples  in  October,  and  first  spread  them  on  the  floor  of 
an  upper  room.  This  practice  is  said  to  render  apples  more  durable, 
by  drying  them.  But  I  can  aflirm  this  to  be  a  mistake.  Apples,  at\er 
remaining  on  the  trees  as  long  as  safety  from  the  frost  will  admit, 
should  be  taken  directly  from  the  trees  to  clo'-e  casks,  and  kept  dry  and 
cool  as  possible.  If  suflTered  to  lie  on  a  floor  for  weeks,  they  wither 
and  lose  their  flavor,  without  acquiring  any  additional  durability.  The 
best  mode  of  preserving  apples  for  spring  use,  I  have  found  to  be,  to 
put  them  in  dry  sand,  as  soon  as  picked.  For  this  purpose,  I  dry  sand 
in  the  heat  of  summer,  and  late  in  October  put  down  the  apples  in  lay- 
ers, with  a  covering  of  sand  upon  each  layer.  The  singular  advanta- 
ges of  this  mode  of  treatment,  aie,  1st.  The  sand  keeps  the  apples  from 
the  air,  which  is  essential  to  their  preservation,  and,  2d.  the  sand  checks 
the  evaporation  or  perspiration  of  the  apples,  thus  preserving  them  in 
their  full  flavor  ;  at  the  same  time,  any  moisture  yielded  by  the  apples 
(and  some  there  will  be)  is  absorbed  by  the  sand  ;  so  that  the  apples  are 
kept  dry  and  all  mustiness  prevented.  My  pippins,  in  May  and  June 
are  as  fresh,  as  when  first  picked ;  even  the  ends  of  the  stems  look  as 
if  just  separated  from  the  twig," 

PEAR.  The  pear  tree  is  found  in  a  wild  state  in  Europe,  as  far 
north  as  lat.  51*'.  According  to  the  editors  of  the  Library  of  Enter- 
taining Knowledge,  it  is  probable  that  the  Romans  introduced  the  cul- 
tivated pear  into  England.  From  the  latter  country,  as  well  as  from 
France,  many  fine  varieties  have  been  transferred  to  America.  Some 
sorta^-\re  indigenous  to  the  country. 

In  a  wild  state,  the  fruit  of  the  pear  tree  has  an  austere  and  unpleas- 
ant  taste  ;  but,  when  cultivated,  it  is  highly  grateful.  The  relative 
salubrity  of  pears,  however,  depends  much  on  the  state  of  ripeness  or 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  61 

^  PLUM. — PEACH. 

immaturity,  in  which  ihey  are  used,  as  well  as  on  their  different  pro- 
perties. Unripe  pears  sliould  not  be  eaten,  and  those  which  are  hard, 
astringent,  and  difficult  of  digestion  should  also  be  rejected.  As  a  gen- 
eral rule,  the  more  juicy  ones  are  more  alimentary,  and  less  objectiona- 
ble, from  the  circumstance  that  they  abound  more  in  saccharine  mat- 
ter, which  does  not  so  much  oppress  the  stomach.  All  the  varieties, 
however,  are  more  flatulent  than  apples,  plumbs,  or  the  generality  of 
fruit.  When  on  the  eve  of  decay,  they  are  especially  obnoxious,  and 
likely  to  produce  cholera.  Winter  pears  are,  in  general,  unhealthy  ; 
and  the  more  so,  as  they  are  commonly  eaten  at  a  period  of  the  year, 
when  the  stomach  requires  stimulating,  rather  than  cooling  nourish- 
ment. Pears,  when  managed  in  a  similar  manner  with  apples  for  ma- 
king cider,  afford  a  pleasant  liquor  known  by  the  name  oi' perry. 

PLUM.  The  tree  which  bears  tliis  fruit  is  found  growing  wild  in 
Great- Britain,  and  other  parts  of  Europe;  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Asia.     It  is  also  indigenous  in  North  America. 

There  are  nearly  three  hundred  varieties  of  plums.  The  origin  of 
one  kind,  the  Washington,"which  in  richness  of  flavor,  beauty,  and  oth- 
er good  qualities,  is,  perhaps,  not  surpassed  by  any,  is  too  curious  to 
be  omitted.  The  parent  tree  was  purchased  in  the  market  of  New- 
York,  some  time  in  the  end  of  the  last  century.  It  remained  barren 
several  years,  till  during  a  violent  thunder-storm  the  whole  trunk  was 
struck  to  the  earth  and  destroyed.  The  root  afterwards  threw  out  a 
number  of  vigorous  shoots,  all  of  which  were  allowed  to  remain,  and 
iinally  produced  fruit.  It  is  therefore  to  be  presumed  that  the  stock  of 
the  barren  kind  is  the  parent  of  tliis.  Trees  of  this  kind  were  sent  to 
several  gentlemen  in  England,  a  few  years  ago,  by  Dr.  Hosack,  of  New 
York.  The  fruit  appears  to  be  as  highly  esteemed  in  England,  as  in 
this  country. 

Besides  their  utility  as  a  culinary  fruit,  plums  possess  valuable  me- 
dicinal properties.  In  a  dried  state  they  are  called  prunes^  and  are 
eminently  useful  in  cases  of  costiveness,  accompanied  by  irritation,  that 
would  be  aggravated  by  powerful  laxatives  ;  but  they  ought  not  to  be 
eaten  afler  long  fasting  or  for  supper,  unless  mixed  with  other  aliment, 
as  they  are  apt  to  produce  flatulency.  With  this  exception,  they  suit 
almost  every  constitution,  and  produce  both  cooling  and  aperient  ef- 
fects; but  when  prunes  do  not  operate,  tlieir  power  may  be  increased 
by  combining  them  with  a  small  portion  of  rhubarb  or  cream  of  tartar. 

Uplumg  be  eaten  in  a  fresh  state,  or  before  they  are  perfectly  ripe, 
and  in  immoderate  quantities,  they  induce  colics,  looseness,  and  simi- 
lar affections  in  the  stomach  and  intestines.  The  larger  kinds,  especial- 
ly, ought  to  be  used  seldom,  and  with  great  precaution,  being  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  smaller  plums ;  because  the  former  are  rarely  permit- 
ted to  attain  their  maturity. 

PEACH.  The  peach  tree  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Persia  in  Asia, 
whence  it  was  brought  by  the  Romans  into  Italy,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Claudius.  It  was  first  cultivated  in  England,  about  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  alimentary  properties  of  the  peach  are  considerable.  The  bet- 
ter kinds  are  not  only  harmless,  but  often  positively  beneficial ;  espe- 
cially in  cases  of  weakness  and  derangement  of  the  stomach.    In  dys- 


FAMILY 


NECTARINK. APRICOT. CHERRY. QUINCE. 


enteric  complaints,  ripe  peaches  are  innoxious,  and  even  salutary. 
They  are  also  usefbl  for  children,  at  the  period  of  teething-.  Peaches 
which  ripen  late  have  fewer  good  properties  than  those  which  are  more 
early  ;  and,  in  general,  the  free-stone  peach  is  better  flavored,  than  the 
cling,  though  to  this  there  are  exceptions. 

Peaches  are  often  dried,  in  which  state  they  will  keep  for  a  long  time,^ 
and  arc  exceedingly  fine  when  stewed.  In  this  state  they  are  also 
sometimes  used  for  pies. 

NECTARINE.  This,  by  some  writers,  is  considered  as  the  same 
fruit  with  the  peach.  It  has,  however,  a  smoother  skin  and  firmer 
pulp.  It  is  when  of  a  good  sort,  and  properly  cultivated,  thought  to  be 
superior  to  it.  Few  vegetable  productions  are  more  grateful  to  the 
palate  even  of  the  epicure. 

APRICOT.  The  native  country  of  the  apricot  appears  to  be  Asia, 
where  it  is  widely  diffused.  Some  writers,  however,  think  it  a  native 
of  Africa,  whence,  they  say,  it  was  carried  towards  tb«  north.  The 
tree  was  first  brought  to  England  in  1524,  by  Woolf,  the  gardener  to 
Henry  VIII. 

From  the  vinous  and  saccharine  nature  of  this  fruit,  we  may  readily 
conclude  that  it  is  possessed  of  antiseptic,  cooling,  and  nutritive  proper- 
ties ;  yet,  unless  fully  ripe,  it  is  apt  to  ferment  and  turn  acid,  in  weak 
stomachs,  especially  those  of  persons  who  are  subject  to  flatulency  and 
eructations  :  hence  apricots  ought  to  be  eaten  in  moderation,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  bread,  and  rather  before  than  after  meals.  In  short, 
they  are  more  useful  to  billious  and  plethoric,  than  to  phlegmatic  and 
hysterical  individuals,  or  those  troubled  with  hypochondrical  com- 
plaints. 

CHERRY.  The  cherry  tree  is  said  to  have  been  originally  found 
in  Persia,  whence  it  was  introduced  into  Italy,  as  well  as  other  parts  of 
Europe,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Flanders  into  Eng- 
land, in  the  reign  of  Menry  VIII.  There  are  several  varieties  in  the 
United  States,  which  are  thought  to  be  natives  of  the  country.  The 
common  red  cherry,  which,  until  within  a  few  years,  was  -almost  the 
only  sort  cultivated  among  us,  is  quite  indifferent ;  and,  when  eaten  im- 
moderately, is  apt  to  produce  colic,  and  other  kindred  diseases.  The 
better  sorts  afford  a  refreshing  summer  fruit,  highly  grateful  at  the  des- 
sert, and  excellent  for  pies,  tarts,  &:c.  A  fine  wine  is  made  from  the 
juice,  and  a  spirit  may  be  distilled  from  the  fermented  pulp.  The  gum 
which  exudes  from  the  tree,  is  equal  to  Gum  Arabic  ;  and  Hasselquist 
relates,  that  more  than  two  hundred  men,  during  a  siege,  were  kept 
alive  for  nearly  two  months,  without  any  other  sustenance  than  a  little 
of  the  gum,  taken  sometimes  into  the  mouth,  and  suffered  gradually  to 
dissolve. 

QUINCE.  The  quince  was  introduced  into  Europe,  according  to 
Pliny,  from  the  island  of  Crete.  From  the  largeness  of  this  fruit,  and 
its  splendid  color,  it  is  thought  not  improbable  that  it  was  the  same 
with  the  apples  of  the  Hesperides. 

In  the  south  of  France,  particularly  on  the  borders  of  the  Garonne, 
the  quince  is  very  extensively  grown  ;  and  the  peasants  prepare  from  it 
a  marmalade,  which  they  cull  colignac.     The  term  marmalade  is  deriv- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


DRINKS. — WATER. 


ed  from  the  Portuguese  name  for  the  quince,  marmelo.  Gerard  Bays, 
that  in  his  time,  quince  trees  were  planted  in  the  hedges  of  gardens  and 
vineyards  ;  and  marmalade  two  centuries  ago,  seems  to  have  been  in 
general  use,  principally  from  a  belief  that  it  possesses  valuable  medici- 
nal properties.  The  seeds  of  the  quince  are  still  used  in  medicine,  on 
account  of  the  great  quantity  of  mucilage,  which  they  yield  to  boiling 
water.  The  fruii  is  sometimes  boiled  and  eaten  with  sugar,  in  which 
form  it  may  bo  usefully  employed  in  cases  of  dysentery.  Five  gallons 
of  the  juice  of  quinces,  mixed  with  twenty-five  pounds  of  sugar,  and  fer- 
mented, affords  a  delicious  wine.  Quinces  are  excellent  in  apple  pies, 
in  the  proportion  of  one  fourth  quince  to  three  fourths  apple,  with  some 
thin  slices  of  candied  lemon-peal  or  citron. 


SECTION  III. 


DRINKS. 


Concerning  drinks  it  may  be  observed,  in  general,  that  they  are  ne- 
cessary to  dilute  and  to  assist  the  digestion  and  assimilation  of  the 
food,  to  preserve  the  fluidity  of  the  chyle  and  of  the  blood  ;  and,  on 
many  occasions,  directly  to  replace  the  large  quantity  of  watery  fluid, 
dissipated  by  the  cutaneous,  pulmonary,  and  urinary  secretions.  Ac- 
cordingly, if  the  stomach  be  oppressed  by  the  solidity  or  acrimony  of 
the  food  ;  if  the  circulating  mass  require  dilution  ;  or  if  there  have 
been  any  extraordinary  dissipation  of  the  fluids  by  the  different  excreto- 
ries,  we  are  advertised  of  the  necessity  of  taking  drink  by  the  appetite  of 
thirst. 

WATER.  Water  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  simple  body,  and 
was  called  one  of  the  elements.  But  the  researches  of  modern  chem- 
istry have  proved  beyond  a  doubt,  that  it  consists  o( hydrogen  and  oxy- 
gen. When  two  volumes  of  hydrogen  gas  are  mixed  with  one  volume 
of  oxygen,  and  the  mixture  inflamed  in  a  proper  apparatus,  by  the  elec- 
tric spark,  the  gases  totally  disappear,  and  the  interior  of  the  vessel  is 
covered  with  drops  of  pure  water,  equal  in  weight  to  that  of  the  gases 
consumed. 

Pure  welter  is  transparent,  and  without  either  color,  taste,  or  smell. 
At  the  temperature  of  40"  it  is  at  its  greatest  density.  A  cubic  foot  of 
water  weighs,  except  a  trifling  fraction,  lOOO  ounces ;  a  cubic  inch  252. 
953  grains.  A  pint  of  pure  water,  wine  measure,  weighs,  or  is  assumed 
to  weigh,  sixteen  ounces  avoirdupois. 

At  the  temperature  of  32'^  water  becomes  ice  ;  the  specific  gravity  of 
ice  is  0,94  ;  ice,  of  course,  floats  on  water.  Water  exposed  to  heat  in 
open  vessels,  boils  at  2 1 2°.  But  water  boils  at  different  temperatures, 
depending  upon  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  At  the  top  of  Mont 
Blanc  it  boiled,  according  to  Saussure,  at  187°. 

Water  is  the  natural  drink  of  man  ;  and,  indeed,  of  all  animals.  It 
is,  also,  the  most  universally  used  ;  and  though  others  are  taken  by  a 


64  FAMILY 


WATER. VVIIVE. 


great  proportion  of  mankind,  it  forms  the  basis  of  all  of  them,  consider- 
ed merely  as  drinks.  It  is  not  only  the  safest,  and  best  drink,  but  how- 
ever it  may  be  disguised,  water  is  perhaps  the  only  fluid,  which  can  an- 
swer all  the  purposes  for  which  drink  is  required. 

WINE  is  an  agreeable,  spirituous,  aromatic  liquor,  prepared  by  fer- 
menting the  juices  of  those  vegetables,  which  contain  saccliaritxe  mat- 
ter. 

The  kinds  of  wine  are  extremely  various.  The  difference  which 
exists  between  them  is  not,  however,  so  much  owing  to  a  distinction  in 
the  species  of  grapes,  as  in  the  quality  of  fruit,  produced  by  the  varie- 
ties of  soil,  cultivation,  and  climate,  to  which  they  are  subject.  This 
likewise  depends,  in  some  instances,  on  the  peculiar  mode  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  state  of  the  grapes,  from  which  the  wine  is  produced. 

Of  all  the  kinds  of  wines  that  are  consumed  in  England,  none,  it  is 
said,  are  so  much  in  request  as  red  port.  This  has  its  name  from  the 
city  of  Oporto,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which,  the  vines,  producing  it, 
are  chiefly  cultivated. 

The  difference  in  color  betwixt  red  and  white  wines,  does  not  so 
much  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  grapes,  as  upon  the  mode  in 
which  the  wines  are  prepared.  The  juice  of  red  grapes,  if  carefully 
pressed,  and  fermented  separately  from  the  skins,  forms  a  white  wine. 
If  the  skins  be  pressed  so  as  to  discharge  the  coloring  matter,  or  if  they 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  the  juice,  during  the  fermentation,  the  wine 
assumes  a  red  tinge. 

White  port,  and  Lisbon,  are  two  kinds  of  white  wine,  which  we  re- 
ceive from  Portugal.     The  latter  of  which  is  now  chiefly  Used. 

FrenciL  wines.  Many  excellent  wines  are  produced  in  France.  That 
which  is  usually  considered  the  best,  is  Burgundy,  a  red  wine  of  very 
delicate  flavor,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  province,  where  it  is 
made.  The  wines  from  the  neighborhood  of  Orleans,  however,  afler 
having  been  matured  by  age,  are  much  like  Burgundy.  Claret  is  the 
only  French  red  wine,  for  which  there  is  any  great  demand  in  England. 
It  is  thin  and  highly  flavored,  and  is  chiefly  supplied  from  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Bordeaux.  Some  of  the  red  wines  of  Champaigne  are 
highly  prized  for  their  excellence  and  delicacy,  though  they  occasion- 
ally, have  a  pungent  and  sourish  taste. 

No  French  white  wine  has  so  much  celebrity  as  Champaigne.  This 
is  of  two  kinds:  one  of  which  called  still,  or  quiet  Champaigne,  has 
gone  through  the  whole  process  of  fermentation  ;  the  other,  which  has 
the  name  of  sparkling  Champaigne,  has  been  bottled  before  the  fermen- 
tation was  complete  ;  this  consequently  wodis  slowly  in  the  bottle,  and 
causes  the  wine,  on  the  drawing  of  the  cork,  to  sparkle  in  the  glass. 
Fronlignac  and  Muscadel,  are  white  wines,  tlie  delicious  productions  of 
Languedoc. 

It  would  not  consist  with  our  limits  oven  to  name  the  varieties  of 
wine,  which  are  produced  in  France.  Almost  every  province  has  a 
wine  peculiar  to  itself.  The  value  of  the  wine  crop  is  estimated  at 
about  thirty  millions  sterling.  The  department  of  the  Gironde  alone, 
produces  wine  to  the  value  of  two  millions  sterling. 

Spanish  wine.    In  the  environs  of  Xeres,  in  Spain,  is  produced  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  65 


wine  called  sherries,  or  sherry,  which,  when  well  prepared,  is  highly  es- 
teemed. 

The  best  and  richest  sort  of  sherry,  is  called  Pagarette^  from  the 
Spanish  word  Pago,  a  district,  and  particularly  applied  to  this  vintage. 
In  one  aranzado,  (an  acre  of  vineyard,)  they  plant,  1,800  vines  at  regu- 
lar distances.  It  is  reckoned  a  good  year  if  it  gives  three  huts  per 
acre ;  middling  if  two;  and  bad,  if  but  one  ;  some  years,  however,  it 
yields  four  or  five.  The  quantity  of  sherry  wine  made  annually  in  this 
place  is  about  40,000  pipes.  Some  sweet  wines  are  also  produced  in 
this  neighborhood,  of  which,  the  best  known,  is  a  sweet  red  wine  call- 
ed vino  tinto,  or  Tent  wine. 

Italian  toines.  Notwithstanding  the  ancient  celebrity  of  many  of 
the  wines  of  Italy,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  what  are  now  manufactur- 
ed in  that  country,  are  thin  and  bad.  Certain  vineyards,  on  Mount 
Vesuvius,  however,  still  have  great  celebrity  for  a  luscious  red  wine 
called  Lachryma  Christi. 

.  German  wines.  Germany  produces  many  excellent  wines  of  which 
Tokey,  Hock,  Rhenish,  and  Moselle,  are  the  most  celebrated.  Tokai/ 
has  its  name  from  a  town  in  Hungary,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which  it 
is  chiefly  made.  The  quantity  of  the  wine  is  so  small,  that  even  on 
the  spot  it  is  sold  at  a  very  high  price.  Tokay  is  certainly  a  fine  wine ; 
but  it  is  no  way  adequate  to  the  price,  for  which  it  is  sold.  Several 
years  ago,  it  could  not  be  purchased  even  in  Hungary,  for  much  less 
than  half  a  guinea  of  English  money,  per  bottle.  Of  all  the  German 
wines,  that  which  is  in  greatest  demand  in  England  is  Hock.  This  has 
its  name  from  the  town  of  Hockstedt,  in  Suabia,  celebrated  for  a  great 
battle  which  was  fought  in  its  neighborhood,  by  the  French  and  the 
allies  in  1704.  Rhenish  and  Moselle^  are  produced  chiefly  on  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  Rhine  and  Moselle ;  and  have  a  cool  sharp  taste,  and  con- 
siderable strength.  Anterior  to  the  late  wars  in  Germany,  there  were 
wines  in  the  cellars  of  many  of  the  noble  and  wealthy  inhabitants  of 
that  country,  which  were  more  than  a  hundred  years  old,  and  of  such 
body,  as  to  be  uninjured  even  by  that  great  age. 

Madeira  and  Teneriffe  wines.  To  the  Madeira  and  Canary  islands 
we  are  indebted  for  some  excellent  white  wines.  Of  these,  Madeira 
wine  is  considered  by  far  the  most  valuable,  particularly  after  it  has 
been  ripened  by  conveyance  into  a  hot  climate.  The  number  of  pipes 
of  Madeira  annually  made  in  that  island  is  about  30,000.  The  grapes 
when  gathered,  are  put  into  wooden  vessels,  and  the  juice  is  extracted 
by  persons  treading  upon  them. 

The  Canary  islands  gave  name  to  a  rich  white  wine,  which  was  for- 
merly in  great  esteem  under  the  name  of  Canary  sack,  and  is  now  usu- 
ally called  Malmsey  Madeira.  The  genuine  malmsey  wine,  which  is  of 
sweet  and  luscious  flavor,  and  rich  golden  yellow  color,  is  the  produce 
of  Malvesia,  one  of  the  Greek  islands,  and  thence  had  originally  its 
name,  the  French  merchants  denominating  it  Vin  de  Malvesia :  but  so 
little  is  now  made,  that  few  persons  can  possess  it.  Teneriffe  wine^ 
when  two  or  three  years  old,  has  much  the  flavor  of  Madeira ;  but  af- 
ter this  age.it  sometimes  becomes  so  sweet  and  mellow,  as  somewhat 
to  resemble  Malaga. 

Cape  wines.    There  are  produced  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  two 

6* 


FAMILY 


WINES. 


kinds  of  peculiarly  rich,  sweet,  and  delicate  wines  called  red  and  white 
Constaniina.  The  farm  from  which  they  have  their  name  is  situated 
about  eight  miles  from  Cape  Town.  Comtantina  is  in  perfection,  when 
about  two  years  old  ;  but  when  kept  six  or  seven  years,  it  sparkles  in 
the  glass,  somewhat,  like  wine  which  has  not  undergone  a  perfect  fer- 
mentation. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  United  States,  within  a  few 
years,  to  cultivate  the  grapes  of  our  own  country,  as  well  as  those  of 
foreign  origin,  for  the  purpose  of  making  wine.  Hitherto,  the  quantity 
has  not  been  great,  nor  the  qualify,  with  some  exceptions,  superior. 
Indeed,  it  is  doubtful,  whether  the  climate  will  ever  admit  of  the  culti- 
vation of  those  sorts  of  grapes,  which  are  essential  to  wholesome  wine. 
Yet  it  is  well  known  that  a  different  opinion  prevails  among  some.  In 
respect  to  New-England,  a  writer  gives  it  as  his  opinion,  that  it  can  nev- 
er be  the  interest  of  the  farmers  to  raise  the  vine  for  the  above  purpose. 
"The  great  objection  to  its  culture,"  he  observes,  "for  wine  is,  the  de- 
ficiency of  sugar,  or  saccharine  matter.  This  defect  is  so  great  in  our 
climate  that  cultivators  are  obliged  to  add  a  large  quantity  of  sugar 
to  the  must,  or  expressed  juice,  to  give  it  sufficient  body.  \n  the  Mid- 
dle and  Southern  States  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  vine  seems 
more  probable,  and  some  experiments  have  even  exceeded  the  expec- 
tations of  the  sanguine.  Wine  pronounced  to  be  of  an  excellent  quali- 
ty by  Dr.  Mease,  has  been  manufactured  by  Col.  Adium,  near  George- 
town, who  in  1826  states,  that  he  realized  from  two  acres  and  an  half, 
from  eleven  to  twelve  hundred  dollars,  after  deducting  all  expenses. 
Among  the  grapes  cultivated  for  this  purpose  are  the  Bland  and  Ca- 
tawba. In  North  Carolina,  the  Scuppernong  grape  is  in  high  estima- 
tion ;  and  from  it,  \9\uq  has  been  made,  pronounced  by  good  judges  to 
equal  the  best  Madeira.  A  single  vine  has  been  known  to  produce 
eight  barrels  of  wine.  Mr.  Prince,  near  New-York,  has  produced  ex- 
cellent wine  from  the  Isabella  grape,  to  which  he  gives  the  preference. 
Wine  is  manufactured  also  in  parts  of  Ohio,  Tennessee,  and  several 
other  states. 

Method  of  making  and  fining  win".. — In  the  southern  parts  of  France, 
they  make  red  wines  by  treading  the  grapes,  or  squeezing  them  be- 
tween the  hands  ;  after  the  juice  and  husks  have  stood  a  time,  they 
press  them  ;  but  for  white  wine  they  press  the  grapes  immediately. 
When  pressed,  they  tun  the  must^  and  stop  up  the  vessel,  leaving  tiie 
depth  of  half  a  foot  or  more  empty,  to  give  room  for  it  to  work.  About 
Paris,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  France,  they  let  the  husks  and  must 
stand  two  days  and  nights  for  white  wine,  and  at  least  a  week  for 
claret  wine,  before  they  tun  it.  To  fine  it  down,  they  put  shavings  of 
green  beech  into  the  vessel.  Although  the  juice  of  the  grape  general- 
ly contains  saccharine  matter  sufficient  for  fermehtation,  yet  it  is  usual 
in  some  countries  to  accelerate  this  process  by  artificial  means,  such  as 
heat,  &:c.  If  after  the  first  fermentation,  certain  impurities  remain, 
wine-coopers  remove  these  by  means  of  isinglass,  whites  of  eggs,  pow- 
ders of  alabaster,  calcined  marble,  roch-alum,  &c  The  Grecians  pro- 
mote the  fining  of  their  strongest  wines  by  a  quantity  of -sulphur  and 
alum.     Some  sweeten  their  wines  with  raisins  of  the  &un. 

Currant  nine.     As  this  kind  of  v.ine  is  extensively  manufactured  in 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  67 


WINES. — CIDER. 


the  United  States,  especially  in  private  families,  we  give  the  following 
rule  from  the  Farmer's  Guide.  To  make  this  wine,  gather  the  cur- 
rants when  fully  ripe,  let  them  be  picked  in  fair  weather,  and  with  as 
much  expedition  as  possible  ;  break  them  well  in  a  tub  or  vat,  (some 
have  a  mill  constructed  for  the  purpose,  consisting  of  a  hopper,  fixed 
upon  two  lignum  vitro  rollers,)  press  and  measure  the  juice,  having 
first  strained  it  through  a  woollen  cloth  ;  to  every  gallon  of  pure  cur- 
rant juice,  add  two  gallons  of  cold  water,  then  to  every  gallon  of  this 
mixture,  immediately  put  three  pounds  of  good  brown  sugar,  (some 
think  it  better  with  three  and  one-fourth  pounds,)  stir  it  well,  till  the 
sugar  is  quite  dissolved,  and  then  fill  up  the  cask.  If  you  can  possibly 
prevent  it,  let  not  your  juice  stan^  over  night,  as  it  should  not  ferment 
before  mixture.  Observe  that  the  casks  be  sweet  and  clean,  and  such 
as  never  have  had  either  beer  or  cider  in  them,  and  if  new,  let  them  be 
first  well  seasoned.  The  cask  must  not  be  so  full  as  to  work  over. 
Lay  the  bung  lightly  on  the  hole,  to  keep  out  flies,  &:c.  In  three  weeks, 
or  a  month,  the  bung  hole  may  be  stopped  up,  leaving  only  the  vent 
hole  open,  till  it  has  fully  done  working;  then  stop  it  up  tight,  and  in 
six  months,  it  will  be  fit  for  bottling,  or  for  use.  Like  other  wines, 
however,  it  improves  much  by  age. 

Wine,  as  well  as  ardent  spirits,  it  is  well  known,  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  alcohol.  The  following  table  exhibits  the  proportion  of 
this  principle  in  one  hundred  parts  of  the  following  liquors,  and  which, 
for  convenience,  we  insert  in  this  place. 

Rum, 54 

Brandy,  French  .        ,        53 

Gin, 52 

Scotch  Whiskey,        .        .  54 

Port  wine,  from  .  19  to  26 

Madeira,        «         .         .19  to  24 

Currant,  "         .         .         .21 

Sherry,  Lisbon,  and  Malaga,  from  18  to  20 

Claret,  from  .        .         13  to  17 

Tokay,  "...  10 
"  Nearly  all  the  wines  used  in  this  country,''  observes  a  writer,  "con- 
tain a  much  larger  proportion  of  alcohol,  than  the  above  table  indi- 
cates ;  as  it  is  well  known  to  be  the  practice  of  many  dealers  in  wine, 
to  add  brandy,  and  other  articles,  to  give  them  more  life  and  a  richer 
color."  Indeed,  it  is  stated  by  a  most  respectable  medical  authority, 
that,  "  for  every  gallon  of  pure  wine  which  is  sold,  there  is  perhaps  a 
pipe,  or  fifty  times  the  quantity  of  that  which  is  adulterated,  and  in 
various  manners  sophisticated;  the  whole,  without  exception,  the  source 
of  a  thousand  disorders,  and  in  many  instances  an  active  poison  im- 
perfectly disguised." 

CIDER.  This  is  a  cooling,  pleasant,  vinous  beverage  made  by 
fermenting  the  juice  of  apples.  The  following  essay  upon  the  manu- 
facture of  it  by  Jesse  Buel,  Esq.,  we  extract  from  the  fifth  volume  of 
the  New  England  Farmer,  as  containing  the  best  view  of  the  subject 
which  we  recollect  to  have  seen. 

The  quality  of  cider  depends  on  several  contingencies,  among  which 
I  will  enumerate. 


68  FAMILY 


CIDEK. 


1.  The  species  of  fruit  employed ; 

2.  Soil  and  aspect  of  the  orchard  ; 

3.  Condition  of  the  fruit  when  ground  ; 

4.  The  process  of  grinding,  &c. ; 

9.  Management  of  the  vinous  fermentation  ;  and 

6.  The  precautions  which  are  taken  to  prevent  the  acetous  fermenta- 
tion. 

I  intend  to  offer  remarks  upon  each  of  these  divisions.     And, 

1-  The  Fruit.  Apples  differ  not  only  in  their  flavor,  color,  and  time 
of  ripening,  but  in  the  proportions  of  their  constituent  parts.  The 
most  material  of  these  constituent  parts  are  acid,  sugar,  aslringency, 
vegetable  extract  and  water.  The  properties  of  good  dessert  and  cider 
apples  are  seldom  found  united,  though  they  are  not  incompatible 
with  each  other.  Table  apples  are  esteemed  on  account  of  their  bland 
and  aromatic  flavor,  crisp  and  juicy  pulp,  and  for  the  property  of  keep- 
ing long,  or  ripening  late.  The  characteristics  of  a  good  cider  apple 
are,  a  red  skin  ;  yellow  and  often  tough  and  fibrous  pulp,  astringency, 
dryness,  and  ripeness  at  the  cider  making  season.  ''  When  the  rind 
and  pulp  are  green,  the  cider  will  always  be  thin,  weak  and  colorless ; 
and  when  these  are  deeply  tinged  with  yellow,  it  will,  however  manu- 
factured, or  in  whatever  soil  it  may  have  grown,  almost  always  possess 
color,  with  either  strength  or  richness." — {Knight.)  The  apple,  like 
the  grape,  must  attain  a  state  of  perfection,  or  perfect  maturity^  before 
its  juices  develope  all  their  excellence  ;  and  as  many  of  our  best  eating 
apples  do  not  acquire  this  maturity  until  winter  or  spring,  this  affords 
a  satisfactory  reason  why  winter  fruit  is  seldom  or  never  good  cider 
fruit.  In  a  dry  apple,  the  essential  elements  of  cider  are  generally 
more  concentrated,  or  are  accompanied  with  a  less  proportion  of  water, 
than  in  a  juicy  one  ;  of  course  the  liquor  of  the  former,  is  stronger 
than  that  of  the  latter.  Of  our  best  cider  apples,  ten  or  twelve  bush- 
els of  fruit  are  required  for  a  barrel  of  juice  ;  while  of  the  ordinary 
juicy  kinds,  eight  bushels  generally  suffice. 

Very  little  has  been  done  to  acquire  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  re- 
lative value  of  our  native  apples  for  cider.  Coxe  has  described  and 
figured  one  hundred  varieties  of  this  fruit,  of  which  about  thirty  are 
recommended  for  cider.  Of  these  thirty  kinds  I  selected  the  following 
for  my  nursery,  as  not  only  being  best  for  cider,  but  as  generally  com- 
bining the  desirable  qualities  of  table  fruit  also  :  viz.  the  Hagloe  and 
Virginia  crabs,  Harrison,  Campfield,  Styre,  yellow  Newton  and  New- 
ark pippins,  Priestly,  Graniwinkle,  Winesap,  Carthouse  and  Cooper's 
russeting.  We  have  undoubtedly,  among  our  indigenous  fruit,  many 
kinds  of  excellent  cider  apples  hitherto  unnoticed  ;  and  it  is  very  de- 
sirable that  their  properties  should  be  tested,  and  the  result  of  the  in- 
vestigation made  public. 

In  Great  Britain  more  attention  has  been  given  to  this  subject.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  juice  of  old  cider  varieties  has  not  only  been 
ascertained  by  scientific  men,  and  their  relative  value  fixed,  but  new 
varieties  have  been  obtained  by  artificial  crossing,  surpassing,  in  rich- 
ness of  juice,  any  before  cultivated.  Loudon  has  given  a  table  of  38 
cider  apples,  in  his  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture.  Of  these,  the  fol- 
lowing are  only  known  to  be  in  our  nurseries,  viz. ;  *Redstreak,  Wine, 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CIDER. 


Styre,  Hagloe  crab,  *Maiden'8  Blush,  *Count  Pendu,  *Downton  and 
Grange  pippins,  Foxley,  Siberian  Harvey,  yellow  Siberian  and  *Min- 
shell's  crab.  Those  with  an  asterisk  are  also  excellent  dessert  apples. 
The  seven  last  named,  five  of  which  are  new  varieties  by  Knight,  I  have 
obtained  from  Europe,  and  propagated  in  nursery.  None  of  the  old 
English  cider  varieties  exceed,  in  the  specific  gravity  of  their  juice, 
1,079,  water  being  1,000.  Six  of  Knight's  new  varieties  are  over  1,079, 
and  one  is  1,091.  Knight  is  of  opinion,  that  with  proper  varieties  of 
fruit,  the  defects  of  almost  every  soil  and  aspect  might  be  corrected, 
and  that  fine  cider  might  be  made  in  any  part  of  England.  In  France 
and  Italy,  small  berried  grapes,  of  a  harsh  flavor,  are  preferred  for 
wine-making,  [Loudon,)  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  cider  apples  re- 
commended by  Loudon  and  Coxe  are  under  a  medium  size,  and  sever- 
al of  them  austere  and  harsh. 

2.  Soil  and  aspect.  The  apple,  like  the  grape,  is  known  to  take 
much  of  its  character  from,  the  soil  on  which  it  grows.  The  best  cider 
orchards  in  England,  are  on  a  stratum  of  red  raarlo,  which  stretches 
across  the  Island.  The  soil  of  Herefordshire,  highly  reputed  for  its 
ciders,  is  an  argillaceous,  or  clay  marie.  And  Knight  says,  the  strong- 
est and  most  highly  flavored  cider  which  has  been  obtained  from  the 
apple,  was  produced  from  fruit  growing  on  a  shallow  loam,  on  lime- 
stone basis.  All  the  writers  upon  the  subject  seem  to  agree,  that  cal- 
careous earth  should  form  a  component  part  of  the  soil  of  a  cider  or- 
chard. It  appears  to  have  the  effect  of  mitigating  the  harshness  of 
rough  and  austere  fruits,  and  of  neutralizing  the  juices  of  those  which 
are  too  acid.  Coxe  says,  tlic  soil  which  grows  good  wheat  and  clover, 
is  best  for  a  cider  orchard.  My  own  observation  would  induce  me  also 
to  prefer  a  dry  and  somewhat  loose  scyil,  in  which  the  roots,  destined  to 
furnish  food  for  the  tree,  and  fruit,  may  penetrate  freely,  and  range  ex- 
tensively, in  search  of  nutriment.  The  juices  of  plants  and  fruits  are 
always  more  concentrated  when  growing  on  a  dry  than  on  a  wet  soil. 
Mint,  or  other  aromatic  herbs,  is  much  stronger  in  the  specific  virtues 
of  the  plant,  when  grown  on  a  dry  soil,  and  greater  in  volume,  when 
grown  on  a  wet  one.  The  maple  yields  the  sweetest  sap,  though  less 
in  quantity,  on  a  dry  soil.  Apples  may  grow  large  on  a  moist  alluvion ; 
but  the  fruit  will  neither  be  so  abundant,  nor  so  rich,  as  on  a  dry  soil. 
The  thriftiest  trees  produce  the  most  wood  buds  ;  those  less  thrifty  the 
most  fruit  buds.  The  best  aspect  for  an  orchard  is  one  somewhat  ele- 
vated or  undulating,  protected  from  prevailing  cold  winds — and  facing 
the  south,  south-east  or  east. 

3.  Condition  of  the  fruit.  Fruit  should  be  used  when  it  has  attain- 
ed its  perfect  state  of  maturity,  and  before  it  begins  to  decay,  because 
it  then  yields  the  greatest  proportion  of  saccharine  matter.  The  most 
certain  indication  of  ripeness,  says  Crocker,  is  the  fragrance  of  the 
smell,  and  the  spontaneous  dropping  from  the  trees.  Each  kind  of  the 
apple  should  be  manufactured  separately,  or  those  kinds  only  mixed 
which  ripen  at  one  time  and  which  experience  shall  show,  are  not  pre- 
judicial to  each  other.  Who  would  ever  think  of  making  a  superior 
wine  from  an  indiscriminate  mixture  of  a  dozen  kinds  of  grapes  ? 
And  yet  we  seem  to  expect  good  cider  from  an  indiscriminate  mixture 
of  a  dozen  kinds  of  apples.  It  may  be  urged,  that  the  evil  is  irreme- 
diable, because  our  orchards,  containing  these  dozen  varieties,  have 


70  FAMILY 


CIDER. 


been  furnished  to  our  hands ;  and  that  neither  the  quantity  nor  quality 
of  any  one  kind  of  fruit  renders  it  an  object  to  manufacture  it  sepa- 
rately. Is  it  not  time,  then,  to  set  about  correcting  the  evil,  by  select- 
ing only  the  best  kinds  for  new  plantations. 

4.  Grinding^  i:c.  The  apples  should  be  reduced,  by  the  mill,  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  a  uniform  mass,  in  which  the  rind  and  seeds  are 
scarcely  discoverable  ;  and  the  pomace  should  be  exposed  to  the  air 
from  twelve  to  tvvenly-four  hours,  according  to  the  temperature, 
before  it  is  pressed.  The  juices  of  the  rind  of  fruit,  as  may  be  instan- 
ced in  the  orange  and  lemon,  are  highly  concentrated  ;  and  those  of 
the  rind  of  tiie  apple  have  a  material  influence,  with  the  aromatic  bit- 
ter of  tlio  seeds,  upon  the  flavor  and  strength  of  the  liquor. 

5.  Vinous  fermentation.  This  is  commonly  called  working.  It 
commences  at  the  temperature  of  59*^  Fah.,  and  cannot  be  conducted 
in  safety  when  the  heat  is  over  75°,  for  a  high  temperature  induces  a 
too  rapid  fermentation,  by  which  much  of  the  spirit  passes  off  with  the 
disengaged  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  the  acetous  or  vinegar  fermentation 
begins  at  77°.  This  will  show  the  importance  of  conducting  the  vi- 
nous fermentation  under  a  proper  temperature,  which  is  from  50  to  70° 
of  Fah.  To  show  the  chemical  effect  of  the  vinous  fermentation,  it 
will  be  proper  to  repeat  that  the  unfermented  juice,  or  must,  of  the  ap- 
ple, consists  of  saccharine  matter  or  sugar,  vegetable  mucilage  or  ex- 
tract ;  astringency  or  tannin  ;  malic,  and  a  small  matter  of  gallic  acid, 
the  principle  of  flavor,  tinging  or  coloring  matter,  and  water.  The 
sugar  becomes  the  basis,  or  spirit,  of  the  fermented  liquor  ;  the  spirit, 
after  vinous  fermentation,  and  the  tannin,  or  astringe"nt  matter,  pre- 
serve it  from  the  acetous  fermentation,  if  the  vegetable  mucilage,  or 
yeast,  is  separated  when  it  has  performed  its  office.  This  vegetable 
mucilage  acts  upon  the  saccharine  matter  in  a  manner  analogous  to 
yeast  upon  the  wort  of  the  brewer — it  causes  fermentation,  and  con- 
verts sugar  into  spirits — by  its  giving  off  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  imbi- 
bing hydrogen  ;  the  liquor  becomes  clear,  and  part  of  the  mucilage 
rises  to  the  surface  with  the  disengaged  air,  in  the  form  of  froth,  and  the 
residue  is  precipitated,  with  the  heavier  impurities,  to  the  bottom,  in 
the  form  of  sediment  or  lees.  This  is  the  critical  period.  The  liquor 
may  now  be  drawn  off  clear.  If  left  longer,  the  feculent  matter,  or 
froth,  by  parting  with  the  gas  which  renders  it  buoyant,  soon  settles 
and  mixes  with  the  liquor,  renders  it  turbid,  and  as  soon  as  ti)e  temper- 
ature attains  a  proper  height,  causes  a  new  fermentation.  This  will 
explain  the  reason  why  ciders  become  harsh  and  sour  on  the  approach 
of  warm  weather  in  the  spring.  The  elementary  principles  of  sugar, 
ardent  spirits  and  vinegar,  it  hag  been  ascertained  by  the  experiments 
of  Lavoisier,  are  the  same  ;  and  these  substances  only  differ  in  the 
proportion  of  their  component  parts,  and  in  the  modes  of  their  chemi- 
cal union.  Sugar  consists  of  hydrogen,  oxygen  and  carbon.  An  in- 
creased proportion  of  hydrogen  enters  into  the  composition  of  ardent 
spirits,  and  of  oxygen  into  vinegar.  The  same  agent,  vegetable  mu- 
cilage, which  converts  the  sugar  of  the  apple  into  spirits,  will  convert 
the  spirits  into  vinegar,  under  a  proper  temperature,  and  aided  by  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmospiiere.  The  process  of  making  vinegar  is  greatly 
accelerated  by  exposing  cider  or  wine  to  the  atmosphere,  the  oxygen  of 
wliich  it  imbibes,  and  which  is  termed  by  chemists  the  great  acidify. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CIDER. 


ing  principle.  Here  again  we  see  tlie  propriety  of  professional  cider 
manufacturers,  who  might  be  provided  with  cellars  where  the  temper- 
ature could  be  regulated,  and  who  would  carefully  rack  off  the  liquor 
at  the  completion  of  the  vinous  fermentation. 

The  vinous  fermentation  commences  and  terminates  at  different  pe- 
riods, according  to  the  condition  and  quality  of  the  fruit,  and  the  state 
of  tlie  weather.  The  juice  of  unripe  fruit,  if  the  weather  be  warm, 
will  begin  to  ferment  in  a  few  hours  after  it  passes  from  the  press  ;  and 
seldom  stops  at  the  vinous  stage.  The  juice  of  ripe  fruit,  when  the 
temperature  is  lower,  does  not  begin  to  ferment  under  a  week  or  fort- 
night, or  longer,  often  contijmes  slowly  through  the  winter,  and  when 
made  from  some  of  the  finer  cider  apples,  is  not  completed  under  six 
or  nine  months.  Indeed,  in  some  cases,  the  liquor  does  not  become 
clear  under  a  year,  and  the  sugar  is  not  wholly  decomposed  under  two 
years  ;  for  the  whole  of  the  sugar  is  seldom  decomposed  during-  the 
first  sensible  fermentation.  Knight  considers  cider  at  two  years  old 
as  in  the  best  state  for  bottling.  For  until  the  sugar  is  decomposed, 
fermentation  insensibly  goes  on,  and  the  strength  of  the  liquor  increas- 
es. The  like  insensible  process  goes  on  in  wines,  and  when  it  is  com- 
pleted, the  wines  are  said  to  be  ripe,  and  are  in  their  highest  state  of 
perfection.  [See M' Cultoch.)  Temperature  being  the  same,  I  think  it 
may  be  assumed  as  a  rule,  that  fermentation  will  be  rapid  and  short,  in 
an  inverse  ratio  to  the  proportion  which  the  saccharine  matter  bears  to 
the  mucilage  and  water  ;  and  that  the  vinous  liquor  will  be  rich,  high 
tiavored  and  durable,  in  proportion  as  the  sugar  and  astringency  pre- 
ponderate in  the  must. 

6.  Precautions  fo  prevent  acetous  fermentation.  These  are,  suppo- 
sing the  previous  contingencies  to  have  been  favorable,  a  careful  sepa- 
ration of  the  vinous  liquor  from  the  froth  and  lees, — a  cool  tempera- 
ture,— racking  and  fining,  and  artificial  means  to  destroy  the  ferment- 
ing quality  of  the  remaining  mucilage. 

I  have  already  suggested  the  importance  of  drawing  off  the  liquor 
from  the  scum  and  sediment — at  the  termination  of  the  vinous  ferment- 
ation. This  period  may  be  known  by  the  cracking  of  the  froth  in  au 
open  cask,  or,  if  in  a  close  one,  by  the  application  of  the  nose  or  ear  to 
the  bung  hole.  If  the  fermentation  has  not  ceased,  a  hissing  will  be 
apparent,  and  the  gas  given  off  v;ill  give  a  pungent  sensation  to  ihe 
nose.  If  the  liquor  is  not  sufficiently  clear,  or  indications  appear  of 
the  acetous  fermentation  having  commenced,  the  cider  should  be  racked 
into  clean  strong  casks,  and  fined  ,vith  isinglas,  eggs,  or  skimmed  milk. 
This  operation  may  be  repeated,  if  found  necessary  ;  but  it  should  be 
}>crformed  in  clear  cold  weather.  After  the  first  racking,  the  casks 
should  be  kept  bunged  close,  and  further  rackings  be  avoided,  if  possi- 
ble, as  every  racking  reduces  its  strength,  and  much  of  the  spirit  es- 
capes with  the  carbonic  acid  gas  which  is  evolved  in  the  fermentive 
process.  The  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  besides,  increases  the  vine- 
gar fermentation.  But  if  these  methods  fail,  resort  may  be  had  to  the 
means  of  impeding  the  natural  operation  of  the  mucilage,  or  vegetable 
leaven.  This  may  be  done  by  what  is  called  stumming^  that  is,  burn- 
ing a  rag  impregnated  with  sulphur,  in  the  cask  in  which  the  liquor  is 
to  be  decanted,  after  it  has  been  partly  filled,  and  rolling  it  so  as  to  in- 
corporate the  liquid  with  the  gas  ;  or  by  putting  a  drachm  or  two  of 


72  FAMILY 


VINEGAR.  — ALCOHOL. RUM. 


sulphite  of  potash  into  each  cask,  which  will  precipitate  and  render  in- 
soluble the  remaining  leaven.  If  the  fruit  is  good,  and  properly 
ground,  and  the  cider  racked  from  the  fermenting  casks  at  a  proper 
time,  most  or  all  of  the  subsequent  operations  will  be  superseded. 

VINEGAR  is  an  agreeable  acid  liquor,  prepared  from  wine,  cider, 
beer,  and  other  liquors,  and  it  is  of  considerable  use,  both  as  a  medicine 
and  a  sauce.  The  word  is  French,  tinaigre;  from  vin^  wine,  and  aigre^ 
sour. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  vinegar  known  in  commerce ;  that  from  uinc, 
from  malt,  from  sugar,  and  from  wood.  This  last  is  called  the  pyrolig- 
neoiis  acid,  and  is  now  prepared  in  large  quantities  in  London,  by  distil- 
ling wood  in  close  vessels.  It  may  be  obtained  eight  times  the  strength 
of  common  vinegar,  so  that  it  may  be  diluted  by  the  purchaser  at  plea- 
sure. It  is  colorless,  and  b}'  many  considered  superior  to  common  vin- 
egar. It  is  said  to  be  perfectly,  free  from  all  flavor,  save  that  of  the 
pure  acid. 

The  principal  requisites  to  form  good  vinegar,  are,  1.  contact  with 
the  air;  2.  A  temperature  not  exceeding  77°  of  Fahrenheit ;  3.  The 
addition  of  some  extraneous  vegetable  matter,  to  promote  the  acetous 
fermentation  ;  and,  4.  the  presence  of  alcohol. 

The  vinegar  used  in  the  United  States  is  chiefly  made  from  cider. 
It  may  be  prepared  thus  :  to  a  quarter  cask  of  good  cider,  add  4  lbs.  of 
white  Havanna  sugar,  and  half  a  pound  of  argoL  or  rough  tartar,  in  fine 
powder ;  it  will  be  better  for  the  addition  of  some  lees  of  wine.  Ex- 
pose it  to  a  heat  not  less  than  75°,  nor  more  than  80°,  with  the  bung 
out.  Twice  or  thrice  a  day,  draw  oil'  a  pail  full,  and  after  it  has  stood 
exposed  to  the  air,  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  return  it  to  the  bung-hole  by  a 
funnel. 

Vinegar  is  sometimes  made  from  whey.  The  following  directions 
are  given  by  Mr.  Genet,  of  New-York.  "  After  having  clarified  the 
whey,  it  is  poured  into  casks  with  some  aromatic  plants,  or  elder  blos- 
soms, as  suits  the  fancy,  and  exposed  in  the  open  air  to  the  sun,  when 
it  soon  acquires  an  uncommon  degree  of  acidity." 

ALCOHOL.  This  is  said  to  be  an  Arabian  word,  which  signifies 
antimony ;  so  called  from  the  usage  of  the  Eastern  ladies  to  paint  their 
eyebrows  with  antimony,  reduced  to  a  most  subtile  powder ;  v.-hence, 
it  at  last  came  to  signify  any  thing  exalted  to  its  highest  perfection. 
Alcohol  is  highly  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  freed  from  all  those  watery 
particles,  which  are  not  essential  to  it.  When  pure,  it  consists  of  hy- 
drogen, carbon  and  oxygen.  It  is  quite  colorless,  and  clear ;  of  a  strong 
and  penetrating  smell  and  taste ;  capable  of  being  set  on  fire,  without 
wick,  and  burning  with  aflame,  without  leaving  a  residue,  and  without 
smoke  and  soot.  It  is  not  known  to  freeze,  in  any  degree  of  coldness. 
It  is  used  in  those  preparations,  called  elixirs,  tinctures,  essences,  Szc. 
It  is  a  powerful  stimulant  and  antisceptic.  It  is  this,  which  in  brandy, 
rum,  wine,  &c.,  exhilarates,  and  which,  at  length,  destroys  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  drunkard.  In  England,  alcohol  is  procured  by  distillation 
from  molasses  ;  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  from  whiskey.  In  the  East 
ludies,  arrack  is  distilled  from  rice  ;  in  the  West  Indies,  rum  from  the 
^sugar  cane  ;  and  in  France  and  Spain,  brandy,  from  wine  ;  in  the  Uni- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  73 


RUM. BRANDY. GIN. — AKRACK. 


ted  States,  cider-brandy^  from  cider.     All  these  afford  alcohol  by  dis- 
tillation. 

RUM  is  a  spirit  obtained  by  distillation  from  the  fermented  juice  of 
the  sugar-cane,  or  from  molasses  and  other  coarse  saccharine  matter  in 
the  West  Indies.  Rum  contains  a  considerable  portion  of  alcohol ;  but 
as  it  contains,  in  solution,  a  gross  essential  oil,  which  is  apt  to  disagree 
with  some  stomachs,  it  is  not  so  good,  considered  medicinally,  as 
brandy. 

BRANDY  is  obtained  by  simple  distillation,  from  real  wines,  or  the 
fermented  juice  of  grapes.  To  distil  brandy,  they  fill  the  still  half  full 
of  the  liquor  from  which  it  is  to  be  drawn,  and  raise  it  with  a  little  fire, 
till  about  one  sixth  part  be  distilled,  or  till  they  perceive  what  falls  into 
a  receiver  is  not  at  all  inflammable.  Brandy,  when  first  made,  is  per- 
fectly colourless ;  the  colour  it  has  in  this  country  is  given  to  it  by 
burnt  sugar.  The  peculiar  taste  of  brandy  is  produced  by  a  small  por- 
tion of  some  essential  oil ;  whether  arising  from  the  wine  from  which  it 
is  distilled,  or  added  afterwards,  is  not  known  in  this  country.  On  this 
account,  in  moderate  doses,  it  is  very  grateful  to  the  stomach.  The 
greatest  part  of  the  brandies  in  use  is  prepared  in  France.  Of  the 
French  brandies,  those  of  Languedoc  and  Anjou,  whence  the  well 
known  Cognac  brandy,  are  the  most  esteemed.  Of  brandy,  either  plain 
or  rectified,  are  prepared  various  kinds  of  strong  liquors,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  other  ingredients,  sugars,  spices,  flowers,  fruits,  &c.  The 
strength  of  brandy  may  be  determined  by  olive  oil  or  tailow,  both  of 
which  sink  in  good  brandy. 

GENEVA  or  GIN  ;  the  name  of  a  compound  water,  procured  from 
juniper  berries  and  other  ingredients,  distilled  with  malt  spirits.  The 
French  name  of  the  juniper-berry,  is  genievre,  from  which  the  word  is 
formed.  But  our  common  distillers  leave  out  the  juniper-berries  entirely 
from  the  liquor  they  now  make  and  sell  under  that  name.  '  Our  chem- 
ists have  taught  them,  that  the  oil  of  juniper  berries  and  that  of  turpen- 
tine are  very  much  alike  in  flavor,  though  not  in  price  ;  and  the  com- 
mon method  of  making  what  is  called  geneva^  in  London,  is  with  com- 
mon malt  spirit,  and  a  proper  quantity  of  oil  of  turpentine  distilled  to- 
gether, with  sometimes  angelica  root^  and  other  aromatic  vegetables. 
The  Dutch,  it  is  said,  still  continue  the  original  use  of  juniper  berries, 
and  hence  the  reason  why  Hollands  is  by  many  preferred  to  English 
gin.  This  hot  fiery  spirit  is  too  much  used  by  the  lower  classes  of  peo- 
ple in  its  undiluted  state  as  a  dram.  It  is  most  injurious  to  their  con- 
stitution and  morals. 

ARRACK  ;  a  spirituous  liquor  imported  from  the  East  Indies  ;  used 
by  way  of  dram  and  in  punch.  The  word  arrack,  according  to  Mr. 
Lockyer,  is  an  Indian  name  for  strong  waters'  of  all  kinds,  for  they  call 
our  spirits  English  arrack.  But  what  we  understand  by  the  name  ar- 
rack, he  affirms  to  be  no  other  than  a  spirit  procured  by  distillation 
from  a  vegetable  juice  called  ioddy^  which  flows  by  incision  out  of  the 
cocoa-nut  tree,  like  the  birch  juice  procured  among  us.  Others  are  of 
opinion,  that  the  arrack  is  a  vinous  spirit  obtained  by  distillation  in  the 
East  Indies  from  rice  or  sugar  fermented  with  the  juice  of  the  cocoa , 
tree.  The  Goa  arrack  is  said  to  be  made  from  the  toddy  ;  the  Batavia 
arrack  from  rice  and  sugar ;  there  is  likewise  a  kind  of  shrub  from 

7 


74  FAMILY 


ALE. MALT. 


which  arrack  is  made.  By  fermenting,  distilling,  and  rectifying,  the 
juicG  of  the  American  maple,  wliich  has  much  the  same  taste  as  that  of 
the  cocoa  tree,  arrack  has  been  made  not  inferior  to  any  that  comes 
from  the  East  Indies. 

ALE  is  a  popular  beverage  or  drink  made  from  malt.  The  zythum 
and  cunni,  mentioned  by  Tacitus  as  the  beverage  of  the  ancient  Ger- 
mans, are  supposed  to  correspond  with  our  ale  and  beer. 

MALT  denotes  barley  cured,  or  prepared  to  fit  it  for  making  a  pota- 
ble  liquor,  under  the  denomination  of  beer,  ale,  &;c. 

The  manner  of  making  malt  Sir  Robert  Murray  describes  as  follows: 
Steep  good  barley  in  a  stone  trough  full  of  water,  till  the  water  be  of  a 
bright  reddish  color,  but  it  may  be  known  when  it  is  steeped  enough  by 
other  marks,  as  by  the  excessive  swelling  of  the  grain  and  the  degree 
of  softness.     It  is  afterwards  taken  out,    and  laid  on  heaps,  to  let  the 
water  drain  from  it,  then  turned  and  laid  in  a  new  heap,   where  it  may 
lie  forty  hours,   more  or  less.     In   abuut  fifteen  or  sixteen   hours  the 
grains  put  forth  roots,  which  when  they  have  done,  the  malt  must  be 
turned  over,  otherwise  the  grains  will  begin  to  put  forth  the  blade  or 
spire,  which  must  be  prevented.     It  must  now  be  spread  to  a  depth  not 
exceeding  five  or  six  inches,  and  then  turned  over  and  over  for  the  space 
of  forty  eight  hours  at  least.     This  cools,  dries  and  deadens  the  grain, 
when  it  becomes  mellow,  melts  easily  in  brewing,  and  separates  easily 
from  the  husk.     Then  throw  up  the  malt  into  a  high  heap,  and  let  it  grow 
as  hot  as  your  hand  can  endure  it,  which  it  usually  does  in  about  thirty 
hours.     This  perfects  the  sweetness  and  rtiellowness  of  the  malt.     It  is 
now  again  cooled  and  turned  over,  and  then  laid  on  a  kiln,  with  hair 
cloth  or  wire  spread  under  it,  where,  after  one  fire,  it  must   have  a  se- 
cond, and  perhaps  a  third,  before  the  malt  be  thoroughly  dried.     The 
time  during  which  the  grain  continues  on  the  malt  floor  varies  according 
to   circumstances ;  fourteen    days  is,   however,   the  general   average. 
Malt  drinks  are  either  pale  or  brown,  as  the  malt  is  more  or  less  dried 
on  the  kiln,  that  which  is  the  least  dried  tinging  the  liquor   least  in 
brewing,  and  therefore  called  pale;  whereas  the  higher  dried,  and  as 
it  were  roasted,  makes  it  of  a  higher  colour.     High  dried  malt  yields 
less  liquor  or  beer  than  low  dried  or  pale  malt  does,  and  hence  the  por- 
ter-brewers are  obliged   to  use  colouring  drugs  and  many    pernicious 
stuffs,  as  substitutes  for  malt,  which  is  too  dear  to  afford  deep-colored 
pure  malt  liquor  at  the  common  price  of  porter. 

BREWING  is  the  operation  of  preparing  ale  or  beer  from  malt.  In 
brewing,  a  quantity  of  water,  being  boiled,  is  left  to  cool  till  it  becomes 
of  the  temperature  of  175°  or  180°  ;  or  till  the  face  can  be  seen  pretty 
distinctly  in  the  water.  Mix  the  malt  with  the  water,  stirring  it  dur- 
ing the  process  with  the  mashing  stick.  Reserve  a  few  handfuls  of  the 
dry  malt  to  strew  over  the  surface  after  it  is  mixed,  to  prevent  the  es- 
cape of  the  heat;  the  vessel  should  also  be  covered  besides  with  cloths, 
in  order  to  keep  the  mixture  hot;  this  operation  is  called  mosAtn^. 
Let  the  whole  stand  for  three  hours,  more  or  less,  according  to  the 
strength  bf  the  wort,  which  is  then  to  be  drawn  off  into  a  receiver. 
The  mashing  is  repeated  for  the  second  wort  nearly  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  for  the  first.  After  these  worts  are  run  off,  a  quantity  of  hops 
is  added,  and  the  liquor  is  again  boiled.    The  hops  are  afterwards 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  75 


BREWING. — HOPS. 


strained  from  it,  and  when  it  is  moderately  cool,  the  barm  or  yeast  is 
applied.  The  barm  causes  the  whole  to  ferment,  and  when  sufficient- 
ly fermented,  it  is  tunned  up  in  vessels  for  use.  One,  two,  three,  or 
more  months  are  necessary  to  pass,  before  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  The 
quantity  of  malt  for  making  a  hogshead,  sixty-threo  gallons,  of  strong 
beer,  may  be  ten  bushels  ;  for  good  ale  five  bushels  are  sufficient. 

The  following  account  of  a  London  brewing  establishment,  from  the 
pen  of  Professor  Griscom,  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  extent 
to  which  brewing  operations  are  carried  in  England.  This  establishr 
ment  (Barclay's  brewery,)  covers  about  eight  acres  ofground,  and  man- 
ufactured last  year  (1829),  340,000  barrels  of  36  gallons  each.  The 
building  which  contains  the  vats,  and  the  vats  themselves,  are  enor- 
mous. The  largest  of  the  latter  contain  each  4000  barrels.  The  aver- 
age number  of  vats  is  nearly  one  hundred.  A  steam  engine  of  twenty 
two  horse  power  is  employed  in  driving  the  machinery,  and  about  two 
hundred  men  are  engaged  in  the  various  works  of  the  establishment; 
while  it  is  supposed  that  the  number  of  persons  dependent  upon  it  with- 
out, in  lliC  sale  and  transportation  of  the  beer,  is  three  or  four  thousand. 
The  three  coppers  in  which  the  beer  is  boiled,  hold  each  150  barrels. 

Twenty-five  gentlemen  once  dined  in  one  of  them  ;  after  which,  fifty 
of  the  workmen  got  in  and  regaled  themselves.  One  hundred  and  nine- 
ty pounds  of  beefosteaks  were  thus  consumed  in  one  day,  in  this  novel 
dining  room.  The  tuns  in  which  the  beer  ferments,  hold  1400  barrels 
each.  The  carbonic  acid  in  one  of  them  stood  about  three  and  a  half 
feet  above  the  liquor,  and  poured  over  the  side  in  a  continued  stream. 
A  candle  is  instantly  extinguished  on  being  placed  near  the  outer  edge 
of  this  receptacle,  and  on  holding  one's  face  over  it,  a  sharp,  pungent 
sensation  is  felt  in  the  mouth  and  fauces,  not  unlike  that  produced  by 
ardent  spirits.  An  immersion  of  a  few  moments  would  be  sufficient  to 
occasion  a  suspension  of  voluntary  motion. 

One  hundred  and  sixty  horses  are  kept  on  the  premises,  for  the  pur- 
pose chiefly  of  transporting  the  materials  to  and  from  different  parts  of 
the  city. 

HOPS,  it  is  said,  preserve  malt  liquors  :  if  hops  were  not  added,  that 
clammy  svyeetness,  which  the  liquor  retains  after  working,  would  soon 
become  acid,  and  render  the  liquor  unfit  for  use.  The  whole  virtue  of 
the  hop  resides,  it  appears,  in  a  fine  yellow  powder,  readily  separable 
from  the  leaves  by  mere  rubbing,  or  threshing  :  this  powder  is  called 
Lupulin. 


SECTION  IV. 

CONDIMENTS. 


GINGER,  the  common,  is  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  now  natu- 
ralized in  the  West  Indies,  whence  we  are  chiefly  supplied  with  it.  ]t 
is  a  perennial  shrub,  which  grows  about  a  yard  high.  Its  propagation 
is  efl'ecteu  by  parting  the  roots  in  the  spring,  plantms{  them  in  pots  of 


76  FAMILY 


NUTMEG. — CLOVE. 


light  earth,  and  placing  them  in  a  hot  bed  of  tanner's  bark,  where  they 
remain.  The  different  kinds  of  ginger  found  in  the  shops  appear  to  be 
the  same  root  differently  dried,  or  otherwise  prepared  ;  the  roots  which 
are  white,  soft,  and  woolly,  are  in  general,  less  pungent  than  the  more 
solid  and  compact  kinds.  Ginger  is  much  employed  as  a  condiment, 
and  as  a  medicine.  It  is  considered  as  a  useful  stimulant  in  dyspepsy, 
gout,  and  other  complaints,  requiring  exciting  medicines.  Ginger  is 
sometimes  brought  to  this  country,  preserved  in  syrup.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  plaster,  wet  with  French  brandy,  to  be  laid  upon  the  stomach,  in 
cases  of  great  pain,  or  to  check  excessive  vomiting  in  cholera;  and  of- 
ten subserves  an  excellent  purpose. 

NUTMEG  is  the  product  of  a  tree,  which  resembles  the  cherry  tree 
in  growth,  and  size,  and  is  a  native  of  the  Molucca  Islands,  from  which, 
except  Banda,  by  the  policy  of  the  Dut.  h,  it  has  been  nearly  extirpa- 
ted ;  Banda,  now  supplying  with  mace  and  nutmegs,  the  whole  of 
Europe.  The  flowers,  which  are  inodorous,  are  present  at  the  same 
time  with  the  fruit,  and  male  and  female  are  on  the  same,  and  on  sepa- 
rate trees.  Nutmegs  are  inclosed  in  four  different  covers.  The  first 
a  thick  husk,  like  that  of  our  walnuts.  Under  this  lies  a  thin  reddish 
coat,  of  an  agreeable  smell,  and  aromatic  taste,  called  mace.  This 
wraps  up  the  shell,  and  opens  in  proportion  as  the  pod  grows.  The 
shell,  which  makes  the  third  cover,  is  hard,  thin,  and  blackish  ;  under 
this  is  a  greenish  film  of  no  use ;  and  in  this  is  found  the  nutmeg,which 
is  properly  the  kernel  of  the  fruit.  The  nutmeg  tree  yields  three  crops 
annually  :  the  first,  which  is  the  best,  in  April;  the  second  in  August, 
and  the  third  in  December.  The  fruit  requires  nine  months  to  ripen  ; 
when  gathered,  the  outer  covering  is  first  stripped  off,  and  then  the 
mace  carefully  separated  and  dried  ;  the  nutmegs  in  the  shell  are  next 
exposed  to  heat,  and  smoke,  for  three  months,  then  broken,  and  the 
kernels  thrown  into  a  strong  mixture  of  lime  and  water,  after  which 
they  are  cleaned  and  packed  up.  This  process  is  said  to  be  necessary 
for  their  preservation,  and  with  the  same  intention,  the  mace  is  sprink- 
led with  salt  water. 

The  CLOVE  is  obtained  from  a  tree,  somewhat  in  the  form  of  a 
nail ;  whence  the  term  clove,  from  the  French  clove.^  a  nail.  The  clove 
tree  was  anciently  very  common  in  the  Molucca  islands  ;  at  present, 
cloves  are  chiefly  obtained  from  Amboyna,  the  Dutch  having  from  their 
cupidity,  dug  up  the  trees  in  the  other  islands.  It  is  now,  however, 
cultivated  in  the  isles  of  France,  at  Cayenne,  and  in  the  island  of  Dom- 
inica, in  the  West  Indies.  The  tree  is  very  large  ;  its  bark  resembles 
that  of  the  olive  tree,  and  its  leaves  those  of  the  laurel,  its  fruit  falling, 
takes  root  without  any  culture,  and  eight  years  after  bears  fruit.  The 
clove  is  the  unexpanded  flower.  At  Amboyna,  they  are  collected  from 
October  to  December,  when  they  begin  to  redden.  They  require  to  be 
dried  quickly  ;  on  which  account,  they  are  first  immersed  in  boiling 
water,  and  then  exposed  to  smoke  and  heat  ;  the  drying  is  afterwards, 
finished  in  the  fun.  Although  the  unopened  flowers,  and  even  the 
leaves,  are  extremely  aromatic,  the  real  fruit  which  is  a  coriaceous  ber- 
ry, is  not  so.  Cloves  are  hot,  stimulating  aromatics,  which  affect  the 
breath,  eyes,  and  head,  and  are  useful  in  palsies,  &c.  There  is  an  oil 
drawn  from  cloves  by  distillation  ;  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  remedy  for 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  77 


PEPPER. — CASSIA. CINNAMON. 


the  tooth-ache,  but  very  improperly,  since  from  its  pungent  quality,  it  is 
apt  to  corrode  the  gums  and  injure  the  adjacent  teeth.  When  the  tooth 
is  carious  and  will  admit  of  it,  a  bruised  clove  is  much  to  be  preferred. 
Much,  however,  of  the  oil  of  cloves,  which  is  sold,  is  said  to  be  obtain- 
ed from  all-spice. 

PEPPER,  or  rather  Black  Pepper,  is  well  known  from  its  general  use. 
It  is  the  produce  of  a  climbing  plant,  or  vine,  growing  in  several  parts 
of  the  East  Indies,  chiefly  Java,  Sumatra,  Malacca,  and  the  coasts  of 
Malabar.  It  is  propagated  in  Sumatra  by  cuttings,  or  suckers ;  in 
growing,  it  is  supported  by  props.  The  plant  is  three  years  old,  before 
it  bears  fruit ;  it  yields  two  crops  annually,  the  first  in  December,  the 
second  in  July.  White  pepper  is  the  fruit  of  the  same  plant,  perfectly 
ripe,  and  freed  from  its  outer  coat  by  means  of  a  preparation  of  lime 
and  mustard- oil  applied  before  it  is  dried. 

The  Cayenne  Pepper,  or  6zrri;j<?/y/}er,  brought  from  the  West  Indies, 
is  very  useful  as  a  condiment,  particularly  with  fish  ;  and  latterly  it 
has  been  introduced  into  medicine  in  the  shape  of  a  tincture,  which  is 
a  useful  stimulant  in  dyspepsy,  &c. 

Jamaica  Pepper,  or  pimenta,  is  the  fruit  of  an  ever-green-tree,  rising 
sometimes  fifty  feet  in  height.  It  grows  plentifully  in  Jamaica  and 
other  American  Islands.  It  is  aromatic,  and  may  supply  the  place 
both  of  cloves,  nutmeg,  and  cinnamon,  whence  it  is  called  by  the  Eng- 
lish all-spice.  The  essential  oil  ofpimenta  contains  the  principal  vir- 
tues of  the  berry ;  it  is  so  much  Uke  oil  of  cloves  as  to  be  often  mista- 
ken and  sold  for  it. 

CASSIA.,  or  Cassia  Cinnamon,  is  the  bark  of  a  species  of  bay-tree, 
growing  in  Malabar,  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  and  Java.  It  has  many  of  the 
habits  of  the  cinnamon  tree,  and  is  barked  in  the  same  manner.  Cas- 
sia cinnamon  is  chiefly  distinguishable  from  the  true  cinnamon,  by  being 
of  a  lighter  color  than  that  article  ;  by  being  also  thicker,  by  breaking 
shorter,  and  by  having  less  bitterness  in  its  taste,  as  well  as  very  fre- 
quently when  chewed  becoming  mucilaginous  in  the  mouth  ;  this  last, 
however,  is  not  an  invariable  accompaniment. 

CINNAMON  is  the  bark  of  a  tree  growing  in  abundance  in  the  isl- 
ands of  Ceylon,  and  also  in  Malabar,  Cochin  China,  Sumatra  and  other 
East  India  islands.  It  is  also  now  cultivated  in  the  Brazils,  the  Mau- 
ritius, and  Guiana.  It  seldom  rises  above  thirty  feet  high.  Ten  va- 
rieties of  this  tree  have  been  enumerated ;  of  these,  that  called  the 
sharp  sweet  cinnamon,  is  said  to  be  the  best.  It  is  raised  from  the  seed. 
The  chief  part  of  the  cinnamon  in  this  country  is  brought  from  Cey- 
lon. The  principal  difference  between  cinnamon  and  cassia  consists 
in  the  former  being  much  thinner  and  in  more  irregular  masses,  and 
also  in  its  having  much  more  astringency,  and  therefore  in  substance 
is  preferable  to  cassia. 

SALT,  COMMON  SALT,  muriate  of  soda,  or  chloride  of  sodium 
by  the  most  correct  and  recent  nomenclature,  is  a  saline  crystallization 
used  to  season  and  give  pungency  to  various  kinds  of  food  ;  as  well 
as  to  preserve  it  on  numerous  occasions  from  putrefaction.  Salt  is  ob- 
tained from  three  different  sources,  namely,  the  water  of  the  sea,  mines^ 
where  it  exists  in  a  solid  form,  called  rock  salt,  and  from  saline  springs. 


78  FAMILY 


SALT. 


Rock  salt  is  found  in  various  places  ;  at  Nantwich  in  Cheshire,  at  Cra- 
cow in  Poland,  and  in  Hungary,  Catalonia,  in  Africa,  Asia  ;  and  in 
America,  forming  hills  or  very  extensive  beds  above  the  surface. 

Rock  salty  it  is  paid,  was  entirely  unknown  to  the  ancients.  The  Po- 
lish mines  near  Cracow  were  discovered  in  1251  ;  their  depth  and  ca- 
pacity are  surprising.  Wiihin  them  is  found  a  kind  of  subterraneous 
republic,  which  has  its  polity,  laws,  families,  &lc.  ;  and  even  public 
roads,  carriages,  and  horses,  for  the  conveyance  of  salt  to  the  mouth 
of  the  quarry,  where  it  is  taken  up  by  engines.  These  horses  when 
once  down  never  see  the  light  again  ;  but  the  men  take  frequent  occa- 
sions of  breathing  the  village  air.  When  a  traveller  arrives  at  the  bot- 
tom of  this  strange  abyss  where  so  many  people  are  interred  alive,  and 
where  so  many  are  even  born,  and  have  never  stirred  out,  he  is  sur- 
prised with  along  series  of  lofty  vaults  sustained  by  huge  pilasters  cut 
out  with  chisels  ;  and  which,  being  themselves  rock  salt,  appear  by  the 
light  of  flambeaux,  which  are  incessantly  burning,  as  so  many  crystals 
or  precious  stones  of  various  colors,  casting  a  lustre  which  the  eye  can 
scarcel)-  bear.  One  of  the  chief  wonders  of  the  place  is,  that  through 
these  mountains  of  salt,  and  along  the  middle  of  the  mine,  runs  a  rivu- 
let of  fresh  water,  sufficient  to  supply  the  inhabitants.  As  soon  as 
the  massive  pieces  are  got  out  of  the  quarry,  they  break  them  into  frag- 
ments fil  tor  the  mills,  where  they  are  reduced  to  a  coarse  powder,  to 
be  used  as  culinary  salt.  There  are  four  kinds,  white,  bay,  red,  and 
brilliant  ;  the  last  is  the  sal  gemmiz  of  the  druggists,  but  not  known  in 
this  country.  All  these  become  white  when  pulverized,  though  they 
appear  of  different  colors  in  their  natural  state. 

Salt  is  obtained  from  sea  water  by  different  methods.  At  Lyming- 
ton,  in  Hampshire,  England, the  sea  water  is  admitted  into  large  reser- 
voirs, where,  being  exposed  to  the  air,  a  part  of,  the  water  evaporates  ; 
the  remaining  liquor  is  then  transferred  to  boilers,  where  the  water  is 
still  further  evaporated  by  artificial  heat,  and  then  set  by  to  cool  and 
crystallize.  The  water  which  remains  after  the  crystallization  of  the 
salt  is  called  mo//?  er  wa/er.  It  contains,  or  is  said  to  contain,  su//3/ta/e 
of  magnesia^  ox  as  it  is  usually  called  Epsom  sall^  a  well  known  purga- 
tive salt  ;  from  this  source  it  is  that  most,  if  not  all  the  Epsom  salt 
found  in  the  shops,  is  obtained  by  mere  evaporation.  From  the  same 
salt  is  also  obtained  the  common  magnesia  of  the  shops.  This  is 
what  is  publicly  known  of  the  method  of  obtaining  Epsom  sails,  but  it 
is  believed  that  the  manufacturers  keep  the  real  process  a  secret. 

Besides  the  salt  obtained  from  sea  watir,  in  various  countries,  much 
is  obtained  from  the  rock  salt  produced  from  mines,  and  a  good  deal  is 
also  produced  from  brine  springs. 

In  the  United  States  salt  is  manufactured,  but  not  very  extensively, 
from  sea  water.  Large  quantities  are  made  from  brine  springs.  The 
principal  springs  are  to  be  found  in  the  Stale  of  New  York,  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Onondaga,  Cayuga,  Seneca,  Ontario,  Niagara,  Genesee,  Tomp- 
kins, Wayne,  4nd  Oneida,  Those  of  Oneida  are  the  most  valuable. 
In  1823,  006,463  bushels  were  manufactured  in  this  latter  county.  In 
1800,  there  were  not  less  than  50,000  bushels  manufactured.  Forty- 
five  gallons  of  water  make  a  bushel  of  salt.  At  Nantucket,  350  gal- 
looB  of  sea  water  are  required.    The  following  approximated  analysis 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  79 


SALT. 


of  the  water  of  a  spring  in  New  York  is  given  by  Dr.  Noyes  of  Ham- 
ilton College.  Forty  gallons,  or  365lbs.  contain  561  bs.  of  saline  ex- 
tract. 

Pure  Muriate  of  Soda,  5 1  lb.    — oz. 

Carb.  Lime,  colored  by  oxide  of  iron,         —        6i 
Sulph.  of  Lime,  2         4 

Muriate  of  Lime,  1  12i 

and  probably  muriate  magnesia  and  sulphate  of  soda. 

The  village  of  Salina  and  other  neighboring  places,  are  the  chief 
places  where  salt  is  extensively  manufactured.  The  mode  of  evapo- 
ration is  different  at  different  places — sometimes  by  boiling,  and  again 
by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere-  "  At  Salina,  the  mode  adopted,"  says 
the  Northern  Traveller,  "  is  that  of  boiling ;  and  a  brief  description 
will  convey  a  clear  idea  of  the  process.  Each  building  contains  six- 
teen or  eighteen  large  iron  kettles,  which  are  placed  in  two  rows, 
forming  what  is  called  "a  block."  They  stand  about  three  feet  higher 
than  the  floor  ;  and  under  them  is  a  large  furnace,  which  is  heated 
with  pine  wood,  and  requires  constant  attention,  to  keep  the  water  al- 
ways boiling.  The  water  is  drawn  from  a  large  reservoir,  at  one  end 
of  the  building,  after  having  been  allowed  to  stand  awhile,  and  deposit 
the  impurities  it  has  brought  along  with  it.  A  hollow  log,  with  a 
pump  at  one  end,  and  furnished  with  openings  against  the  kettles,  is 
the  only  machine  used  in  filling  them.  The  first  deposit  jnade  by  the 
water,  after  the  boiling  commences,  is  a  compound  of  several  substan- 
ces, and  is  thrown  away,  under  the  name  of  "  Bittern  ;"  but  the  pure 
white  salt,  v/hich  soon  after  makes  its  appearance,  is  carefully  remo- 
ved, and  placed  in  a  store  room,  just  at  hand,  ready  for  barrelling  and 
the  market.  * 

"  Each  manufactory  yields  about  forty  bushels  a  day,  and  the  differ- 
ent buildings  cost  about  half  a  million. 

"  There  are  two  large  manufactories  here,  where  salt  is  made  in  re- 
servoirs of  an  immense  size,  and  evaporated  by  hot  air  passing  through 
them  in  large  pipes.  The  reservoir  of  the  principal  one  contains  no 
less  than  40,000  gallons.  The  pipe  is  supplied  with  heat  by  a  furnace 
below,  and  the  salt  is  formed  in  large  loose  masses,  resembling  half 
thawed  ice.  The  crystallization,  also,  is  different  from  that  produced 
by  the  other  modes,  at  least  in  secondary  forms." 

As  a  condiment^  common  salt  is  of  all  others  the  safest,  best,  and 
most  extensively  employed.  It  is  used  by  all  nations  ;  and,  indeed,  in 
some  shape,  or  other,  by  almost  all  animals  whatever.  It  seems,  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  designed  to  assist  in  the  digestion,  and  assimilation 
of  our  food.  In  the  quantity  in  which  it  is  usually  taken,  there  is  no 
reason  to  doubt,  that  many  of  our  aliments  become  thereby  more 
wholesome  and  digestible,  as  well  as  more  agreeable.  Like  the  other 
condiments,  however,  in  larger  quantities  it  is  injurious  to  the  consti- 
tution. It  occasions  heat  and  thirst,  and  seems  rather  to  impede,  than 
to  assist,  digestion.  Besides  the  usual  culinary  preparations,  in  which 
salt  is  advantageously  employed,  it  is  used,  also,  as  an  antisceptic,  to 
preserve  aliments  from  spontaneous  decomposition,  and  particularly  to 
prevent  the  putrefaction  of  animal  food.  In  general,  however,  the 
large  quantity  of  salt  which  is  necessarily  enlployed  in  this  way,  in- 


80  FAMILY 


A  I  T. 


jures  the  alimentary  properties  of  the  meat  ;  and  the  longer  it  has 
been  preserved,  the  less  wholesome  and  digcsiible  does  it  become.  It 
is  this  kind  of  food,  salted  flesh  and  fish,  which  so  surely  occasions  the 
disease  -called  scurvy  amongst  sailors,  and  otJiers,  who  are  deprived  of 
fresher  and  more  wiiolesome  aliment.  Meat,  however,  which  has  not 
been  too  long  preserved,  simply  pickled,  or  corned  meat,  as  it  is  called, 
is  but  little  injured  or  decomposed,  is  still  succulent  and  tender,  easily 
digested,  nourishing,  and  wholesome  enough. 

Salted  and  hung  meat,  and  therefore  all  sorts  of  hams  are  more  in- 
digestible, and  less  nutritive.  Sparingly  used  with  other  food,  they 
communicate,  indeed,  to  it  an  agreeable  relish,  and  prove  a  stimulus  to 
the  stomach,  but  their  freer  and  more  frequent  use  cannot  be  whole- 
some. 

They  require,  in  general,  all  the  powers  of  the  most  robust  stomachs. 
It  is  wortiiy  of  remark,  in  this  place,  that  the  fat  of  animals  seems  less 
injured,  as  an  aliment,  by  salting,  than  the  lean  parts.  Bacon,  there- 
fore, though  long  preserved,  is  still  a  very  nourishing  ahment ;  though 
not  easily  digested. 

MUSTARD.  There  are  cultivated  two  species  of  this  plant,  the 
hhck^  and  the  white  :  both  annuals,  and  both  natives  of  Great  Britain. 

The  seed  of  the  white  mustard  is  celebrated  for  its  medicinal  vir- 
tues, being  at  once  a  tonic  and  an  aperient ;  cleansing  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  and  bracing  the  system  at  the  same  time.  The  following 
are  the  directions  given  by  Loudon,  for  its  cultivation.  For  spring 
and  summer  consumption,  sow  once  a  week  or  fortnight,  in  dry,  warm 
situations,  in  February  and  March,  (of  course  later  in  the  United 
States  ;)  #Dd  afterwards  in  any  other  compartment.  In  summer,  sow 
in  shady  borders,  if  it  be  hot,  sunny  weather  ;  or,  have  the  beds  sha- 
ded. Generally,  sow  in  shallow  flat  drills,  from  three  to  six  inches 
apart ;  scatter  the  seeds  thick  and  regular,  and  cover  in  thinly  with 
the  earth,  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 

Black  mustard  is  a  larger  plant  than  the  white,  with  much  darker 
leaves,  and  their  divisions  blunter.  It  is  cultivated  chiefly  in  fields  for 
the  mill,  and  for  medicinal  purposes.  It  is  sometimes,  however,  sown 
in  gardens,  and  the  tender  leaves  used  as  greens,  early  in  the  spring. 

To  raise  seed  for  flour  of  mustard,  &c.,  sow  either  in  March  or 
April,  in  any  open  compartment ;  or  make  large  sowings  in  fields, 
where  designed  for  public  supply.  Sow  moderately  thick,  either  in 
drills,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  asunder,  or  broad-cast  and  rake,  or 
harrow  in  the  seed.  When  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches  in  the 
growth,  hoe  and  thin  them  moderately,  where  too  thick,  and  clear 
them  from  weeds.  They  will  soon  run  up  in  stalks,  and  in  July  or 
August  return  a  crop  of  seed  ripe  for  gathering. 

KETCHUP  is  a  sauce,  which  derives  its  name,  it  is  said,  from  a 
Japanese  word  kit-jap.  It  is  made,  or  ought  to  be  made,  from  the 
juice  of  the  mushroom.  Wild  mushrooms,  from  old  pastures,  are 
generally  considered  as  more  delicate  in  flavor,  and  more  tender  in 
flesh,  than  those  raised  inartificial  beds. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ANIMALS. 


81 


SECTION  V.-iANIMALS. 


82  FAMILY 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS.  —  LION. 


DOMESTIC  ANIMALS.  For  an  account  oi  neat  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  swine,  together  with  the  proper  mode  of  rearing  and  man- 
aging them,  &c.,  see  Part  V.  Sec.  11.  Art.  Agriculture. 

In  respect  to  other  animals,  it  will  not  comport  with  the  design  of 
this  work  to  give  a  minute  and  extended  account.  Yet,  as  it  might 
otherwise  be  thouglit  quite  incomplete,  we  shall  proceed  to  notice  a 
^c\x  of  the  most  interesting  animals  found  on  the  globe,  without  con- 
fining ourselves  exclusively  to  those  which  are  used  as  aliments.  We 
begin  with  the 

LION.  This  noble  animal  is  far  from  being  as  large  in  size,  as  many 
others.  His  ordinary  height  is  between  three  and  four  feet,  and  his 
length  six  feet.  Some  are  still  larger.  His  head,  neck,  and  shoulders 
are  large  ;  while  his  hinder  parts  are  comparatively  thin,  and  small. 
His  strength  and  courage  are  such,  as  to  entitle  him  to  the  appellation 
of  "King  of  Beasts."  The  only  animals  whichever,  seriously,  pre- 
tend to  cope  with  him,  are  the  elephant,  tiger,  and  rhinoceros.  The 
color  of  the  lion  is  a  reddish  yellow  ;  his  mane  is  some\Vhat  darker, 
and  often  approaches  to  black.  He  is  found  in  most  parts  of  Africa, 
and  the  southern  parts  of  Asia  ;  but  is  more  common  in  the  former, 
than  in  the  latter.  The  lioness  is  one  third  smaller  than  the  male  ;  but 
in  disposition  is  more  ferocious.  The  lion  requires  from  twelve  to 
twenty  pounds  of  food  everyday.  He  lives  chiefly  upon  the  flesh  of 
animals  ;  and,  in  a  wild  state,  generally  takes  his  prey  by  night. 

Many  interesting  anecdotes  are  related  of  the  lion.  The  following 
is  an  account  of  an  engagement  which  recently  took  place  between  a 
lion  and  two  tigers  in  the  tower  of  London  : — 

*'  Be*twe(m  eleven  and  twelve  o'clock  yesterday  morning,  as  the  man 
whose  duty  it  is  to  clean  the  wild  beasts  at  the  Tower  was  in  the  exe- 
cution of  that  ofhce,  he  inadvertently  raised  a  door  in  the  upper  tier  of 
cells,  which  separated  the  den  of  a  huge  lion  from  one  in  which  there 
were  a  Bengal  royal  tiger  and  tigress.     At  sight  of  each  other  the  eyes 
of  the  animals  sparkled  vv^ith  ruge.     The  lion   instantly  erected  his 
mane,  and,  with  a  tremendous  roar,  sprang  at  the  tiger.     The  tiger  was 
equally  eager  for  the  combat,  and,  in  a  paroxysm   of  fury,  flew  at  his 
assailant,  whilst  the  tigress  fiercely  seconded  her  mate.     The  roaring 
and  yelling  of  the  combatants  resounded  through  the  yards,  and  exci- 
ted in  all  the  various  animals  the  most  lively  demonstrations  of  fear  or 
rage.     The  timid  tribes  shivered  with  dread,  and  ran  round  their  cages 
shrieking  with  terror,  whilst  the  other  lions  and  tigers,  withlhe  bears, 
leopards,  panthers,  wolves,  and  hyenas,  flew  round  their  dens,  shaking 
the  bars  with  their  utmost  strength,  and  uttering  the  most  terrific  cries. 
The  lion  fought  most  bravely,  but  was  evidently  overmatched,  having 
to  contend  with  two  adversaries  not  more  than  a  year  from  the  woods, 
whilst  he  had  been  upwards  of  seven  years  in  confinement.     Still  the 
battle  raged  with  doubtful  success,  until  the  tiger  seized  the  lion  by  the 
throat,  and  flung  him  on  his  back,  when,  after  rolling  over  each   other 
several  times,  the  exasperated  tigress  pinned  her  enemy  against  the  ve- 
randa.    In  that  situation  the  prostrate  lord  of  the  forest  still  struggled 
with  an  indomitable  spirit,  roaring  with  agony  and  rage.     By  this  time, 
however,  some  iron  rods  had  been  heated,  the  red-hot  ends  of  which 
were  now  applied  to  the  mouths  and  nostrils  of  the  infuriated  tigers. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


LION. 


who  were  by  this  means  forced  to  relinquish  their  grasp  ;  but  no  soon- 
er was  the  separation  effected  than  the  lion  and  tiger  seized  in  their 
mouths,  the  one  the  upper,  and  the  other  the  lower  jaw  of  his  antago- 
nist, biting  and  tugging  at  each  other  with  deadly  fury.  So  excited 
was  their  animosity,  that  it  was  with  great  difficulty,  by  the  insertion 
into  their  nostrils  of  the  glowing  iron,  they  could  be  disengaged,  and 
the  lion  driven  back  to  his  cell,  the  door  of  which  was  instantly  closed 
upon  him.  The  battle  lasted  full  half  an  hour.  The  tiger  in  the  last 
onset  lost  one  of  his  tusks,  but  the  poor  lion  was  very  severely  punished. 
In  a  work  entitled,  "Researches  in  South  Africa,"  published  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Philip,  is  given  an  account  of  an  adventure  with  a  lion,  so 
curious,  that  we  extract  it  without  abridgement. 

"  Our  waggons,  which  were  obliged  to  take  a  circuitous  route,  arrived 
at  last,  and  we  pitched  our  tent  a  musket  shot  from  the  kraal ;  and  after 
having  arranged  every  thing,  went  to  rest,  but  were  soon  disturbed ; 
for  about  midnight  the  cattle  and  horses,  which  were  standing  between 
the  wagons,  began  to  start  and  run,  and  one  of  the  drivers  to  shout,  on 
which  every  one  ran  out  of  the  tent  with  his  gun.  About  thirty  paces 
from  the  lent  stood  a  lion,  which,  on  seeing  us,  walked  very  deliberate- 
Jy  about  thirty  paces  farther,  behind  a  small  thorn-bush,  carrying 
something  with  him,  which  I  took  to  be  a  young  ox.  We  fired  more 
than  sixty  shots  at  that  bush,  and  pierced  it  stoutly,  without  perceiving 
any  movement.  The  southeast  wind  blew  strong,  the  sky  was  clear, 
and  the  moon  shone  very  bright,  so  that  wo  could  perceive  every  thing 
at  that  distance.  After  the  cattle  had  been  quieted  again,  and  I  had 
looked  over  every  thing,  I  missed  the  sentry  from  before  the  tent,  Jan 
Smit,  from  Antwerp,  belonging  to  the  Groene  Kloof.  We  called  as 
loudly  as  possible,  but  in  vain, — nobody  answered  ;  from  which  I  con- 
cluded that  the  lion  had  carried  him  off.  Three  or  four  men  then  ad- 
vanced very  cautiously  to  the  bush,  which  stood  right  oj)posite  the  door 
of  the  tent,  to  see  if  they  could  discover  any  thing  of  the  man,  but  re- 
turned helter-skelter,  for  the  lion,  wlio  was  there  still,  rose  up,  and  be- 
gan to  roar.  They  found  there  the  musket  of  the  sentry,  which  was 
xjocked,  and  also  his  cap  and  shoes. 

"  We  fired  again  about  a  hundred  shots  at  the  bush,  (which  was  sixty 
paces  from  the  tent  and  only  thirty  paces  from  the  wagons,  and  at 
which  we  were  able  to  point  as  at  a  target,)  without  perceiving  any 
thing  of  the  lion,  from  which  we  concluded  that  he  was  killed  or  had 
run  away.  This  induced  the  marksman,  Jan  Staraansz,  to  go  and  see 
if  he  was  there  still  or  not,  taking  with  him  a  firebrand.  But  as  soon 
as  he  approached  the  bush  the  lion  roared  terribly  and  leaped  at  him  ; 
on  which  he  threw  the  fire-brand  at  him,  and  the  other  people  having 
fired  about  ten  shots,  he  retired  direclty  to  his  former  place  behind  that 
bush. 

"  The  firebrand  which  he  had  thrown  at  the  lion  had  fallen  in  the 
midst  of  the  bush,  and,  favored  by  the  strong  south-east  wind,  it  began 
to  bun*  with  a  great  flame,  so  that  we  could  see  very  clearly  into  and 
through  it.  We  continued  our  firing  into  it ;  the  night  passed  away, 
and  the  day  began  to  break,  which  animated  every  one  to  aim  at  the 
lion,  because  he  could  not  go  from  thence  without  exposing  himself  en- 
tirely, as  the  bush  stood  directly  against  a  steep  kloof.     Seven  men, 


84  FAMILY 


LION. TIGER. 


posted  at  the  farthest  wagons,  watched  him,   to  take  aim  at  him  if  he 
should  come  out. 

"  At  last,  before  it  became  quite  light,  he  walked  up  the  hill  with  the 
Irian  in  his  mouth,  when  about  forty  shots  were  fired  at  him  without 
hitting  him,  although  some  were  very  near.  Every  time  this  happen- 
ed, he  turned  round  towards  the  tent,  and  came  roaring  towards  us  ; 
and  I  am  of  opinion,  that  if  he  had  been  hit,  he  would  have  rushed  on 
the  people  and  the  tent. 

"  When  it  became  broad  day-light,  we  perceived,  by  the  blood  and  & 
piece  of  the  clothes  of  the  man,  that  the  lion  had  taken  him  away  and 
carried  him  with  him.  Wo  also  found  behind  tlie  bush,  the  place 
where  the  lion  had  been  keeping  the  man,  and  it  appeared  impossible 
that  no  ball  should  have  hit  him,  as  we  found  in  that  place  several  balls 
beaten  flat.  We  concluded  that  he  was  wounded,  and  not  far  from 
this.  The  people  therefore  requested  permission  to  go  in  search  of  the 
man^s  corpse  in  order  to  bury  it,  supposing,  that,  by  our  continual  fir- 
ing, the  lion  would  not  have  had  time  to  devour  much  of  it.  I  gave 
permission  to  some,  on  condition  that  they  should  take  a  good  party  of 
armed  Hottentots  with  them,  and  made  them  promise  that  they  would 
not  run  into  danger,  but  keep  a  good  look-out,  and  be  circumspect. 
On  this  seven  of  them,  assisted  by  forty-three  armed  Hottentots,  follow- 
ed the  track,  and  found  the  lion  about  half  a  league  farther  on,  lyinnr 
behind  a  little  bush.  On  the  shout  of  the  Hottentots,  he  sprang  up  and 
ran  away,  on  which  they  all  pursued  him.  At  last  the  beast  turned 
round,  and  rushed,  roaring  terribly,  amongst  the  crowd.  The  people, 
fatigued  and  out  of  breath  with  their  running,  fired  and  missed  him,  oil 
which  he  made  directly  towards  them.  The  captain,  or  chief  head  of 
the  kraal,  here  did  a  brave  act,  in  aid  of  two  of  the  people  whom  the 
lion  attacked.  The  gun  of  one  of  them  missed  fire,  and  the  other  mis- 
sed his  aim,  on  which  the  captain  threw  himself  between  the  lion  and 
the  people  so  close,  that  the  lion  struck  his  claws  into  the  caross  (man- 
tle) of  the  Hottentot.  But  he  was  too  agile  for  him,  dotied  his  caross, 
and  stabbed  him  with  an  assagai.  Instantly  the  other  Hottentots  has- 
tened on,  and  adorned  him  with  all  their  assagais,  so  that  he  looked  like 
a  porcupine.  Notwithstanding  thishe  did  notleave  ofFroaring  and  leap- 
ing, and  bit  oft" some  of  the  assagais,  till  the  marksman,  Jan  Stamansz 
fired  ji  ball  into  his  eye,  which  made  him  turn  over,  and  he  was  then 
shot  dead  by  the  other  people.  He  was  a  tremendously  large  beast, 
and  had  but  a  short  time  before  carried  off"  a  Hottentot  from  the  kraal 
and  devoured  him." 

TIGER.  The  Tiger,  commonly  called  the  Royal  Tiger,  is  a  native 
of  Bengal,  of  the  kingdoms  of  Siam  and  Tonquin,  of  China,  of  Suma- 
tra, and,  indeed,  of  all  the  countries  of  Southern  Asia,  situated  beyond 
the  Indus,  and  extending  to  the  north  of  China.  This  species  of  ani- 
mal has  long  abounded  in  the  above  countries,  while  the  Asiatic  lion, 
on  the  contrary,  has  only  been  known,  within  a  few  years.  The  aver- 
age height  of  the  tiger  is  about  three  feet,  and  the  length  nearly  six  feet. 
The  species,  however,  varies  considerably  in  size,  and  individuals  have 
oflcn  been  found,  much  taller  and  longer  than  the  lion.  The  peculiar 
markings  of  the  tiger's  skin,  are  well  known.  On  a  ground  of  yellow, 
of  various  shades  in  different  specimens,  there  is  a  series  of  black  trans- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  85 


PUMA  OR  COUGA.R. — DOMESTIC  CAT. 


verse  bars,  varying  in  number,  from  twenty  to  thirty,  and  becoming 
black  rings  on  the  tail,  the  number  of  which  is,  almost  invariably  fif- 
teen. There  are  oblique  bands,  also,  on  the  legs.  The  pupils  of  the 
eye  are  circular. 

The  tiger,  like  the  lion,  springs  upon  its  prey,  -from  an  ambush ;  and, 
in  most  cases,  he  is  easily  terrified  by  any  sudden  opposition  from  hu- 
man beings.  A  party  in  India  was  once  saved  from  a  tiger,  by  a  lady, 
who  suddenly  opened  an  umbrella,  as  she  saw  him  about  to  spring.  Our 
readers  may  remember  the  attack  of  a  tigress  upon  the  horses  of  the 
mail,  on  Salisbury  plain,  in  England,  a  few  years  ago.  The  creature 
bad  escaped  from  a  travelling  menagerie;  and,  not  forgetting  her  natu- 
ral habits,  sprung  upon  the  leaders  as  they  passed  her.  The  guard 
would  have  shot  her  ;  but  her  keepers  drove  her  off,  and  she  escaped 
to  a  haystack,  under  which  she  crept,  and  was  retaken  without  difficulty. 
In  narrow  passages  in  Rirtdocstan,  travellers  have  often  been  seized  by 
tigers  ;  or  a  bullock,  or  horse  has  fallen  a  victim  to  the  ferocity  of  this 
prowling  beast.  Horses  have  such  a  dread  of  the  tiger,  that  they  can 
scarcely  ever  be  brought  to  face  him.  Hunting  him,  therefore,  on 
horseback,  is  a  service  of  great  danger.  The  elephant,  on  the  contrary, 
though  considerably  agitated,  will  stand  more  steadily,  while  his  rider 
anticipates  the  fatal  spring,  by  a  shot  which  levels  the  tiger  to  the  earth. 
One  peculiarity  of  the  tiger,  is  his  willingness  to  take  to  the  water, 
either  when  pursued,  or  in  search  of  the  prey,  which  he  espies  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  a  river. 

The  PUMA  or  COUGAR  is  a  native  of  the  American  continent,  and 
is  principally  found  in  Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  Guiana.  He  is  sometimes 
seen  in  the  United  States,  where  he  is  called  panther  or  painter.  He 
resembles  the  lion,  both  in  color  and  voice  ;  but  is  not  as  large,  and 
has  no  mane.  Capt.  Head,  in  his  "  Journey  across  the  Pampas,"  relates 
the  following  interview  between  a  man  and  a  puma. 

"The  man  was  trying  to  shctsome  wild  ducks  ;  and,  in  order  to 
approach  them  unperceived,  he  put  the  corner  of  iiis  poncho  (which  is 
a  sort  of  long,  narrow  blanket,)  over  his  head,  and  crawling  along  the 
ground  upon  his  hands  and  knees,  the  poncho  not  only  covered  his 
body,  but  trailed  along  the  ground  behind  him.  As  he  was  thus  creep- 
ing by  a  large  bush  of  reeds,  he  heard  a  loud,  sudden  noise,  between  a 
bark  and  a  roar :  he  felt  something  heavy  strike  his  feet,  and  instantly 
juiBping  up,  he  saw,  to  his  astonishment,  a  large  puma,  actually  stand- 
ing on  his  poncho  ;  and  perhaps  the  animal  was  equally  astonished,  to 
find  himself  in  the  immediate  presence  of  so  athletic  a  man.  The  man 
told  me  he  was  unwilling  to  fire,  as  his  gun  was  loaded  with  very  small 
shot ;  and  therefore  remained  motionless,  the  puma  standing  on  his 
poncho  for  many  seconds  ;  at  last  the  creature  turned  his  head,  and 
walkmg  very  slowly  away  about  ten  yards,  he  stopped  and  turned 
again  :  the  man  still  maintained  his  ground,  upon  which  the  animal  ta- 
citly acknowledged  his  supremacy,  and  walked  off." 

The  DOMESTIC  CAT  is  found  in  almost  every  country  on  the 
globe.  It  is  probably  a  domesticated  variety  of  the  wild  cat,  for  when 
suffered  to  retire  to  the  woods,  it  soon  becomes  wild.  A  tame  cat  gen- 
erally attains  the  age  of  twelve  years.  The  food  most  agreeable  to 
cats  is  the  flesh  of  animals,  or  fish  ;  they  eat  vegetable  aliment  only 

8 


86  FAMILY 


DOMESTIC    CAT. 


from  necessity.  There  are,  however,  some  plants  of  which  they  are 
very  fond  ;  of  this  nature  is  the  valerian  root,  and  the  herb  called  nq?, 
or  cat-mint.  On  the  other  hand,  they  shun  the  common  rue,  as  a  poi- 
son, and  any  substance  rubbed  with  tiie  leaves  of  this  plant,  is  said  to 
be  perfectly  secure  from  their  depredations. 

Cats  dehght  in  a  warm  temperature,  and  a  soft  couch  ;  moisture 
and  filth,  as  well  as  water  and  cold  are  equally  repugnant  to  their  na- 
ture ;  hence  they  are  continually  cleaning  themselves  with  their  paws 
and  tongue.  Another  peculiarity  is,  tlie  purring  of  these  animals, 
when  they  are  cajoled  or  flattered,  by  passing  the  hand  over  their 
backs  :  this  singular  noise  is  performed  by  means  of  two  elastic  mem- 
branes in  the  larynx,  or  upper  part  of  the  wind-pipe.  Their  hair  is 
80  electric,  that  the  expanded  skin  of  a  cat  makes  an  excellent  cushion 
for  the  glass  cylinder,  or  globe,  of  an  electrifying  machine. 

The  flesh  of  cats  is  eaten  by  several  nations  ;  but  the  substance  of 
the  brain  is  said  to  be  poisonous.  From  the  intestines  of  these  animals 
is  manufactured  the  celebrated  Roman  chords,  for  covering  the  violin. 
They  are  manufactured  out  of  the  guts  of  rabbits  and  sheep  also  :  they 
are  cleaned,  soaked  in  water,  stretched  by  a  machine,  and  dried.  The 
name  of  cat-gut  comes  from  thd  circumstance  of  cats  being  used  a;* 
food  in  many  parts  of  Italy,  and  their  guts  applied  to  the  making  of 
strings. 

With  respect  to  their  peculiarities,  wo /shall  remark,  that  cats  pos- 
sess a  very  acute  sense  of  both  smell  and  sight.  By  the  structure  of 
their  eyes,  which  sparkle  in  the  dark,  they  are  better  enabled  to  discov- 
er objects  of  prey,  such  as  mice  and  rats,  at  night,  than  in  the  daytime  ; 
hence,  they  ought  not  to  be  luxuriously  fed,  if  kept  for  the  destruction 
of  these  vermin.  It  is,  however,  to  be  regretted,  that  this  useful  do- 
mestic creature  is  one  of  the  most  deceitful  companions,  being  constant- 
ly bent  on  theft  and  rapine. 

Many  persons  have  so  invincible  an  antipathy  against  these  creatures, 
that  they  have  been  known  to  faint  in  rooms  where  cats  were  concealed, 
and  no  arguments  were  sufficient  to  efface  the  impression. 

DOG.  Animals  of  the  dog  kind  are  distinguished  by  their  claws, 
which  have  no  sheath,  like  those  of  the  cat  kind;  but  adhere  to  the 
point  of  each  toe,  without  the  power  of  being  extended,  or  drawn  back. 
Their  eyes,  also,  are  not  formed  for  seeirig  clearly  in  the  dark.  By 
comparing  the  habits  and  propensities  of  the  two  classes,  we  shall  fligd, 
that  while  the  savage  selfishness  of  the  cat's  disposition,  prevents  it 
from  deriving  any  pleasure  from  society,  the  dog  seems  to  find  its  grati- 
fication increased,  by  associating  with  the  species  to  which  he  belongs ; 
and  in  countries  where  they  are  permitted  to  range  with  freedom,  they 
are  always  observed  to  hunt  in  packs. 

The  dog  is  allowed  to  be  the  most  intelligent  of  all  quadrupeds ;  and 
one  that,  doubtless,  is  most  deserving  of  admiration  ;  for,  independent 
of  his  beauty,  his  vivacity  and  swiflness,  be  gives  the  most  manifest 
proofs  of  his  attachment  to  mankind.  In  his  savage  state,  he  may  have 
been  a  formidable  enemy ;  but  to  view  him  at  present,  he  seems  only 
anxious  to  please ;  he  willingly  crouches  before  his  m.ister,  and  is  rea- 
dy to  lick  the  dust  from  his  feet;  he  waits  his  orders,  consults  his 
looks,  and  is  more  faithful  than  half  ihe  human  race.     He  is  constant 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


87 


DOGS. 


in  his  affections,  friendly  without  interest,  and  grateful  for  the  slightest 
favor  he  can  receive;  easily  forgets  both  cruelty  and  oppression;  and 
disarms  resentment  by  submissively  yielding  to  the  will  of  those,  whom 
he  studiously  endeavors  to  serve  and  please. 

It  is  eaid  that  there  are  nearly  thirty  distinct,  and  well  ascertained 
varieties  of  the  dog.     Of  these  we  can  notice  but  a  few. 

The  MASTIFF,  the  lar- 
gest of  domestic  dogs,  has  a 
large  head,  robust  body  .and 
lips  which  hang  down  on 
each  side  of  his  mouth. 
This  dog  was  trained,  by 
the  ancient  Britons,  to  be 
of  use  in  war.  They  are 
now  chiefly  used  as  watch 
dogs,  which  duty  they  dis- 
charge with  great  fidelity. 


The    BULL-DOG    is 

smaller  than  the  mastiff, 
but  strongly  resembleshim. 
For  courage  and  ferocity, 
this  dog  is  exceeded  by  n6 
animal  of  its  size.  His  an- 
tipathy to  the  bull,  from 
which  he  derives  his  name, 
is  remarkable. 


The  BLOOD-HOUND 
is  larger  than  the  common 
hound,  and  is  generally  of 
a  deep  tan  or  reddish  color, 
with  a  black  spot  over  each 
eye.  They  are  chiefly  used 
for  fox  hunting. 


88 


FAMILY 


DOGS. 


The  GREY-HOUND 

is  distinguished  by  his 
slender  and  curved  body, 
his  narrow  muzzle,  and 
liis  tail  being  curved  up- 
wards, at  the  extremity. 
This  kind  of  dog  hunts  by 
sight,  and  not  by  scent. 
Such  is  his  fieetness,  that 
in  a  hilly  and  uneven 
country,  there  are  few 
horses  that  can  keep  pace 
with  him.     He  is  supposed  to  outhve  all  others  of  the  d©g  species. 

The  SHEP- 
HERD'SDOGis 
seldom  found  in 
the  United  States; 
butinvariousparts 
of  Europe,  he  is 
5  common,  espe- 
cially where  sheep 
are  kept  in  large 
^  flocks,  and  atten- 
ded by  shepherds. 

'the  docility  and  sagacity  of  the  pure  breed,  indeed,  surpass  those  of 
every  other  variety  of  the  canine  race  ;  obedient  to  the  voice,  looks, 
and  gestures  of  his  master,  he  quickly  perceives  his  commands,  and  in- 
stantly executes  them.  A  well-trained  dog  of  this  kind,  is,  to  a  shep- 
herd, an  invariable  acquisition.  The  faithful  animal  anxiously  watches 
the  flock,  and  keeps  them  together  in  the  pasture ;  from  one  part  of 
which  it  conducts  them  to  another  ;  and,  if  the  sheep  are  driven  to  any 
distance,  a  well  trained  dog  will  infallibly  confine  them  within  the 
road,  and,  at  the  same  time,  prevent  any  strange  sheep  from  mingling 
with  them.  Should,  however,  any  straggle  from  the  road,  he  will  pur- 
sue them,  and  drive  them  to  the  flock,  without  hurting  them  in  the 
slightest  degree.  In  Prussia  the  shepherds  have  a  kind  of  dog,  which 
they  are  able  to  teach  never  to  bite  a  sheep,  but  they  will  push  them  foir 
ward  with  their  muzzles  in  the  direction  in  whicJi  their  masters  wish 
the  sheep  to  go. 

SPANIEL.  Of  this  dog  there  are  many  varieties.  They  are  so  call- 
ed, probably,  because  they  are  of  Spanish  extraction.  They  liave  gen- 
erally pendulous  and  woolly  ears,  with  long  hair  on  all  parts  of  the  bo- 
dy, but  particularly  on  the  breast,  beneath  the  body,  and  at  the  back  of 
the  legs.  In  all  ages,  the  spaniel  has  been  noted  for  fidelity  aad  attach- 
ment to  mankind. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


D06S. 


WATER    SPANIEL 

This  kind  is  chiefly  useful 
to  sportsmen,  in  the  hunt- 
ing of  water-fowl. 


The  POINTER  is  used  by  sportsmen  for  discovering-  game,  which 
he  is  taught  to  do  with  wonderful  steadiness  and  attention.  Aided  by 
the  acuteness  of  their  smell,  pointers  generally  approach  the  spot  where 
the  game  lies;  and  at  length  stop,  their  eyes  behig  steadily  fixed  upon 
it,  one  foot  generally  somewhat  raised  from  the  ground,  and  the  tail 
extended  in  a  straight  line.  If  the  bird  runs,  the  dog  discovers  it,  and 
steals  cautiously  after  it,  keeping  still  the  same  attitude  ;  and  when  it 
stops,  he  is  again  steady. 

The  SETTER,  is  a  dog  nearly  allied  to  the  pointer.  His  scent  is 
more  exquisite,  and  his  muscular  powers,  for  his  size,  nearly  unequal- 
led. 


The  TERRIER,  is  a 
small  and  hardy  kind  of 
dog,  the  name  of  which  is 
derived  from  its  subterra- 
neous employments.  He  if 
a  great  enemy  to  rats,  pole- 
cats, and  other  species  of 
vermin. 


The  TURNSPIT  is  a  small  dog,  with  short,  and  generally  crooked 
legs,  and  the  tail  curled  upward.  He  is  used  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, to  turn  the  spit  for  roasting  meat 

The  NEWFOUND. 
LAND  DOG  is  but  little 
smaller  than  the  mastiff. 
In  strength  and  docility,  he 
exceeds  most  other  kinds 
of  dogs.  He  is  often  em- 
ployed in  Newfoundland 
to  draw  wood  on  siedgee, 
from  the  interior  of  the 
country  to  the  sea-coast, 
and  before  the  introduction 
of  horses  into  general  use 


90  FAMILY 


DOGS. 


m  Canada,  most  of  the  land  carriage  was  performed  by  dogs.  The 
ease  with  which  ho  swims  renders  him  of  great  service  in  cases  of  dan* 
ger  from  the  oversetting  of  boats,  and  other  accidents  by  water. 

The  SIBERIAN  DOG  is  distinguished  by  having  its  ears  erect, 
and  the  hair  of  its  body  anJ  tail  very  long.  He  is  employed  in  drawing 
sledges  over  the  frozen  snow,  five  of  them  being  yoked  to  each  sledge» 
with  the  fifth  in  front  as  the  leader.  The  fleetness  of  these  dogs  is  so 
great,  that  they  have  been  known  to  perform  a  journey  of  27U  miles  in 
three  days  and  a  half;  and,  with  a  sledge  containing  three  persons  and 
their  bag'rage,  they  will  travel  sixty  miles  in  a  day.  During  the  most 
severe  storms,  when  their  master  cannot  see  his  path,  or  even  keep  his 
eyes  open,  they  seldom  miss  their  way.  And  it  is  said  that,  in  the 
midst  of  a  long  journey,  when  it  is  found  absolutely  impossible  to  pro- 
ceed-any  further,  the  dogs,  lying  round  iheir  master,  will  keep  him 
warm,  and  prevent  him  from  perishing  by  the  cold. 

Of  the  numerous  anecdotes  which  we  might  relate,  of  the  sagacity 
and  fidelity  of  the  dog,  we  have  room  for  but  one,  illustrative  of  tlie 
latter  characteristic  of  this  sometimes  noble  animal. 

"  A  French  merchant,  having  some  money  due  from  a  correspondent, 
set  out  on  horseback  to  receive  it,  accompanied  by  his  dog ;  and,  hav- 
ing settled  the  business  to  his  satisfaction,  placed  it  in  the  bag  that  con- 
tained his  clothes.  Finding  himself  rather  fatigued  with  his  journey, 
he  resolved  to  repose  under  a  hedge,  and,  untying  the  bag  from  the 
front  of  his  saddle,  placed  it  carefully  under  his  head. 

'♦  After  having  remained  sometime  in  this  situation,  he  found  him- 
self entirely  recovered  from  fatigue;  and,  wholly  absorbed  in  some 
pleasing  reflections,  he  remounted  without  even  a  thought  of  the  bag. 
The  dog,  who  had  witnessed  this  mark  of  inattention,  attemjjted  to 
recall  his  recollection  by  barks  and  screams  ;  and,  finding  the  bag  too 
heavy  for  his  utmost  exertion,  ran  howling  after  him,  and  caught  the 
horse  by  the  heels.  Roused  by  this  mark  of  what  he  thought  sudden 
madness,  he  resolved  to  watch  the  animal's  motions  when  he  approached 
a  stream,  and,  perceiving  he  did  not  attempt  to  quench  his  thirst,  as 
usual,  was  absolutely  confirmed  in  the  belief  that  he  was  mad.  '  My 
poor  animal,'  said  the  aflHiicted  merchant,' and  must  I,  in  justice,  take 
away  thy  life  ?  alas  !'  continued  he,  'it  is  an  act  of  necessity,  for  there 
is  no  one  to  perform  the  office  in  my  place.'  So  saying,  he  drew  a  pis- 
tol from  his  pocket,  but  from  aff'ection  to  his  favorite,  averted  his  head  ; 
the  ball,  however,  pei formed  it-:  embassy,  for  the  dog  was  mortally 
wounded,  though  not  dead.  The  bleeding  animal  endeavoured  to 
crawl  towards  its  master,  whose  feelings  revolted  at  the  afl:ecting  sight, 
and  spurring  on  his  horse,  he  pursued  his  journey,  with  the  image  of 
his  expiring  favorite  strongly  impressed  upon  his  mind.  '  How  unfor- 
tunate I  am,'  said  he,  mentally  ;  '  1  had  rather  have  lost  my  money  than 
a  dog  I  so  much  prized  !' — when,  stretching  out  his  hand,  as  if  to  grasp 
the  treasure,  neither  bag  nor  money  was  to  be  seen.  His  eyes  were 
instantly  opened  to  conviction  :  '  And  what  a  wretch  I  have  been  !'  he 
suddenly  exclaimed  :  '  Poor  faithful  creature  !  how  have  I  rewarded 
thy  fidelity  .''  Ob,  madness  of  recollection,  how  severely  am  I  to  be 
blamed  !' 

'^  He  immediately  turned  his  horse,  and  set  od"  with  the  fleetest  mo- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  91 


DOG. CAMEL. 


tion,  and  soon  came  to  the  spot  where  the  proof  of  his  folly  was  dis- 
played ;  and  every  drop  of  bleed  that  he  saw  seemed  to  reproach  him 
with  injustice,  and  every  feeling  of  his  hea^-t  was  severely  pained. 
These  sanguinary  drops  proved  a  sufficient  direction  for  the  faithful 
creature's  footsteps  to  be  traced,  and  he  was  found  stretched  beside  the 
treasure  he  had  been  so  anxious  to  take  care  of,  and  which  had  been 
the  primary  means  oC  depriving  him  of  life. 

"  When  the  merchant  beheld  him  still  guarding  his  possession,  though 
struggling  with  death  and  agonized  with  pain,  his  sensations  of  remorse 
were  very  much  heightened  ;  but  all  hopes  of  preserving  his  existence 
proved  vain.  The  poor  animal  no  sooner  perceived  his  master  ap- 
proaching, than  he  testified  his  joy  by  the  wagging  of  his  tail  ;  and 
absolutely  expired  in  licking  the  hand  which  caressed  him,  as  if  in  to- 
ken of  forgiveness  for  having  taken  away  his  life." 

CAMEL.  Few  animals  present  more  points  of  interest  than  the 
camel.  His  height  is  about  five  and  a  half  feet,  and  his  length  about 
ten.  He  has  long  legs,  a  short  but  large  body, a  long  and  crooked  neck, 
and  a  small  and  exceedingly  ill  shapen  head.  There  are  too  species 
of  camel,  the  Bactrian  and  Arabian.  The  former  of  these  has  two' 
bunches  on  the  back  ;  the  latter,  which  is  sometimes  called  the  drome- 
dary, has  but  one.  In  general,  these  two  varieties  possess  the  same 
character  and  qualities.  Their  hair  is  coarse,  and  usually,  their  color 
is  alike,  brown.  Of  the  two  varieties,  the  Bactrian  camel  is  much  more 
rare.  This  species  is  found  in  Turkistan,  which  is  the  ancient  Bactria, 
and  in  Thibet,  as  far  as  the  frontiers  of  China.  The  ordinary  duration 
of  the  camel's  life,  in  Arabia,  is  said  to  be  forty  or  fifty  years. 

The  camel  is  obviously  fitted  for  the  countries  in  which  he  is  found. 
He  possesses  uncommon  strength,  which  enables  him  to  carry  heavy 
burdens,  over  arid  plains,  and  through  trackless  deserts,  which  would 
otherwise  be  impassable  to  the  commodities  of  the  East.  And,  in  ad- 
dition, he  has  an  extraordinary  capacity  of  enduring  privation,  being 
able  to  sustain  a  march  of  several  hundred  miles,  with  a  scanty  supply 
of  food,  and  without  any  water. 

He  is  provided  with  a  bag,  or  reservoir,  in  which  he  may  take  an  am- 
ple provision  of  water  to  serve  him  in  the  time  of  need,  having  the 
power  to  force  the  liquid  back  into  his  first  stomach,  and  even  to  his 
mouth,  to  allay  his  thirst,  and  soften,  by  rumination,  the  hard  and  dry 
herbs,  upon  which  he  feeds  :  the  large  hump  which  he  has  on  his  back, 
is  a  mass  of  fat,  destined  to  supply  the  want  of  food,  by  absorption.  It 
is  throuirh  this  peculiar  structure  that  the  camel  has  become  the  inhab- 
itant of  flat  countries — sandy,  sterile,  and  arid. 

Camels  are  to  be  found  at  San  Rossora,  in  Italy.  They  are  the  pro- 
perty of  the  government  of  Tuscany.  The  time  of  their  introduction 
into  that  country  is  uncertain.  These  camels  walk  at  the  rate  of  about 
three  miles  an  hour,  and  they  travel  about  thirty  miles  a  day.  They 
are  so  degenerated,  that  from  them,  no  adequate  idea  can  be  formed,  of 
what  the  Arabians  call  the  "  ship  of  the  desert." 

The  ordinary  load  of  a  camel  is  six  hundred  weight ;  but  he  will  car- 
ry a  thousand.  Mr.  Buckingham  saw  camels  carrying  millstones,  to 
the  large  towns  on  the  west  of  the  Jordan,  each  of  which  was  nearly  six 
feet  in  diameter  ;  one  being  laid  flat  on  the  animal's  back,  in  the  very 


92 


FAMILY 


THR    SWIFT  D HOMED ARY. 


centre  of  the  hump,  and  resting  on  the  Jiigh  part  of  the  saddle,  was  se- 
cured by  cords  passing  under  his  belly.  The  camel  sometimes  carries 
large  panniers,  or  baskets,  filled  with  heavy  goods.  In  these  baskets 
women  and  children  are  often  carried. 


THE  SWIFT  DROMEDARY. 


Above  we  present  our  readers  with  a  view  of  a  swift  Dromedary 
harnessed,  and  with  his  rider  upon  him.  The  saddle  is  placed  on  the 
withers,  and  confined  by  a  band  under  the  belly.  It  is  very  small,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  sit  upon  it.  This  is  done  by  balancing  with  the  feet 
against  the  neck  of  the  animal,  and  holding  a  tight  rein  to  steady  the 
hand. 

The  first  experiment  which  an  European  makes  in  bestriding  a  dro- 
medary, is  generally  a  service  of  some  little  danger,  from  the  pecuhari- 
ty  of  the  animal's  movement,  in  rising.  The  following  account  is  giv- 
en us  by  Capt.  Riley,  during  his  captivity  among  the  Arabs.  "  They 
placed  me  on  the  largest  camel  I  had  yet  seen,  which  was  nine  or  ten 
feet  in  height.  The  camels  were  now  all  kneeling  or  lying  down,  and 
mine  among  the  rest.  I  thought  I  had  taken  good  hold,  to  steady  my- 
self, while  he  was  rising  ;  yet  his  motion  was  so  heavy,  and  my  strength 
so  jar  exhausted,  that  I  could  not  possibly  hold  on,  and  tumbled  off 
over  his  tail,  turning  entirely  over.  I  came  down  upon  my  feet,  which 
prevented  my  receiving  any  material  iaijury,  though  the  shock  to  my 
frame  was  very  severe.  The  owner  of  the  camel  helped  me  up,  and 
asked  me  whether  I  was  injured ;  I  told  him  no.  '  God  be  praised  !* 
said  he,  '  for  turning  you  over  ;  had  you  fallen  upon  your  head,  these 
stones  must  have  dashed  out  your  brains.  But  the  camel,'  added  he, 
'  is  a  sacred  animal,  and  Heaven  protects  those  who  ride  on  him  !  Had 
you  fallen  from  an  ass,  though  he  is  only  two  cubits  and  a  half  high,  it 
would  have  killed  you,  for  the  ass  is  not  so  noble  a  creature  as  the  cam- 
el or  the  horse.'    I  afterwards  found  tliis  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


CAMEL. 


among  all  classes  of  the  Moors  and  Arabs.  When  they  put  me  on 
again,  two  of  the  men  steadied  me  by  the  legs,  until  the  camel  was  fair- 
ly up,  and  then  told  me  to  be  careful,  and  to  hold  on  fast;  they  also 
took  great  care  to  assist  my  companions  in  the  same  way." 

Our  readers  probably  well  know,  that  immense  journies  are  made  in 
the  east  by  means  of  the  camel ;  and  the  produce  of  one  country  is  con- 
veyed to  another  by  merchants  wlio  go  in  caravans.  These  caravans 
sometimes  consist  of  several  thousand  camels.  Occasionally,  they  suf- 
fer great  distress  for  the  want  of  water,  and  are  sometimes  overwhelm- 
ed by  the  sands  of  the  desert.  The  following  interesting  story  is  rela- 
ted by  Buckhardt,  of  a  small  caravan  which  was  passing  from  Berber 
to  Daraou,  across  the  Nubiaa  desert.  "  It  consisted  of  five  merchants 
and  about  thirty  slaves,  with  a  proportionate  number  of  camels.  Afraid 
of  the  robber  Naym,  who  at  that  tirpe  was  in  the  habit  of  waylaying 
travellers  about  the  well  of  Nedjeym,  and  who  had  constant  intelligence 
of  the  departure  of  every  caravan  fron  Berber,  they  determined  to  take 
a  more  eastern  road,  by  the  well  Owareyk.  They  had  hired  an  Ababde 
guide,  who  conducted  them  in  safety  to  that  place,  but  who  lost  his 
way  from  thence  northward,  the  route  being  very  unfrequented.  Af- 
ter five  day's  march  in  the  mountaijis  their  stock  of  water  was  exhaust- 
ed, nor  did  they  know  where  they  were.  They  resolved,  therefore,  to 
direct  their  course  toward  the  setting  sun,  hoping  thus  to  reach  the 
Nile.  After  two  days'  thirst,  fifteen  slaves  and  one  of  the  merchants 
died  ;  another  of  them,  an  Ababde,  who  had  ten  camels  with  him, 
thinking  that  the  camels  might  know  better  than  their  masters  where 
water  was  to  be  found,  desired  liis  comrades  to  tie  him  fast  upon  the 
saddle  of  his  strongest  camel,  that  he  might  not  fall  down  from  weak- 
ness; and  thus  he  parted  from  them,  permitting  his  camels  to  take 
their  own  way,  but  neither  the  man  nor  his  camel  were  ever  heard  of 
afterwards.  On  the  eighth  day  after  leaving  Owareyk,,  the  survivors 
came  in  sight  of  the  mountains  of  Shigre,  which  they  immediately  re- 
cognized ;  but  their  strength  was  quite  exhausted,  and  neither  men  nor 
beasts  were  abluto  move  any  farther.  Lying  down  under  a  rock  they 
sent  two  of  their  servants,  with  the  two  strongest  remaining  camels,  in 
search  of  water.  Before  these  two  men  could  reach  the  mountain,  one 
of  them  dropped  off  his  camel  deprived  of  speech,  and  able  only  to 
move  his  hands  to  his  comrade  as  a  signal  that  he  desired  to  be  left  to 
his  fate.  The  survivor  then  continued  his  route ;  br.t  such  was  the  ef- 
fect of  thirst  upon  him  that  his  eyes  grew  dim,  and  he  lost  the  road, 
though  he  had  often  travelled  over  it  before,  and  had  been  perfectly 
acquainted  with  it.  Having  wandered  about  for  a  long  lime,  he  alight- 
ed under  the  shade  of  a  tree,  and  tied  the  camel  to  one  of  its  branches: 
the  beast,  however,  smelt  the  water,  (as  the  Arabs  express  it,)  and, 
wearied  as  it  was,  broke  its  halter,  and  set  off  galloping  furiously  in  the 
direction  of  the  spring,  which,  as  it  afterwards  appeared,  was  at  half 
an  hour's  distance.  The  man,  well  understanding  the  camel's  action, 
endeavored  to  follow  its  footsteps,  but  could  only  move  a  few  yards  ;  he 
fell  exhausted  on  the  ground,  and  was  about  to  breathe  his  last,  when 
Providence  led  that  way,  from  a  neighboring  encampment,  a  Bisharye 
Bedouin,  who,  by  throwing  water  upon  the  man's  face,  restored  him  to 
his  senses.  They  then  went  hastily  together  to  the  water,  filled  the 
skins,  and  returning  to  the  caravan,  had  the  good  fortune  to  find  the 


94  FAMILY 


CAMEL. LLAMA. 


sufferers  still  alive.  The  Bisharye  received  a  slave  for  his  trouble. 
My  informer,  a  native  of  Yembo,  in  Arabia,  was  the  man  whose  camel 
discovered  the  spring ;  and  he  added  the  remarkable  circumstaijce,  that 
the  youngest  slaves  bore  the  thirst  hotter  than  the  rest,  and  that,  while 
the  grown  up  boys  all  died,  the  children  reached  Egypt  in  safety." 

At  particular  seasons  of  the  year,  camel-fights  are  common  at  Smyr- 
na and  Aleppo.  They  are  led  out  to  a  large  plain,  where  they  are 
muzzled,  to  prevent  their  being  seriously  injured,  for  their  bite  is  tre- 
mendous, and  are  let  loose,  a  couple  at  a  time.  Their  mode  oficombat 
is  curious:  they  knock  their  heads  together  (laterally)  twist  their  long 
necks,  wrestle  with  their  fore  legs,  and  seem  chiefly  intent  in  throwing 
each  other  down.  The  following  cut  will  give  the  reader  a  pretty  just 
idea  of  a  camel-fight. 


LLAMA.  This  animal  is  a  native  of  South  America,  particularly  of 
the  mountainous  district  of  Chili  and  Peru,  where,  it  is  said,  that  they 
abound  by  thousands,  and  almost  by  millions.  Their  heads  are  small 
in  proportion  to  thnir  bodies;  and  are  somewhat  in  shape  between  the 
head  of  a  horse  and  that  of  a  sheep,  the  upper  lip  being  cleft  like  that 
of  a  hare,  through  which  they  can  spit  to  the  distance  of  ten  paces  : 
and  if  the  spittle  happens  to  fall  on  the  face  of  a  person,  it  causes  a  red 
itchy  spot.  Their  necks  are  long,  and  concavely  bent  downwards,  like 
that  of  a  camel,  which  animal  they  greatly  resemble,  except  in  having 
no  hump  on  their  backs,  and  being  much  smaller.  Their  ordinary 
height  is  from  four  feet  to  four  and  a  half,  and  their  ordinary  burden 
does  not  exceed  an  hundred  weight.  They  walk,  holding  up  their 
heads,  with  wonderful  gravity,  and  at  so  regular  a  pace,  as  no  beating 
can  quicken.  At  night  it  is  impossible  to  make  them  move  with  their 
loads,  for  they  lie  down  till  these  are  taken  otf,  and  then  go  to  graze. 
Their  ordinary  food  is  a  sort  of  grass  called  yelio^  something  like  a  small  * 
rush,  but  finer,  and  has  a  sharp  j)oint,  with  which  all  the  mountains  aro 
covered  exclusively.     They  eat  little,  and  seldom  drink,  so  that  they  are 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


95 


LLAMA. GIRAFFE. 


caiily  maintained.  They  have  cloven  feet,  like  sheep,  and  are  used  at 
the  mines  to  carry  ore  to  the  mills  ;  and,  as  soon  as  loaded,  they  set  off 
without  any  guide,  to  the.  place  where  they  are  usually  unloaded. 

They  have  a  sort  of  spur  above  the  foot,  which  renders  thera  sure- 
footed among  the  rocks,  as  it  serves  as  a  sort  of  hook  to  hold  by.  Their 
hair,  or  rather  wool,  is  long,  white,  gray,  and  russet,  in  spots.  These 
animals  are  of  great  use  and  profit  to  their  masters;  for  their  wool  is 
very  good  and  fine,  particularly  of  that  species  pamed  pacas^  which 
have  very  long  fleeces  :— and  they  are  of  httle  expense  for  nourishment, 
for  a  handful  of  maize  suffices  them,  and  they  can  go  a  long  time  with- 
out water.  Their  flesh  is  as  good  as  that  of  the  fat  sheep  in  Castile. 
There  are  now  public  shambles  for  the  sale  of  their  flesh,  in  all  parts  of 
Peru,  where  the  animal  is  found. 

THE  GIRAFFE,  OR  CAMELEOPARD. 


96  FAMILY 


GIRAFFE  OR  CAMELEOPARD. 


Tho  G-IRAFFE,  or  Cameleopard.  There  are  at  prpsent  three  Oi- 
raffeHn  Europe — one  in  tlie  King's  Menagerie,  in  Windsor  Great 
fafk, — one  at  the  Jardine  des  Plantes,  at  Paris, — the  third  at  Venice, 
whieh  arrived  late  in  182fi :  a  fourth  was  sent  to  Constantinople,  but 
died  there.  These  animals  were  all  presents  fom  the  Pasha  of  Egypt. 
Tiil  the  year  l!i27,  when  a  giraffe  arrived  in  England,  and  another  in 
France,  the  animal  had  not  been  seen  in  Europe  since  the  end  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  the  Soldan  of  Egypt  sent  one  to  Lorenzo  di 
Medici.  The  absence  of  the  gi/affe  from  Europe,  for  three  centuries 
and  a  half,  naturally  induced  a  belief,  that  the  descriptions  of  this  ani- 
mal were  in  a  great  part  fabulous — that  a  creature  of  such  extraordina- 
ry height  and  apparent  disproportions  was  not  to  be  found  amongst  the 
actual  works  of  nature. 

This  animal  is  said  to  be  the  tallest  in  the  world,  the  top  of  its  head 
being  about  seventeen  feet  from  the  ground,  and  its  body  about  ten. 
His  size  is  that  of  the  horse;  and,  in  shape,  he  resembles  the  camel. 
From  the  manner  in  which  he  stands,  his  fore  legs  have  the  appearance 
of  being  much  longer  than  his  hind  legs  ;  yet  this  is  not  so.  Bis  mouth 
is  quite  small.  His  hoofs,  which  are  cleft,  resemble  those  of  the  ox. 
The  motions  of  the  head  and  neck  are  extremely  graceful  and  curious, 
possessing  the  flexibility  and  usefulness  of  the  neck  of  the  swan  and 
peacock.  Its  eye  is  large,  prominent,  and  exceedingly  quick  at  catch- 
ing objects  at  a  great  distance ;  it  is  well  defended  by  the  brow,  and  it 
can  see  without  turning  the  head,  behind  and  below  it.  The  ears  are 
well  formed  to  receive  sounds ;  and  are  constantly  bent  forward.  The 
tongue  has  very  peculiar  properties,  and  can  be  so  tapered  as  to  enter 
the  ring  of  a  very  small  key.  Its  taste  and  smell  are  very  acute  and 
delicate,  especially  in  regard  to  the  artificial  food  given  it.  It  can  raise 
the  little  papillae  at  pleasure,  for  the  tongue  at  times  is  perfectly  smooth, 
and  at  others  exceedingly  rough.  It  is  a  small  feeder,  but  drinks  about 
eight  or  ten  quarts  of  milk  in  the  day.  The  upper  lip  is  longer  than 
the  lower  one,  which  assists  the  tongue  in  drawing  in  boucrhs  ;  but 
when  grinding  its  food  it  is  contracted.  It  has  no  teeth  or  nippers  in 
the  upper  jaw,*  and  the  two  outside  ones  are  divided  to  the  socket ;  it 
lies  down  when  it  chews  the  cud. 

His  defence,  as  that  of  the  horse  and  other  hoofed  animals,  consists 
in  kicks ;  and  his  hinder  limbs  are  so  light,  and  his  blows  are  so  rapid, 
that  the  eye  cannot  follow  them.  They  are  sufftcient  for  his  defence 
against  the  lion.  He  never  employs  his  horns  in  resisting  any  attack. 
The  giraffes,  male  and  female,  resemble  each  other  in  iheir  exterior,  in 
their  youth.  Their  obtuse  horns  are  then  terminated  by  a  knot  of  long 
hair  ;  the  female  preserves  this  peculiarity  for  some  time,  but  the  male 
loses  it  at  the  age  of  three  years.  The  hide,  which  is  at  first  of  a  light 
red,  becomes  of  a  deeper  color  as  the  animal  advances  in  age,  and  is  at 
length  of  a  yellow  brown  in  the  female,  and  of  a  brown  approaching  to 
black  in  the  male.  By  this  difference  of  color  the  male  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  female,  at  a  distance. 

DEER.  Animals  of  the  deer  kind,  have  a  head  which  is  elongated, 
but  not  very  large.  The  ears  are  la'-ge  arid  pointed,  the  neck  is  of  mod- 
erate length,  the  body  plump,  and  the  limbs,  slender  though  strongly 
knit.     The  hair  is  very  similar  in  color  throughout  the  species  of  this 


ExNCYCLOPEDIA.  97 


3I00SE. A>IERICAN  ELK. — KEIN   DEER. 

genus,  and  is  dry  and  harsh.  The  young  deer  or  fawns  are  mostly  spot- 
ted with  white,  upon  a  brownish  yellow  ground.  The  males  of  this 
genus  are  all  provided  with  iiorns,  which  are  variously  branched.  The 
species  which  we  shall  notice  are  the  Moose,  American  Elk,  Rein  Deer, 
and  the  Virginia  or  Common  Deer. 

The  MOOSE  is  the  largest  of  the  deer  kind,  and  often  exceeds  the 
largest  horse  in  size  and  bulk.  In  his  form,  ho  is  not  as  handsome,  nor 
are  his  motions  as  graceful,  as  those  of  the  other  species  of  deer.  His 
head  is  large,  and  his  horns,  which  sometimes  exceed  fifty  pounds  in 
weight,  are  unwieldy.  In  the  summer,  the  moose  frequente  swampy 
or  low  grounds,  near  the  margin  of  lakes  and  rivers,  through  which 
he  delights  to  swim,  as  it  frees  him  for  the  time  from  the  annoyance  of 
insects.  During  the  winter,  in  families  of  fifteen  or  twenty,  they  seek 
the  depths  of  the  forest,  for  shelter  and  food.  Their  flesh,  though 
generally  coarser  and  tougher  than  other  vt  iiison,  is  esteemed  excellent 
food,  and  the  Indians,  hunters,  and  travellers  all  declare,  that  they  can 
withstand  more  fatigue,  while  fed  on  this  meat,  than  when  mmg  any 
other.  The  skin  of  the  moose  is  of  great  value  to  the  Indians,  who 
use  it  for  tent  covers,  clothing,  &;c.  This  animal  inhabits  the  northern 
parts  of  both  continents.  In  Europe  it  is  called  the  Elk.  Its  northern 
range  in  America  is  not  ascertained.  It  has  been  found  as  far  north  as 
the  country  has  been  explored.  It  was  formerly  seen  in  the  New  Eng- 
land States;  but  is  now  rare,  even  as  far  south  as  the  State  of  Maine. 

The  AMERICAN  ELK.     This  animal  was,  for  a  long  time,  con- 
sidered as  a  mere  variety  of  the  moose,  if  not  identically  the  same  ; 
but  more  recent   investigation  has  corrected  the  mistake,  and  shown, 
that  though  inferior  in  size  to  the  moose,  in  beauty  of  form,  grace,  and 
agility  of  movement,  and  other  attributes  of  its  kind,  it  is  not  excelled 
by  any  deer  of  the  Old  and  the  New  World.     The  hair  of  the  elk,  in 
autumn,  is  of  a  blueish  gray  color  ;  during  winter  it  continues  of  a 
dark  grey,  and  at  the  approach  of  spring  it  assumes  a  reddish  or  bright 
brown  color,  which  is  permanent  throughout  the  summer.     Its  horns 
often  rise  to  the  height  of  four  and  five  feet.     The  elk  is  shy  and  re- 
tiring.    When  surprised  by  the  hunter,  he  gazes  for  a  moment  intense- 
ly upon  the  object  of  his  fear,  and  then  throwing  back  his  lofty  horns 
upon  his  neck,  he  flies  with  the  velocity  of  the  race  horse.     The  flesh 
of  the  elk  is  highly  esteemed  by  the  Indians  and  hunters  as  food  ;  and 
the  hide  is  converted  to  the  purpose  of  dress,  &c.     The  elk  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  remote  and  thinly  settled  parts  of  Pennsylvania  ; 
but  it  is  only  in  the  western  wilds,  where  exists  a  luxuriant  vegetation, 
and  where  the  solitude  is  seldom  interrupted,  that  they  are  seen  in 
considerable  numbers. 

REIN  DEER.  The  height  of  this  animal  is  generally  about  three 
feet  and  a  half,  and  his  length  about  five  feet  and  a  half.  His  color  is 
commonly  brown,  with  white  under  the  belly.  His  horns  are  long, 
slender,  and  branching. 

This  animal  is  of  great  value  in  the  northern  parts  of  both  conti- 
nents ;  and  constitutes  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  subsistence  of 
the  tribes  inhabiting  the  region  it  frequents.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
Asia,  and  Europe,  the  rein-deer  has  been  domesticated  for  a  lonf  time  ; 
9 


98 


FAMILY 


REIN-DEER. 


and  with  tlie  exception  of  the  dog,  is  the  only  beast  of  draught  or 
burthen  possessed  by  the  natives.  The  North  American  Indians,  how- 
ever, have  never  profited  by  the  docility  of  this  animal  to  aid  them  in 
transporting  their  families  or  property,  though  they  annually  destroy 
great  numbers  of  them,  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh,  hides,  horns,  kc. 

To  the  Laplander,  they  are  of  great  importance,  supplying  the  place 
of  the  horse,  cow,  sheep,  and  goat.  The  milk  is  used  as  food,  and  is 
often  converted  into  cheese.  Of  the  skins,  a  warm  clothing  is  made 
for  winter,  and  when  dressed  into  leather  they  are  converted  into  stock- 
ings, and  shoes,  and  light  summer  clothing.  Harnessed  to  a  sledge, 
a  rein-deer  will  draw  about  300  pounds  ;  but  the  Laplanders  generally 
limit  the  burden  to  240  pounds. 

REIN-DEER  DRAWING  A  SLEDGE. 


The  trot  of  the  rein-deer  is  about  ten  miles  an  hour ;  and  his  power 
of  endurance  is  such,  that  journies  of  loO  miles  in  nineteen  hours  are 
not  uncommon.  There  is  a  portrait  of  a  rein-deer  in  the  palace  of 
Drotningholm,  (Sweden,)  which  is  represented,  upon  an  occasion  of 
emergency,  to  have  drawn  an  officer  with  import?int  despatches,  the  in- 
credible distance  of  eight  hundred  Englieh  miles,  in  forty-eight  hours. 
This  event  is  stated  to  have  happened  in  1699,  and  the  tradition  adds, 
that  the  deer  dropped  down  lifeless  upon  his  arrival. 

The  number  of  deer  belonging  to  a  herd  is  from  three  hundred  to  five 
hundred  ;  with  these  a  Laplander  can  do  well,  and  live  in  tolerable 
comfort.  He  can  make  in  summer  a  sufficient  quantity  of  cheese  for 
the  year's  consumption  ;  and,  during  the  winter  season  can  afford  to 
kill  deer  enough  to  supply  him  and  his  family  pretty  constantly  with 
venison.  With  two  hundred  deer,  a  man,  if  his  family  be  but  small, 
can  manage  to  get  on.  If  he  have  but  one  hundred,  his  subsistence  is 
very  precarious,  and  he  cannot  rely  entirely  upon  them  for  support. 
Should  he  have  but  fifty,  he  is  no  longer  independent,  or  able  to  keep  a 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  99 


DEEK. ELEPHANT. 


separate  establishment  ;  but  generally  joins  his  small  herd  with  that  of 
some  richer  Laplander,  being  then  considered  more  in  the  light  of  a 
menial,  undertaking  the  laborious  office  of  attending  upon  and  watch- 
ing the  herd,  bringing  them  home  to  be  milked,  and  other  similar  offi- 
ces, in  return  for  the  subsistence  afforded  him. 

The  VIRGli\IA,  or  COMMON  DEER.  This  deer  is  the  smallest 
American  species  at  present  known,  and  is  found  in  all  parts  of  North 
America,  and  in  the  northern  parts  of  South  America.  Considerable 
varieties  in  size  and  color,  are  presented  by  this  species,  in  the  exten- 
sive range  of  country  in  which  it  is  found.  The  length  of  the  common 
deer  is  from  five  feet  to  five  feet  and  a  half. 

This  animal  has  always  been  of  great  importance  to  the  Indians, 
scattered  over  the  country,  as  well  as  to  those,  who  have  settled  our 
western  wilds.  Immense  numbers  are  still  found  far  to  the  west,  as  is 
evident  from  the  vast  numbers  of  hides  and  horns  which  are  annually 
brought  into  the  market. 

ELEPHANT.  "  This  wonderful  quadruped,"  says  Bigland,  in  his 
Natural  History, ''  is  a  native  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  is  most  numerous 
in  the  latter.  In  the  extensive  regions  which  lie  between  the  river 
Senegal  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  elephants  abound  more  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  world,  and  are  also  less  fearful  of  man  ;  for  the 
savage  inhabitants  of  those  countries,  instead  of  attempting  to  subdue 
this  powerful  animal,  and  render  him  subservient  to  their  necessities, 
seem  only  desirous  of  avoiding  his  anger.  In  the  countries  near  tiie 
Cape,  elephants  are  seen,  in  large  herds,  consisting  of  many  hundred, 
and  in  the  vast  regions  of  Monomrotana,  Monocmerci,  and  other  parts 
of  the  interior  of  Africa,  they  are  probably  still  more  numerous. 

"At  the  Cape,  the  height  of  the  animal  is  from  12  to  15  feet.  His 
eyes  are  very  small  in  proportion  to  his  size,  but  lively,  brilliant,  and 
full  of  expression.  His  ears  are  very  large,  long  and  pendulous  ;  but 
he  can  raise  them  with  great  facility,  and  make  use  of  them  as  a  fan  to 
cool  himself,  and  drive  away  the  flies  or  insects.  His  hearing  is  re- 
markably fine  :  he  delights  in  the  sound  of  musical  instruments,  to 
which  he  is  easily  brought  to  move  in  cadence.  His  sense  of  smelling 
is  equally  delicate  ;  for  he  is  highly  delighted  with  the  scent  of  odorif- 
erous herbs.  In  each  jaw  he  has  four  grinders ;  one  of  which,  some- 
times measures  nine  inches  in  breadth,  and  weighs  four  pounds  and  a 
half. 

"  The  proboscis,  or  trunk,  is  a  most  wonderful  instrument.  With 
it,  the  animal  can  lift  from  the  ground  the  smallest  piece  of  money,  se- 
lect herbs  and  flowers,  untie  knots,  and  grasp  any  thing  so  firmly,  that 
no  force  can  tear  it  from  him. 

"  Although  the  elephant  be  indisputably  the  strongest,  as  well  as  the 
largest  of  ail  quadrupeds  ;  yet  in  its  native  woods  it  is  neither  formida- 
ble nor  ferocious,  but  mild  and  peaceable  in  its  disposition,  equally 
fearless  and  inoffensive  ;  and  when  tamed  by  man,  and  tutored  by  his 
instructions,  the  noble  animal  submits  to  the  most  painful  drudgery, 
and  is  so  attentive  to  the  commands  of  his  master,  that  a  word  orlook 
IS  sufficient  to  stimulate  him  to  extraordinary  exertion. 

*'  Of  all  the  animals  that  have  been  subjugated  by  the  human  race, 


100 


FAMILY 


ELEPHANT. 


the  elephant  is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  most  tractable  and  obedi- 
ent. When  treated  with  kindness,  he  testifies  his  gratitude  by  fulfilling 
all  the  desires  of  his  keeper,  caresses  him  with  affectionate  fondness, 
receives  his  commands  with  attention,  and  executes  them  with  punctu- 
ality and  zeal.  He  bends  tlie  knee  for  the  accommodation  of  those 
who  wish  to  mount  upon  his  back,  suffers  himself  to  be  harnessed,  and 
seems  to  delight  in  the  finery  of  his  trappings.  These  animals  are 
used  in  drawing  chariots,  waggons  and  various  sorts  of  machines,  hav- 
ing the  strength  of  six  liorses ;  and  they  can  travel  near  a  hundred 
miles  a  day,  and  fifty  or  sixty  regularly,  without  any  violent  effort. 

^VARREN  HASTINGS'  ELEPHANT. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  101 


ELEPHANT. 


It  sometimes  happens,  however,  that  domesticated  elephants  make 
their  escape  to  the  wild  herd.  Warren  Hastings,  the  governor-general 
of  India,  possessed  an  elephant,  which  had  been  ten  years  absent  from 
the  rule  of  man.  His  keeper  being  dismissed,  he  was  refractory  to  all 
others,  who  attempted  to  control  him  ;  and,  at  length,  escaped.  After 
the  long  interval  we  have  mentioned,  his  old  keeper  recognized  him, 
and  the  elephant  instantlysubmitted  himself.  The  preceding  is  an  ex- 
act portrait  of  this  beautiful  animal.  The  instrument  which  he  carries 
with  his  trunk  is  described  as  a  cow-tail,  with  a  silver  handle,  which 
elephants  of  rank  bear  for  driving  off  flies. 

"In  taking  the  elephant,  a  large  piece  of  ground  is  marked  out,  in 
the  midst  of  some  forest,  and  surrounded  with  strong  pahsades,  inter- 
woven with  large  branches  of  trees  ;  one  end  of  this  enclosure  is  nar- 
row, from  which  it  opens  gradually,  so  as  to  take  in  a  considerable  ex- 
tent of  country.  Some  thousands  of  people  assemble,  kindle  large 
fires,  of  which  the  elephants  are  exceedingly  afraid,  and  by  these  and 
the  noise  of  drums,  they  drive  them  towards  the  enclosure.  Another 
large  party  with  the  aid  of  female  elephants  trained  for  the  purpose, 
urge  the  wild  ones  slowly  forward,  the  whole  train  closing  in  after  them, 
shouting  and  making  loud  noises,  till,  by  insensible  degrees,  they  are 
driven  into  the  narrow  part,  through  which  there  is  an  opening  into  a 
smaller  space,  strongly  fenced  in  and  guarded  on  all  sides.  As  soon  as 
a  wild  elephant  enters  this  narrow  passage,  a  strong  bar  closes  it  from 
behind,  and  he  finds  himself  completely  environed.  He  is  then  urged 
forward  to  the  end  of  the  passage,  where  there  is  just  room  enough  for 
him  to  go  througli.  He  is  then  received  into  the  custody  of  two  tame 
elephants,  which  stand  one  on  each  side ;  and  if  he  be  likely  to  prove 
refractory,  they  beat  him  with  their  trunks,  till  he  is  reduced  to  obedi- 
ence and  suffers  himself  to  be  led  to  a  tree,  where  he  is  bound  by  the 
legs  with  stout  thongs  of  untanned  elk-skins.  The  tame  elephants 
are  then  led  back  to  the  enclosure,  and  other  wild  ones  are  brought  to 
submission  in  the  same  manner.  Attendants  are  placed  by  the  side  of 
each  elephant  that  is  caught,  and  in  the  space  of  fourteen  days,  his 
subjugation  is  completed." 

Elephants  are  sometimes  taken,  as  in  the  kingdom  of  Ava,  and  other 
places,  by  means  of  decoy  female  elephants.  These  elephants  are  so 
trained  as  to  favor  the  designs  of  their  drivers.  When  a  male  wild  ele- 
phant is  discovered  alone,  the  decoy  elephants  are  let  loose,  upon  which 
they  proceed  cautiously  towards  him,  grazing  along,  as  if  they  were, 
like  him,  inhabitants  of  the  wild  forest.  As  they  approach  him,  he 
generally  makes  up  to  them,  and  abandons  himself  to  their  caresses. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  hunters  cautiously  creep  under  him,  and  during 
the  intoxication  of  his  pleasure,  fasten  his  fore  legs  with  a  strong  rope ; 
after  which  the  hind  legs  are  secured  in  a  similar  manner,  when  the  fe- 
males quit  him,  he  discovers  his  condition,  and  endeavors  to  make  his 
escape.  If  the  ropes  are  sufficiently  strong,  he  soon  becomes  exhaust- 
ed with  his  own  rage. 


9* 


102 


FAMILY 


ELEPHANT. 


The  following  is  a  represenlalinn  of  the  manner  of  securing  a  male- 
elephant  as  just  described. 


This  extraordinary  quadruped  is  tliirty  yeanj  in  arriving  at  its  fulF 
growth,   and  lives  even   in  a  state  of  captivity  a  hundred  and  twenty 
jents ;  in  a  state  of  natural  freedom,  the  duration  olits  life  is  supposed, 
to  be  much  furllier  extended. 

"  In  regard  to  the  Elephant's  discernment  and  sagacity,  stories  have 
been  related  that  might  seem  incredible,  and  of  which  some  are  un- 
doubtedly fictitious.  Of  such,  however,  as  are  so  well  authenticated 
as  not  to  admit  of  a  doubt,  wc  have  a  sufficient  number  to  shew  its  su- 
periority over  the  rest  of  the  brute  creation.     Some  of  the  actions  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  103 


ELEPHANT. 


this  surprising  animal  might,  indeed,  almost  seem  to  be  the  effects  of  a 
portion  of  intellect,  rather  than  of  mere  instinct. 

"  Among  the  several  anecdotes  communicated  by  the  Marquis  de 
Montmirail,  we  find  that  the  cornac  or  conductor  of  an  elephant,  had 
excited  the  animal  to  make  an  extraordinary  effort,  by  showing  him  a 
vessel  of  arrack,  which  he  pointed  out  as  his  reward  ;  but  when  he  had 
l>erformod  his  arduous  task,  the  elephant  had  the  mortificalion  of  see- 
ing himself  disappointed  of  his  expected  recompense,  and  impatient  of 
being  thus  mocked,  immediately  killed  his  governor. 

"  The  man's  wife  who  was  a  spectator  of  this  dreadful  catastrophe, 
in  a  fit  of  agonizing  grief,  took  her  two  Utile  infants  and  ihxew  them  at 
the  feet  of  the  enraged  animal,  saying,  "  since  you  have  destroyed  my 
husband,  kill  me  also  and  my  children.'''  The  elephant  immediately 
stopped  ;  and,  as  if  stung  with  remorse,  took  up  the  eldest  boy  with 
his  trunk,  placed  him  on  his  neck,  and  would  never  after  obey  any 
other  governor.  It  is  here  to  be  observed,  that  the  elephant  is  ex- 
tremely fond  of  spirituous  liquors,  as  well  as  of  Vv'ine  ;  and  the  sight 
of  a  vessel  filled  with  these  liquors,  v/ill  induce  him  to  make  the  most 
extraordinary  exertions,  and  to  perform  the  most  painful  tasks  ;  and 
to  disappoint  him  is  dangerous,  and  his  revenge  is  almost  certain.  But 
if  he  is  vindictive,  he  is  equally  grateful,  and  will  suffer  no  kindness 
shown  him  to  go  unrewarded. 

"  A  soldier  of  Pondicherry,  who  frequently  carried  one  of  these  an- 
imals a  certain  measure  of  arrack,  being  one  day  a  little  intoxicated, 
and  seeing  himself  pursued  by  the  guard,  who  were  about  to  conduct 
him  to  prison,  took  refuge  under  the  elephant,  where  he  fell  sound 
asleep.  The  gu^rd  attempted  in  vain  to  take  him  from  this  asylum, 
the  elephant  defending  him  with  his  trunk.  The  next  day,  the  soldier 
becoming  sober,  was  terrified  at  seeing  himself  placed  under  so  enor- 
mous an  animal ;  but  the  elephant  caressed  him  with  his  trunk,  to  re- 
move his  fears,  and  made  him  understand  that  ho  might  depart  in 
safely. 

"  The  elephant  is  sometimes  seized  with  a  sort  of  phrenzy,  which 
makes  him  extremely  formidable,  so  that  on  the  first  symptoms  of  mad- 
ness, he  is  commonly  killed,  in  order  to  prevent  mischief:  yet  in  these 
fits  he  has  been  frequently  known  to  distinguish  his  benefactors  ;  so 
strongly  are  gratitude  and  magnanimity  impressed  on  his  nature. 

"  The  elephant  that  was  kept  in  the  menagerie,  at  Versailles,  always 
discerned  when  any  person  designed  to  make  a  fool  of  him,  and  al- 
ways remembered  an  aflroijt,  which  he  never  failed  to  revenge  at  the 
first  opportunity.  Having  been  cheated  by  a  man  who  feigned  to 
throw  something  into  his  mouth,  he  struck  him  with  his  trunk,  and 
broke  two  of  his  ribs,  and  afterwards  trampled  him  under  his  feel,  and 
broke  one  of  his  legs.  A  Painter  being  desirous  of  drawing  him  in  the 
attitude  of  having  his  trunk  erect  and  his  mouth  open,  ordered  his  ser- 
vants to  make  him  retain  that  posture,  by  constantly  throwing  him  fruit ; 
the  servant  however  at  last  deceived  him,  which  so  roused  his  indigna- 
tion, that  perceiving  the  original  cause  of  the  deception  to  be  the  paint- 
er's desire  of  drawing  him,  he  revenged  himself  by  throwing  with  his 
trunk  a  large  quantity  of  water  on  the  paper,  which  completely  spoiled 
the  design. 


104  FAMILY 


ELEPHANT. 


"  The  elephants  exhibited  in  Europe  are  commonly  of  a  diminutive 
size,  as  the  coldness  of  the  climate  both  checks  the  growth  and  abridges 
the  life  of  these  animals.  That  which  has  just  been  mentioned,  and 
which  was  went  by  the  King  of  Portugal  to  Ijonis  14th  A.  1).  1C68,  died 
in  16J!1,  being  four  years  old  at  his  arrival,  and  being  only  tliirteen 
years  at  the  menagerie  at  Versailles.  He  was  six  feet  and  a  half  high, 
at  four  years  old,  and  advanced  in  growth  only  one  foot,  during  lliu 
tiiirteen  years  that  he  lived  in  France,  although  he  was  treated  with 
care,  and  fed  with  profusion.  He  had  every  day  four  pounds  of  bread, 
twelve  pints  of  wine,  two  buckets  of  porridge,  with  tour  or  five  pounds 
of  steeped  bread,  and  two  buckets  of  rice  boiled  in  water. 

"  The  elephant  that  died  in  \H0'3  at  Exeter  change,  was  brought  over 
in  t)ie  Rose  East  Indiauian,  and  purchased  by  the  owner  of  the  mena- 
gerie for  j£lO()0.  He  was  generally  fed  with  hay  and  straw,  and  could 
also  eat  with  avidity,  carrots,  cabbages,  bread  and  boiled  potatoes. 
He  was  so  excessively  fond  of  beer,  that  he  has  been  known  to  drink 
upwards  of  fifty  quarts  in  a  day  given  by  his  numerous  visiters.  He 
drank  also  nine  pails  of  water  daily,  given  at  three  different  tirrtes  ;  but 
the  quantity  he  ate  could  not  be  precisely  ascertained,  as  he  frequently 
scattered  great  part  of  the  straw  which  was  given  him  for  food,  and  ate 
a  considerable  portion  of  that  which  formed  his  litter.  This  animal 
would  kneel  down,  bow  to  the  company,  or  search  the  pocket  of  his 
keeper  at  command," 

Tiie  elephant  is  invariabjy  employed  inJndia,  in  hunting  the  tiger. 
Occasionally  the  hunter,  with  his  rifle,  is  mounted  on  the  elephant's 
back.  When  a  tiger  is  perceived,  he  is  fired  at;  if  wounded,  he  gene- 
rally bounds  towards  tlie  elephant,  with  savage  ferocity.  In  the  meau 
time,  the  elephant,  assisted  by  the  hunters,  prepare  to  keep  him  at  bay  ; 
butif,  at  any  time,  the  elephant's  proboscis  be  injured, the  contest  ends 
from  that  moment.  He  seems  to  lose  his  self  conmiand,  his  courage, 
and-even  his  senses,  and  sets  off  at  full  speed,  utterly  regardless  of  his 
driver,  and  heedless  of  the  way  he  takes.  The  following  is  a  represent- 
ation of  an  elephant  thus  wounded,  fleeing  from  a  tiger. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


105 


GIGANTIC  MASTODON,  OR  MAMMOTH. 


OrOAXTIC  MASTODOX,  or  MAMMOTH.  The  former  of  these 
n;iiiii;s  is  the  appropriate  ap[)e]lation,  according  to  Ur.  Godman,  of  a 
cniature  ofgigantic  dimensions,  which  formerly  exi^itod  in  North  Ame- 
rica. The  race  itself  is  now  extinct ;  but  nearly  entire  skeletons  have 
heen  found,  and  from  thoir  huffe  dimensions,  it  is  apparent  that  they 
were  amonjj  llie  chief  of  the  works  of  God.     To  these   animals,  the 


106  FAMILY 


GIGANTIC  MASTODON. 


name  mammoth,  said  to  be  a  corrviptiou  ot'  the  Hebrew  word  behemoth, 
was  formerly  applied.  Bui  iImj  more  appropriate  name  of  mastodon, 
has,  at  length  been  given  to  it  by  Cuvier. 

*'  The  emotions  experienced."  says  Dr.  Godman.  "  when,  for  the  first 
time,  we  behold  the  giant  relics  of  this  great  onimal,  are  tiiose  of  un- 
uiingled  awe.  We  cannot  avoid  reflecting  on  the  time,  when  this  huge 
frame  was  clothed  with  its  peculiar  integuments,  and  moved  by  appro- 
priate muscles ;  when  the  mighty  heart  dashed  forth  its  torrents  of 
blood  through  vessels  of  enormous  calibre,  and  the  mastodon  strode 
along  in  supreme  dominion  over  every  other  tenant  of  the  wilderness. 
However  we  examine  what  is  left  to  us,  we  cannot  help  feeling  that 
this  animal  must  have  been  endowed  with  a  strength  exceeding  that  of 
other  quadrupeds,  as  much  as  it  exceeded  them  in  size;  and,  looking 
at  its  ponderous  jaws,  armed  with  teeth  peculiarly  formed  for  the  most 
effectual  crushing  of  the  firmest  substances,  we  are  assured  that  its 
life  could  onl}'  be  supported  by  the  destruction  of  vast  quantities  of 
food.  Enormous  as  were  these  creatures  during  life,  and  endowed 
with  faculties  proportioned  to  the  bulk  of  their  frames,  the  whole  race 
has  been  ■  extinct  for  ages.  No  traditions  nor  human  record  of  their 
existence  have  been  saved,  and  but  for  the  accidental  preservation  of  a 
comparatively  few  bones,  we  should  never  have  dreamed  that  a  crea- 
ture of  such  vast  size  and  strength,  once  existed, — nor  could  we  have 
believed  that  such  a  race  had  been  extinguislied  forever. 

*'Such,  however,"  continues  Dr.  Godman,  '^  is  the  fact — ages  after 
ages  have  rolled  away — empires  and  nations  have  arisen,  flourished, 
and  sunk  into  irretrievabe  oblivion,  while  the  bones  of  the  mastodon, 
which  perished  long  before  the  periods  of  their  origin,  have  been  dis- 
covered, scarcely  changed  in  color,  and  exhibitinj;  all  the  marks  of  per- 
fection and  durability.  That  a  race  of  animals  so  large,  and  consisting 
of  so  many  species,  should  become  entirely  and  universally  extinct,  is 
a  circumstance  of  high  interest;  for  it  is  not  with  the  mastodon  as  with 
the  elephant,  which  still  continues  to  be  a  living  genus,  although  many 
of  its  species  have  become  extinct : — the  entire  race  of  the  mastodon 
has  been  utterly  destroyed,  leaving  nothing  but  the  'mighty  wreck'  of 
their  skeletons,  to  testify  that  they  once  were  among  the  living  occu- 
pants of  this  land." 

The  BEAR  in  general  is  an  animal  of  'ijreat  strength  and  ferocity  of 
disposition,  slow  in  his  movements  and  of  sluggish  habits.  The  eyes 
and  ears  are  small,  and  the  tongue  smooth.  The  body  and  limbs  are 
large  and  powerful,  and  covered  with  a  thick  woolly  hair.  Of  this 
animal  there  are  several  species.  We  shall  notice  but  three  ;  the 
black,  grisly  and  polar  bear. 

Black  Bkaii.  This  bear  is  found  throughout  North  America,  from 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  sea,  to  its  most  southern  extremity.  He  is 
about  three  feet  hiii:h,  and  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  feet  long.  His 
feet  I'.re  louo-,  and  crowned  with  five  claws  each.  The  food  of  this  ani- 
mal is  principally  grapes,  plums,  whortle-berries,  bramble,  and  other 
berries;  he  is  also  particularly  fond  of  the  acorns  of  the  live  oak,  on 
which  he  grows  excessively  fat,  in  Florida,  &c.  In  attempting  to  pro- 
cure these  acorns,  bears  subject  themselves  to  great  perils,  for  after 
climbing  these  enormous  oak-trees,  they  push  tliemselves  along  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 107 

BLACK  BEAR. 

limbs  towards  the  extreme  branches,  and  with  their  fore-paws  bend 
the  twififs  within  reach,  thus  exposing  themselves  to  severe,  and  even 
fatal  accidents,  in  case  of  a  fall.  They  are  also  very  fond  of  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  nuts  and  esculent  roots,  and  often  ramble  to  great  distances 
from  their  dens,  in  search  of  whortle-berries,  mulberries,  and  indeed  all 
sweet  flavored  and  spicy  fruits  ;  birds,  small  quadrupeds,  insects,  and 
eggs,  are  devoured  by  them,  whenever  they  can  be  obtained. 

In  the  north,  the  flesh  of  the  black  bear  is  fitted  for  the  table,  after 
the  middle  of  July,  when  the  berries  begin  to  ripen  ;  though  some  kinds 
of  berri*;s  on  which  they  feed,  impart  a  very  disagreeable  flavor  to  their 
flesh.  They  remain  in  good  condition  until  the  following  January  or  " 
February  ;  late  in  the  spring,  they  are  much  emaciated,  and  their  flesh 
is  inditierent,  in  consequence  of  their  long  fasting  through  the  season  of 
their  torpidity. 

The  black  bear,  like  all  the  species  of  this  genus,  is  very  tenacious  of 
life,  and  seldom  falls  unless  shot  through  the  brain  or  heart.  An  ex- 
perienced hunter  never  advances  on  a  bear  that  has  fallen,  v.'ith<Mit 
stopping  to  load  his  tide,  as  the  beast  frequently  recovers  to  a  consider- 
able degree,  and  would  then  be  a  most  dangerous  adversary.  The 
skull  appears  actually  to  be  almost  impenetrable,  and  a  rifle  ball,  fired 
at  the  distance  of  ninety-six  yards,  has  been  flattened  against  it,  with- 
out appearing  to  do  any  material  injury  to  the  bone.  The  best  place  to 
direct  blows  against  the  bear  is  upon  his  snout ;  when  struck  else- 
where, his  dense  woolly  coat,  thick  hide,  and  robust  muscles,  render 
manual  violence  almost  entirely  unavailing. 

When  the  bear  is  merely  wounded,  it  is  very  dangerous  to  attempt 
to  kill  him,  with  such  a  weapon  as  a  knife  or  tomahawk,  or  indeed  any 
thing  which  may  bring  one  within  his  reach.  In  this  way  hunters  and 
others  have  paid  very  dearly  for  their  rashness,  and  barely  escaped 
with  their  lives.  The  following  instance  may  serve  as  an  example  of 
the  danger  of  such  an  enterprise. 

A  farmer,  by  the  name  of  Mayborne,  residing  in  the  county  of  Cayu- 
ga, state  of  New  York,  having  discovered  the  traces  of  a  bear,  took  a 
pitchfork  and  hatchet,  and  proceeded,  in  company  with  his  son,  a  boy 
10  or  11  years  of  age,  in  quest  of  him.  The  bear  was  at  length  discov- 
ered, under  a  projecting  cliff,  below  which  was  a  deep  ravine,  at  the 
bottom  of  which  was  a  sort  of  basin  or  pond  of  water. 

Mayborne,  desiring  his  boy  to  remain  where  he  was,  took  the  pitch- 
fork, and  descending  to  the  bottom,  determined,  from  necessity,  to  at- 
tack him  from  below.  The  bear  kept  his  position,  until  the  man  ap- 
proached within  six  or  seven  feet,  when  on  the  instant,  instead  of  being 
able  to  make  a  stab  with  the  pitchfork,  he  found  himself  grappled  by 
the  bear,  and  both  together  rolled  towards  the  pond,  at  least  twenty,  or 
twenty-fi7e  feet,  the  bear  biting  his  left  arm,  and  hugging  him  almost 
to  suftbcation.  By  great  exertion,  the  man  thrust  his  right  arm  partly 
down  his  throat,  and  in  that  manner  endeavored  to  strangle  him,  but 
was  once  more  hurled  headlong  down  through  the  bushes,  a  greater 
distance  than  before,  into  the  water.  Here,  finding  the  bear  gaining  on 
him,  he  made  one  desperate  effort,  and  drew  the  animal's  head  partly 
under  water,  and  repeating  his  exertions, at  last  weakened  him  so  much, 
that,   calling  to   his  boy,   who  stood  on  the  other  side  in  a  state  little 


108  FAMILY 


GRISLY   BEAR. 


short  of  distraction  for  the  fate  of  his  father,  to  bring  him  the  hatchet, 
he  sunk  tlie  edge  of  it,  by  repeated  blows,  into  the  brain  of  the  bear. 
This  man.  although  robust  and  muscular,  was  scarcely  able  to  crawl 
home,  where  he  lay  for  nearly  three  weeks,  the  flesh  of  his  arm  being 
much  crushed,  and  his  breast  severely  mangled.  The  bear  weighed 
upwards  of  four  hundred  pounds. 

Grisly  Bear.  This  bear  is  in  length  about  seven  feet,  and,  in 
height,  four  and  a  half.  His  hair  is  long  and  generally  almost  black. 
He  is  unable  to  climb  trees,  like  other  bears,  and  is  more  intimidated  by 
the  voice,  than  the  aspect  of  man.  His  ferocity,  under  the  excitement 
of  hunger,  is  terrible.  His  name  is  dreadful  to  the  Indians,  and  the 
killing  of  one  is  esteemed  equal  to  a  great  victory. 

This  bear,  at  present,  inhabits  the  country  adjacent  to  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  it  frequents  the  olains,  or  resides 
in  the  copses  of  wood,  which  skirt  along  the  margin  of  water  courses. 

The  grisly  bear  is  remarkably  tenacious  of  life,  and  on  many  occa- 
sions numerous  rifle-balls  have  been  fired  into  tlie  body  of  an  individu- 
al, without  much  apparent  injury.  Instances  are  related  by  the  travel- 
lers, who  have  explored  the  countries  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  of  from  ten  to  fourteen  balls  having  been  discharged  into 
the  body  of  one  of  these  bears  before  it  expired. 

The  following  statement  is  from  Major  Long's  Expedition  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

"  One  evening,  the  men  in  the  hindmost  of  one  of  Lewis  and  Clark's 
canoes  perceived  one  of  these  bears,  lying  in  the  open  ground,  about 
three  hundred  paces  from  the  river,  and  six  of  them,  who  were  all  good 
hunters,  went  to  attack  him.  Concealing  themselves  by  a  small  emi- 
nence, they  were  able  to  approach  within  forty  paces  unperceived  ; 
four  of  the  hunters  now  fired,  and  each  lodged  a  ball  in  his  body,  two 
of  which  passed  directly  through  his  lungs.  The  bear  sprang  up,  and 
ran  furiously  with  open  mouth  upon  them  ;  two  of  the  hunters,  who 
had  reserved  their  fire,  gave  him  two  additional  wounds,  and  one 
breaking  his  shoulder  blade,  somewhat  retarded  his  motions.  Before 
they  could  again  load  their  guns,  he  came  so  close  to  them,  that  they 
were  obliged  to  run  towards  the  river,  and  before  they  had  gained  it, 
the  bear  had  almost  overtaken  them.  Two  men  jumped  into  the  ca- 
noe ;  the  other  four  separated,  and  concealing  themselves  among  the 
willows,  fired  as  fast  as  they  could  load  their  pieces.  Several  times  the 
bear  was  struck,  but  each  shot  seemed  only  to  increase  his  fury  to- 
wards the  hunters.  At  last  he  pursued  them  so  closely,  that  they  threw 
aside  their  guns  and  pouches,  and  jumped  from  a  perpendicular  bank 
into  the  river.  The  bear  sprung  after  them,  and  was  very  near  the 
hindmost  man,  when  one  of  the  hunters  on  the  shore  shot  him  through 
the  head,  and  finally  killed  him.  When  they  dragged  him  on  shore, 
tbey  found  that  eight  balls  had  passed  through  his  body  in  diflferent  di- 
rections." 

Polar  Bear.  This  animal  is  stated  to  be  generally  four  or  five  feet 
high,  from  seven  to  eight  feet  long,  and  nearly  the  same  in  circumfer- 
ence. Individuals  have  frequently  been  met  with  of  much  greater  size  ; 
Barentz  killed  one  in  Cherie  Island,  whose  skin  measured  thirteen  feet. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  109 


SEAL. 


The  weight  is  generally  from  six  to  eight  hundred  pounds.  The  hair 
of  the  body  is  long,  and  of  a  yellowish  white  color,  and  is  very  shaggy 
about  the  inside  of  the  legs.  The  paws  are  seven  inches  or  more  in 
breadth,  with  claws  two  inches  long. 

A  considerable  part  of  the  Polar  bear's  food  is  supplied  by  seals,  but 
very  probably  he  suffers  long  fasts  and  extreme  hunger,  owing  to  the 
peculiar  vigilance  of  these  creatures  ;  occasionall)',  he  is  much  reduced 
by  being  carried  out  to  sea  on  a  small  island  of  ice,  where  he  may  be 
forced  to  remain  for  a  week,  without  an  opportunity  of  procuring  food. 
In  this  situation,  they  have  been  seen  on  ice-is!ands,  two  hundred  miles 
distant  from  land,  and  sometimes  they  are  drifted  to  the  shores  of  Ice- 
land, or  Norway,  where  they  are  so  ravenous  as  to  destroy  all  the  ani- 
mals they  find. 

SEAL.  The  seal  has  a  round  head,  and  in  the  fore  part  bears  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  the  otter,  though  the  whole  aspect  is  not  un- 
like that  of  some  varieties  of  the  dog,  whence  the  names  of  sea-dog 
and  sea-wolf  have ''been  applied  to  different  species  of  the  seal.  The 
general  color  of  the  seal  is  of  a  yellowish  gray,  varied  or  spotted  with 
brown  or  black  in  different  degrees,  according  to  the  age  of  the  animal. 

The  common  seal  frequents  the  sea  coasts,  perhaps  throughout  the 
world  ;  but  is  most  numerous  in  high  northern  latitudes,  and  furnishes 
the  inhabitants  of  those  frigid  regions  with  nearly  all  their  necessaries 
and  luxuries.  The  food  of  the  common  seal  is  fish,  crabs,  and  birds, 
which  last  it  contrives  to  secure  by  rising  under  them,  and  seizing  their 
feet  before  they  are  aware  of  its  approach.  Feeding  on  much  the 
same  food  as  some  whales,  the  latter  are  not  found  where  seals  are 
very  numerous.  In  the  spring  of  the  year,  the  seals  are  fattest,  and 
yield  several  gallons  of  blubber  ;  small  ones  afford  four  or  five  gallons 
of  oil. 

The  best  situation  for  sealing  in  the  Arctic  Seas  is  stated  by  Scores- 
by^  to  be  in  the  vicinity  of  Jan  Mayen's  Island,  and  the  best  season,  the 
months  of  March  and  April. 

The  number  of  seals  destroyed  in  a  single  season  by  the  regular 
sealers,  may  well  excite  surprise  ;  one  ship  has  been  known  to  obtain  a 
cargo  of  four  or  five  thousand  skins,  and  upwards  of  a  hundred  tons 
of  oil.  Whale  ships  have  accidentally  fallen  in  with  and  secured  two 
or  three  thousand  of  these  animals,  during  the  month  of  April.  The 
sealing  business  is,  however,  very  hazardous,  when  conducted  on  the 
borders  of  the  Spitsbergen  ice.  Many  ships,  with  all  their  crews,  are 
lost  by  the  sudden  and  tremendous  storms  occurring  in  ihose  seas, 
where  the  dangers  are  vastly  multiplied  by  the  driving  of  immense 
bodies  of  ice.  In  one  storm  that  occurred  in  the  year  1774,  no  less 
than  five  seal  ships  were  destroyed  in  a  few  hours,  and  six  hundred 
valuable  seamen  perished. 

The  seal  is  generally  very  fat,  as  his  supply  of  food  is  abundant,  and 
the  amount  of  blood  contained  in  his  body  is  far  greater  than  would  be 
inferred  from  comparing  him  with  other  animals.  The  flesh  is  of  a 
very  dark  red  color,  and  rather  soft  ;  that  of  the  young  animal  is 
thought  to  be  quite  good  by  Europeans,  but  the  Esquimaux  are  ex- 
tremely fond  of  it  at  every  age,  and  under  all  circumstances. 

10 


no  FAMILY 


BEAVER. 


BEAVER.  This  animal  is  represented  by  Dr.  Godman  as  about 
two  feet  in  length,  having  a  thick  and  heavy  body,  especially  at  its 
hinder  part.  The  head  is  compressed  and  somewhat  arched  at  the 
front,  the  upper  part  being  rather  narrow,  and  the  snout,  at  the  extrem- 
ity, quite  so  ;  the  neck  is  very  short  and  thick.  The  eyes  are  situated 
rather  high  up  on  the  head,  and  have  rounded  pupils  ;  the  ears  are 
short,  elliptical,  and  almost  entirely  concealed  by  the  fur.  The  whole 
skin  is  covered  by  two  sorts  of  hair  ;  one  which  is  long,  rather  stiff, 
elastic,  and  of  a  grey  color  for  two  thirds  of  its  length  next  the  base, 
and  terminated  by  shining,  reddish,  brown  points,  giving  the  general 
color  to  the  pelage  ;  the  other  is  short,  very  fine,  thick,  tufted  and  soft, 
being  of  diflerent  shades  of  silver  gray,  or  light  lead  color.  On  the 
head  and  feet,  the  hair  is  shorter  than  elsewhere.  The  tail,  which  is 
ten  or  eleven  inches  long,  is  covered  with  hair  similar  to  that  of  the 
back. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  beaver,  at  first  view,  would  remind  one 
of  a  very  large  rat,  and  seen  at  a  little  distance,  it  might  be  readily 
mistaken  for  the  common  musk-rat.  But  the  greater  size  of  the  beaver, 
the  thickness  and  breadth  of  its  head,  and  its  horizontally  flattened,, 
broad  and  scaly  tail,  render  it  impossible  to  mistake  it  for  any  other 
creature,  when  closely  examined. 

Beavers  are  not  particular  in  the  site  they  select  for  the  establishment 
of  their  dwellings  ;  but  if  in  a  lake  or  pond  where  a  dam  is  not  re- 
quired, they  are  careful  to  build  where  the  water  is  sufficiently  deep. 
In  standing  waters,  however,  they  have  not  the  advantage  afforded  by 
a  current  for  the  transportation  of  their  supplies  of  wood,  which,  when 
they  build  on  a  running  stream,  is  always  cut  higher  up  than  the  place 
of  their  residence,  and  floated  down. 

The  materials  used  for  the  construction  of  their  damp,  are  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  small  birch,  mulberry,  willow,  poplar,  &c.  They  be- 
gin to  cut  down  their  timber  for  building  early  in  the  summer,  but  their 
edifices  are  not  commenced  until  about  the  middle  or  latter  part  of 
August,  and  are  not  completed  until  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season. 
The  strength  of  their  teeth,  and  their  perseverance  in  this  work,  may 
be  fairly  estimated  by  the  size  of  the  trees  they  cut  down.  Dr.  Best 
informs  us  that  he  has  seen  a  mulberry  tree,  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
which  had  been  gnawed  down  by  the  beaver. 

The  figure  of  the  dam  varies  according  to  circumstances.  Should 
the  current  be  very  gentle,  the  dam  is  carried  nearly  straight  across; 
but  when  the  stream  is  swiftly  flowing,  it  is  uniformly  made  with  a 
considerable  curve,  having  the  convex  opposed  to  the  current. 

The  dwellings  of  the  beaver  are  formed  of  the  same  materials  as 
their  dams,  and  are  very  rude,  though  strong,  and  adapted  in  size  to 
the  number  of  their  inhabitants.  These  are  seldom  more  than  four 
old  and  six  or  eight  young  ones.  Double  that  number  have  been 
found  occasionally  in  one  of  the  lodges,  though  this  is  by  no  means 
common. 

When  building  their  houses,  they  place  most  of  their  wood  cross- 
wise, and  nearly  horizontally,  observing  no  other  order  than  that  of 
leaving  a  cavity  in  the  middle.  Branches  which  project  inward  are 
cut  off  with  their  teeth  and  thrown  among  the  rest.     The  houses  are 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  Ill 


BEAVER. 


3y  no  means  built  of  slicks  first  and  then  plastered,  but  all  the  mate* 
lis,  sticks,  mud,  and  stones,  if  the  latter  can  be  procured,  are  mixed  up 
together,  and  this  composition  'is  employed  from  the  foundation  to  the 
summit.  The  mud  is  obtained  from  the  adjacent  banks  or  bottom  of 
the  stream  or  pond,  near  the  door  of  the  hut.  Mud  and  stones  the 
beaver  always  carries  by  holding  them  between  his  fore  paws  and 
throat. 

Their  work  is  all  performed  at  night,  and  with  much  expedition. 
When  straw  or  grass  is  mingled  with  the  mud  used  by  them  in  build- 
ing, it  is  an  accidental  circumstance,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  spot 
whence  the  latter  is  taken.  As  soon  as  any  part  of  the  material  is 
placed  where  it  is  intended  to  remain,  they  turn  around  and  give  it  & 
smart  blow  with  their  tail.  The  same  sort  of  blow  is  struck  by  them 
upon  the  surface  of  the  water  when  they  are  in  the  act  of  diving. 

The  outside  of  the  hut  is  covered  or  plastered  with  mud  late  in  the 
autumn,  and  after  frost  has  begun  to  appear.  By  freezing,  it  soon  be- 
comes almost  as  hard  as  stone, -effectually  excluding  their  great  enemy, 
the  wolverene,  during  the  winter.  Their  habit  of  walking  over  the 
work  frequently  during  its  progress,  has  led  to  the  absurd  idea  of  their 
using  their  tail  as  a  trowel. 

The  beaver  feeds  principally  upon  the  bark  of  the  aspen,  willow, 
birch,  poplar,  and  occasionally  the  alder,  but  it  rarely  resorts  to  the 
pine  tribe,  unless  from  severe  necessity.  They  provide  a  stock  of 
wood  from  the  trees  mentioned,  during  the  summer  season,  and  place 
it  in  the  water  opposite  the  entrance  to  their  houses. 

The  beaver  is  a  cleanly  animal,  and  always  leaves  the  house  to  at- 
tend to  the  calls  of  nature  ;  the  excrement  being  light  rises  to  the  top 
of  the  water,  and  soon  separates  and  disappears.  Thus,  however 
great  may  be  the  number  of  inhabitants  occupying  the  hut,  no  accumu- 
lation of  filth  of  this  kind  occurs. 

The  number  of  beavers  killed  in  the  northern  parts  of  this  country 
is  exceedingly  great,  even  at  the  present  time,  after  the  fur  trade 
has  been  carried  on  for  so  many  years,  and  the  most  indiscriminate 
warfare  waged  uninterruptedly  against  the  species.  In  the  year  1820, 
sixty  thousand  beaver  skins  were  sold  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
which  w^e  can  by  no  means  suppose  to  be  the  whole  number  killed 
during  the  preceding  season.  If  to  these  be  added  the  quantities  col- 
lected by  the  traders  from  the  Indians  of  the  Missouri  country,  we 
may  form  some  idea  of  the  immense  number  of  these  animals  which 
exist  throughout  the  vast  regions  of  the  north  and  west. 


SECTION  VI. 


FISH. 


It  is  not  our  design,  nor  will  it  accord  with  our  limits,  to  enter  into 
the  natural  history  of  fish  in  general ;  but  rather  to  notice,  in  brief 
terms,  a  few  Of  the  more  common  sorts  ;  those  which  are  important  ei- 


112  FAMILY 


FISH. 


ther  as  aliments,  or  otherwise  contributing  to  the  comfort  of  man.     We 
begin  with  the 

SALMON  FISHERY.  Salmon  are  a  very  general,  and  favorite  ar- 
ticle of  food.  When  eaten  fresh,  they  are  tender,  flaky,  and  nutritive  ; 
but  are  thought  to  be  difficult  of  digestion.  The  flesh  of  the  salmon 
is  of  a  red  color,  and  the  beauty  of  its  appearance  is  increased,  by  soak- 
ing the  slices  of  it  in  fresh  water,  before  they  are  cooked.  It  has  two 
fins  on  the  back,  wliich  distinguish  it  from  other  fish.  It  will  live  both 
in  salt  and  fresh  water,  and  is  often  found  at  the  distance  of  200  miles 
up  rivers,  in  the  season  of  spawning ;  and  will,  with  this  object  in  view, 
leap  mill-dams  and  falls  many  feet  high.  The  modes  of  curing  salmon 
are  various  ;  but  are  chiefly  by  drying,  smoking,  salting,  and  pickling. 
The  chief  places  in  Europe  where  the  salmon  fishery  is  carried  on,  are 
in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  in  the  rivers,  and  sea  coasts  near  the 
rivers'  mouths.  The  fishing  season  usually  begins  about  the  first  of 
January,  and  ends  by  the  last  of  September.  It  is  commonly  performed 
with  nets.  Salmon  were  formerly  abundant  in  the  rivers  of  New  Eng- 
land, especially  in  the  Connecticut  river.  At  the  period  of  their  great- 
est abundance,  they  were  sold  for  two  coppers  a-piece.  At  present, 
they  are  taken  chiefly  in  the  rivers,  and  on  the  coast  of  Maine. 

COD  FISHERY.  The  cod  is  a  fish  of  passage,  and  is  usually  from 
eighteen  inches  to  three  or  four  feet  long ;  with  a  large  head,  and  teeth 
in  the  bottom  of  the  throat.  Its  flesh  is  white,  its  skin  brownish  on  the 
back,  and  covered  with  a  few  transparent  scales.  It  eats  excellently 
wlieu  fresh  ;  and  if  well  prepared  and  salted  will  keep  a  long  time. 
The  grand  resort,  for  centuries  past,  of  this  fish,  has  been  on  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland,  and  near  Cape  Breton.  The  vessels  used  are  from 
a  hundred  to  a  hundred  and  fifty  tons  burden,  and  they  catch  thirty  or 
forty  thousand  fish  a-piece.  The  most  essential  article  in  this  fishery 
is,  to  have  a  master  who  knows  how  to  open  the  fish,  to  cut  off*  the 
heads,  and  salt  them  ;  upon  his  ability  in  this  the  success  of  the  voyage 
depends.  The  commerce  in  this  kind  of  fish  is  the  most  secure  and  ad- 
vantageous that  is  known.  The  best  fishing  season  is  from  the  begin- 
ning of  February  to  the  end  of  April,  at  which  time  the  cods,  which 
during  the  winter  had  retired  to  the  deepest  part  of  the  sea,  return  to 
tlie  bank  and  grow  very  fat.  Those  caught  from  March  to  June  keep 
well  enough  ;  but  those  in  July,  August,  and  September,  soon  spoil. 
The  fishing  is  sometimes  done  in  a  month  or  six  weeks  ;  sometimes  it 
holds  six  months. 

Each  fisher  only  takes  a  cod  at  a  time  ;  and  yet,  an  experienced  man 
will  take  three  or  four  hundred  in  a  day.  They  salt  the  cod  on  board. 
This  description  respects  the  green  codjishery.  In  the  fishing  of  rfn/  cod^ 
vessels  of  all  sizes  are  employed.  As  cod  is  only  to  be  dried  in  the  sun, 
the  European  vessels  are  obliged  to  put  out  in  March  or  Apiil,  to  have 
the  benefit  of  the  summer  for  drying.  The  principal  fishery  for  dry 
cod  is  along  the  coasts  of  Placentia,  a  sea-port  of  Newfoundland.  The 
fish  intended  for  this  use,  though  of  the  same  kind  as  the  green  cod,  are 
much  smaller,  and  hence  fitter  to  keep.  The  method  of  fishing  is  much 
tiie  same  in  both ;  only  this  latter  is  more  expensive,  as  it  takes  up  more 
time,  and  employs  more  iiands ;  and  yet  scarce  iialf  the  salt  is  used  in 
this  as  in  the  other.     When  the  fish  have  taken  salt,  they  are  laid  ia 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  113 

FISH. 


piles  on  the  galleries  of  the  scaffold  ;  when  drained,  ihey  are  ranged  on 
hurdles,  and  frequently  turned,  to  dry  the  better.  There  are  four  kinds 
of  commodities  drawn  from  cod  ;  viz.  the  tripes,  or  sounds,  and  tongues 
salted  at  the  same  time  with  the  fish  ;  the  roes  or  eggs,  which  being 
salted  and  barrelled  up,  serve  to  cast  into  the  sea  to  draw  fish  together  ; 
and  lastly  the  oil,  which  is  used  in  dressing  of  leather. 

HERRING  FISHERY.  The  herring  is  a  small  fish,  from  eight  to 
ten  inches  in  length,  which  feeds,  in  countless  multitudes,  in  the  inac- 
cessible seas  of  the  north ;  whence  they  proceed  along  the  coast  of  Hol- 
land, reach  the  Shetland  Islands,  in  the  month  of  June,  where  separa- 
ting, they  surround  the  British  Isles.  In  September  they  unite  again, 
at  Land's  End,  whence  they  proceed  to  the  American  shore,  and  along 
the  coast  of  Newfoundland,  and  at  length,  return  to  their  polar  habita- 
tions. 

The  herring  fishery,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  affords  occupa- 
tion and  support  to  a  great  number  of  people.  In  Holland,  it  has  been 
calculated,  that  formerly  more  than  150,000  persons  were  employed  in 
catching,  pickling,  drying,  and  trading,  in  herrings  ;  and  on  the  differ- 
ent coasts  of  Great  Britain,  many  thousands  of  families  are  entirely 
supported  by  this  fishery.  The  principal  of  the  British  herring  fish- 
eries are  off  the  coasts  of  Scotland  and  Norfolk  ;  and  the  implements 
that  are  used  in  catcliing  the  fish,  are  nets  stretched  in  the  water,  one 
side  of  which  is  kept  from  sinking,  by  buoys  fixed  to  them  at  proper 
distances,  and  the  other  hangs  down,  by  the  weight  of  lead  which  is 
placed  along  its  bottom.  The  herrings  are  caught  in  the  meshes  of  the 
nets,  as  they  endeavour  to  pass  through;  and  unable  to  liberate  them- 
selves, they  continue  there,  until  the  nets  are  hauled  in,  and  they  are 
taken  out. 

Some  of  them  are  pickled^  and  others  dried.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  latter,  (which  have  the  name  of  red  herrings,)  the  fish  are  soaked 
for  twenty-four  hours  in  brine,  and  then  taken  out,  strung  by  the  hand 
on  little  wooden  spits,  and  hung  in  a  chimney  formed  to  receive  them. 
After  this,  a  fire  of  brush-wood,  which  yields  much  smoke,  but  no 
flame,  is  kindled  beneath,  and  they  are  suffered  to  remain  until  they 
are  sufficiently  dried,  when  they  are  packed  in  barrels  for  exportation 
and  sale. 

MACKEREL  FISHERY.  The  mackerel  is  a  salt  water  fish,  usu- 
ally from  a  foot  to  eighteen  inches  in  length  ;  its  weight  seldom  ex- 
ceeds two  or  three  pounds.  It  is  found  on  the  French,  English,  and 
American  coasts,  and  also  in  large  shoals  in  the  ocean.  They  are  ex- 
cellent food  when  fresh,  but  much  greater  quantities  are  used  in  a  pick- 
led state.  This  fishery  employs  a  great  number  of  men,  and  a  large 
capital  both  here  and  in  Great  Britain.  The  method  of  taking  the  fish 
is  either  with  a  line  or  net.  If  with  a  line,  the  bait  used  is  a  piece  of 
red  cloth  or  the  tail  of  a  mackerel.  The  method  of  taking  the  fish 
with  nets  is  more  common,  and  is  usually  performed  in  the  night  time. 
The  water  wherein  mackerel  have  been  boiled  often  yields  a  light  af- 
ter being  stirred  a  little. 

SHAD.  This  important  and  delicious  fish  is  found,  it  is  believed,  in 
no  other  country  besides  America.  In  many  of  the  rivers  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  it  abounds.     During  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  a  part 

10* 


114  FAMILY 


LOBSTER. — OYSTERS. 


of  June,  multitudes  are  caught  which  are  eaten  fresh  or  salted.  Those 
caught  in  the  rivers  of  New  England  arc  the  most  esteemed.  The  Con- 
necticut river  shad  are  justly  famous.  This  fishery  employs  several 
thousand  men,  who  pack  thousands  of  barrels,  which  find  their  way 
into  every  part  of  the  interior. 

The  LOBSTER  is  found  extensively  diffused  in  the  various  salt  wa- 
ters of  the  globe.  The  common  method  of  taking  them  is  in  pots^  or 
a  kind  of  trap,  constructed  of  twigs,  baited  with  garbage,  and  formed 
similar  to  a  wire  mouse  trap,  so  that  the  animal  after  entering  it,  can- 
not escape.  Such  machines  are  fastened  to  a  cord  sunk  in  the  sea,  and 
the  place  is  marked  by  a  buoy.  In  summer,  they  are  found  near  the 
shore,  and  thence  to  about  six  fathoms  deep ;  but,  in  winter,  they  are 
seldom  taken  in  less  than  twelve  or  fifteen  fathoms  of  water. 

Lobsters  continue  to  grow  in  size,  only  whild  their  shells  are  soft. 
Those  selected  for  the  table  ought  to  be  heavy  in  proportion  to  their 
size,  and  be  furnished  with  a  hard  crust  on  their  sides,  which,  when  in 
perfection,  will  not  yield  to  a  moderate  pressure. 

The  meat  of  the  lobster  is  not  easy  of  digestion.  Sometimes  the 
immoderate  use  of  lobsters  is  attended  with  eruptions  of  the  erysipela- 
tous kind  in  the  face,  or  a  species  of  nettle  rash  over  the  whole  body ; 
either  of  which,  being  salutary  efforts  of  nature,  to  expel  noxious  mat- 
ter, are  more  troublesome  than  dangerous. 

OYSTERS.  Of  this  shell  fish,  it  is  said,  that  there  are  an  hundred 
and  fifty  species.  They  are  to  be  found  in  all  countries  on  the  globe. 
In  the  East  Indies,  they  are  sometimes  two  feet  in  diameter.  The  oys- 
ters found  on  the  English  coast  are  said  to  have  a  strong  copper  taste, 
which  they  acquire  from  their  growing  on  the  copper  banks.  This 
taste  renders  them  unpleasant  at  first ;  but,  at  length,  it  imparts  to 
them  a  higher  relish. 

During  the  breeding  season,  and  for  some  weeks  following,  oysters 
are  said  to  be  quite  unhealthy  ;  but  in  all  other  seasons  of  the  year, 
they  are  esteemed  an  excellent  food,  and  are  eaten  both  raw,  and 
dressed  in  various  ways;  in  a  fresh  state,  however,  they  are  doubtless 
preferable;  for,  by  cooking,  they  are  in  a  great  measure  deprived  of 
their  nourishing  jelly,  and  of  the  salt-water  which  promotes  their  di- 
gestion in  the  stomach.  Hence  raw  oysters,  may  be  used  with  equal 
advantage,  by  the  robust,  the  weak,  and  the  consumptive.  Indepen- 
dently of  the  nutritive  effects  peculiar  to  this  shell  fish,  it  generally 
tends  to  open  the  bowels,  especially  if  a  certain  quantity  be  swallowed 
at  one  meal :  hence  to  persons  of  a  costive  habit  they  afford  a  dietetic 
supper. 

TORTOISE.  This  amphibious  animal  is  found  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  South  Seas.  Between  thirty  and  forty  different  species  have 
been  enumerated.  Some  of  the  species,  such  as  the  common  green 
turtle  and  the  hawksbill  turtle^  grow  to  a  very  large  size,  and  arc  not 
unfrequently  four,  five,  or  six  hundred  pounds  in  weight.  Those  who 
lake  them  watch  them  when  they  go  from  their  nests  on  shore,  in 
moon-light  nights  ;  and  before  they  reach  the  sea,  turn  them  on  their 
backs,  and  leave  them  till  morning,  for  they  are  utterly  unable  to  recov- 
er their  former  position  ;  at  other  times  they  hunt  them  in  boats,  with 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  115 


WHALE. 


a  spear,  striking  them  with  it  through  the  shell ;  and  as  there  is  a  cord 
fastened  to  the  spear,  they  are  taken  much  in  the  same  manner  as  whalei. 
Tortoises  will  live  after  being  deprived  of  the  brain,  and  even  of  their 
heads.  The  flesh  of  many  of  the  sea-turtles  is  highly  esteemed  as  food  ; 
that  of  the  hawks-bill,  however  is  inditFerent ;  this  species  is  noticed, 
chiefly  as  producing  the  tortoise-shell  of  commerce,  so  well  known  and 
used  for  various  purposes. 

WHALE.  The  whale,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  is  the 
largest  of  all  animals ;  it  is  sometimes  ninety  feet  long,  and  those  of 
the  torrid  zone  are  said  to  be  much  larger.  The  head  is  about  one 
third  the  length  of  the  whole  fish;  the  under  lip  is  much  broader  than 
the  upper.  The  tongue  is  a  spongy,  fat  substance,  sometimes  yielding 
five  or  six  barrels  of  oil.  The  gullet  or  swallow  of  the  whale,  in  some 
species,  is  very  small  for  so  large  an  animal ;  it  does  not  exceed  four 
incheg  in  width  :  but  it  is  proportioned  to  the  food  it  eats,  which  is  said 
to  be  a  particular  kind  of  small  snail ;  or,  as  some  say,  it  varies  its  re- 
past with  the  medusa,  or  sea-blubber,  an  animal  which  is  found  in  the 
sea.  The  whale  has  two  orifices  in  the  middle  of  the  head,  through 
which  it  spouts  water  to  a  great  height,  and  sometimes  with  a  noise 
like  thunder.  Its  eyes  are  not  larger  than  those  of  an  ox,  and  placed  at 
a  great  distance  from  each  other.  Under  the  skin  the  whale  is  covered 
with  fat  or  blubber,  from  six  to  twelve  inches  thick,  which  sometimes 
yields  from  one  to  two  hundred  barrels  of  oil.  The  flesh  is  red  and 
coarse,  somewhat  like  beef.  The  Greenlanders  eat  it,  and  the  Iceland- 
ers soak  it  in  sour  whey.  Whales,  which  produce  the  well  known  arti- 
cle o^  whale  bone,  are  chiefly  caught  in  the  North  seas ;  the  largest  sort 
about  Greenland  or  Spitzbergen.  At  tlie  first  discovery  of  that  coun- 
try, and  at  the  beginning  of  this  fishery,  they  took  nothing  but  the  pure 
oil  and  the  whalebone,  and  all  the  business  was  executed  in  the  coun- 
try; by  which  means  a  ship  eould  bring  home  the  product  of  many 
more  whales  than  she  can  at  present,  as  it  is  now  conducted. 

A  whale,  extended  motionless,  at  the  surface  of  the  sea,  can  sink  in 
the  space  of  five  or  six  seconds,  beyond  the  reach  of  its  human  ene- 
mies. The  usual  rate  at  which  whales  swim,  seldom  exceeds  four 
miles  an  hour ;  when  urged  by  the  sight  of  an  enemy,  or  alarmed  by 
the  stroke  of  a  harpoon,  they  swim  at  the  rate  of  eight  or  nine  miles 
an  hour.  But  this  speed  never  continues  longer  than  for  a  few  min- 
utes. They  commonly  remain  at  the  surface,  to  breathe,  two  min- 
utes ;  during  which  time,  they  blow  eight  or  nine  times,  and  then  de- 
scend for  an  interval,  usually,  of  five  or  ten  minutes.  When  struck, 
their  descent  extends,  sometimes,  to  the  depth  of  700  or  800  fathoms. 

The  maternal  affection  of  the  whale,  is  striking  and  interesting. 
When  her  cub  is  harpooned,  she  will  join  it  at  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  encourage  it  in  its  attempt  to  escape  ;  and  for  this  purpose,  will 
take  it  under  her  fin,  and  seldom  deserts  it  while  life  remains.  At  such 
times,  she  loses  all  regard  for  her  own  safety,  and  it  is  exceedingly  dan- 
gerous to  approach  her. 

Every  whale  ship  is  furnished  with  six  boats.  Those  called  six  oared 
boats,  adapted  for  carrying  seven  men,  six  of  whom,  including  the 
harpooner,  are  rowers,  are  generally  from  26  to  28  feet  in  length,  and 
about  five  feet  nine  inches  in  breadth.  Six-men  boats,  and  four-oared 
boats  are  proportionably  smaller . 


116  FAMILY 


WHALE. 


The  instruments  in  general  use,  in  the  capture  of  the  whale,  are  the 
harpoon  and  lance.  The  harpoon  is  an  instrument  of  iron,  about  three 
feet  in  length.  It  consists  of  three  conjoined  pans,  called  the  socket, 
shank,  and  mouth ;  the  latter  of  which,  includes  the  barbs  or  withers. 
The  next  in  importance  to  the  harpoon  is  the  lance.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  socket,  six  inches  long,  and  swelling  from  half  an  inch,  the  size 
of  the  shank,  to  near  two  inches  in  diameter  ;  into  which  is  fitted,  a 
four  feet  stock,  or  handle,  of  fir ;  a  shank  five  feet  long,  and  half  an 
inch  in  diameter;  and  a  mouth  of  steel,  which  is  made  very  thin,  and 
exceedingly  sharp,  seven  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  breadth. 

On  the  arrival  of  a  ship,  at  the  fishing  station,  the  master,  or  officer 
of  the  watch,  takes  his  station  in  the  croic's  nest,  a  place  fitted  for  shel- 
tering him  from  the  wind,  on  the  main  top-mast,  or  top-gallant-mast 
head,  from  which  he  keeps  an  anxious  watch,  for  the  appearance  of  a 
whale.  The  moment  that  a  fish  is  seen,  he  gives  notice  to  the  watch 
upon  deck,  part  of  whom  leap  into  a  boat,  are  lowered  down,  and  push 
off  towards  the  place.  On  coming  near,  the  harpoon  is  thrown.  The 
wounded  whale,  in  the  surprise  and  agony  of  the  moment,  makes  a 
convulsive  effort  to  escape.  Then  is  the  moment  of  danger.  The 
boat  is  subjected  to  the  most  violent  blows  from  its  head,  or  its  fins ; 
but  particularly  from  its  po.iderous  tail,  which  sometimes  sweeps  the 
air  with  such  tremendous  fury,  that  bolh  boat  and  men,  are  exposed  to 
one  common  destruction. 

A  signal  is  now  given  to  the  people  on  board  of  the  vessel,  by  setting 
up  one  of  their  oars  in  the  middle  of  the  boat.  On  perceiving  this» 
the  men  on  the  watch,  alarm  all  the  rest  by  the  cry  of  fall,  fall,  and 
the  other  boats  go  immediately  to  the  assistance  of  the  first.  The 
whale,  finding  himself  wounded,  runs  off  with  prodigious  violence, 
sometimes  horizontally,  at  others  descending  perpendicularly.  The 
rope  which  is  fastened  to  the  harpoon  is  about  two  hundred  fathoms 
long ;  but  sometimes  several  ropes  are  united  together.  The  velocity 
with  which  tlic  whale  draws  it  over  the  sides  of  the  boat  is  so  great, 
that  it  is  wetted  to  prevent  its  taking  fire.  The  fishermen  find  it  ne- 
cessary to  let  go  the  rope  for  a  time,  till  the  whale  is  spent,  otherwise 
its  violence  would  sink  the  boat.  The  whale  soon,  however,  comes  up, 
for  it  cannot  stay  long  below  water,  and  being  now  fatigued  and 
wounded,  stays  above  longer  than  usual.  It  is  now  struck  again  with 
a  harpoon,  and  again  descends,  but  with  less  force;  when  it  comes  up 
again,  it  is  generally  incapable  of  descending,  but  suffers  itself  to  be 
wounded  and  killed  with  long  lances,  with  which  the  men  are  provided. 
It  is  known  to  be  near  death  when  it  spouts  up  tlie  water  deeply  tinged 
with  blood.  The  whale  being  dispatched,  the  body  floats  ;  the  fins 
and  tail  are  now  cut  off,  and  it  is  drawn  to  the  vessel  ;  the  blubber  or* 
fat  cutoff,  and  the  whalebone  cut  off  from  the  upper  jaw  ;  the  fat  and 
the  bone  being  all  which  is  wanted,  the  remains  of  the  whale  are 
left.  When  the  ship  is  thus  sufficiently  laden,  it  sails  homewards, 
during  which  voyage  the  fat  is  melted  down  into  oil.  One  of  the  lar- 
gest fish  will  fill  more  than  seventy  butts.  The  produce  of  a  large 
whale  is  valued  at  about  a  thousand  pounds. 

A  considerable  whale  fishery  is  also  carried  on  in  the  South  Sea« ; 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  117 

FOWL. — COCK. 


here  the  object  of  the  fisherman  is  the  spermaceti  whale,  which  produ- 
ces not  only  a  much  more  valuable  oil  than  the  preceding,  but  also  the 
peculiar  substance  called  spermaceti. 


SECTION   VII. 

FOWL. 


No  part  of  nature  exhibits  a  more  beautiful  variety,  than  the  feather- 
ed tribes.  Did  our  limits  permit,  it  would  be  pleasant  to  ourselves,  and 
not  without  interest,  we  trust,  to  our  readers,  to  describe,  at  some 
length,  these  tenants  of  the  air;  but,  as  utility  rather  than  amusement 
is  the  object  of  our  work,  we  must  content  ourselves  with  noticing 
chiefly  that  part  of  the  feathered  creation  which  contributes  to  the  com- 
fort of  man,  with  a  notice  of  a  limited  number  belonging  to  otlier  class- 
es. 

Birds  of  the  more  useful  description  are  of  the  poultry  kind,  in  which 
class  are  ranked  all  those  which  have  white  flesh,  and  bodies  bulky, 
when  compared  with  the  size  of  their  head  and  limbs.  These  are  the 
common  cock,  the  peacock,  the  turkey,  the  Guinea  hen,  the  pheasant 
and  the  partridge. 

The  COCK  is  allowed  originally  to  have  been  a  native  of  Persia, 
imported  into  Europe  many  centuries  ago.  Few  animals  of  the  flying 
species  exhibit  so  many  varieties  as  the  cock ;  there  being  scarcely  two 
birds  of  this  description  that  resemble  each  other  in  plumage  and  shape. 
Some  species  are  without  the  tail,  and  others  destitute  of  a  rump. 
Instead  of  feathers,  which  usually  belong  to  this  fowl,  a  species  is 
found  in  Japan,  which  is  covered  with  hair.  In  the  island  Tinian,  and 
several  others  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  the  plumage  of  the  cock  is  black 
and  yellow,  and  his  comb  and  wattles  are  of  the  latter  color  and  pur- 
ple combined. 

No  animal  in  the  world  has  greater  courage  than  the  common  do- 
mestic cock,  when  opposed  to  one  of  his  own  species ;  and  in  every 
part  of  the  world,  where  refinement  and  polished  manners  have  not 
entirely  taken  place,  cock  fighting  is  a  principal  diversion.  In  several 
parts  of  Europe,  this  vulgar  amusement  is  still  common,  and  is  not  un- 
frequent  in  some  of  the  southern  states  of  our  own  country.  The  fol- 
lowing story  is  authentically  related  of  a  gentleman,  some  years  since 
in  England,  who  was  passionately  fond  of  this  species  of  gaming.  He 
possessed  a  favorite  cock,  on  which  he  had  won  many  profitable  match- 
es. The  last  bet  ho  laid  on  this  cock,  he  lost ;  which  so  enraged  him, 
that  he  had  the  bird  tied  to  a  spit,  and  roasted  alive,  before  a  large  fire. 
The  screams  of  the  miserable  animal  were  so  affecting,  that  some  gen- 
tlemen, who  were  present,  attempted  to  interfere,  which  so  increased 
the  gentleman's  anger  that  he  seized  a  poker,  and  with  the  most  furious 
vehemence  declared,  that  he  would  kill  the  first  man  who  should  inter- 
pose ;    but  in  the  midst  of  his  passionate  asseverations,  he  fell  down 


118 


FAMILY 


HEN. 


dead  upon  the  spot — a  solemn  warning  to  all,  who  violate  the  common 
and  obvious  principles  of  humanity. 

The  HEN.  If  well  fed  and  allowed  to  roam  in  a  farm-yard,  a  good 
hen  will  deposit,  in  the  course  of  twelve  months  above  200  eggs  ;  but 
if  left  entirely  to  herself,  she  seldom  lays  more  than  fifteen  eggs  in  the 
same  nest  without  attempting  to  hatch  them;  but,  if  eggs  only  be  de- 
sired, they  should  be  removed,  one  only  being  left,  and  she  will  contin- 
ue to  lay  for  a  long  time.  When  the  hen  begins  to  sit,  nothing  can 
exceed  her  perseverence  and  patience;  she  continues  for  some  days 
immoveable,  and  when  forced  away  by  the  importunities  of  hunger, 
she  quickly  returns.  While  the  hen  sits,  she  carefully  turns  her  eggs, 
till  at  length,  in  about  three  weeks,  the  young  brood  begin  to  give  signs 
ofa  desire  to  burst  their  confinement.  When  all  are  produced,  she 
then  leads  them  forth  to  provide  for  themselves.  Her  affection  and 
pride  seem  then  to  alter  her  very  nature,  and  correct  her  imperfections. 
No  longer  voracious  and  cowardly,  she  abstains  from  all  food  that  her 
young  can  swallow,  and  flies  boldly  at  every  creature  that  she  thinks  is 
likely  to  do  them  mischief. 

The  proper  heat  for  hatching  a  hen's  egg  according  to  some,  is  104^ 
of  Fahrenheit ;  according  to  others  96°  ;  to  which  degree  the  surface 
of  the  body  of  the  hen  will  raise  the  thermometer,  when  she  sits  upon 
her  eggs.  In  those  birds  who  do  not  sit  constantly^  but  trust  chiefly  to 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  as  the  crane,  heron,  ostrich,  &;c.  &;c.,  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  eggs  is  probably  below  104  degrees. 

The  full  period  of  the  hen  in  this  country,  is  known  to  be  21  days. 
In  warmer  climates,  it  is  said  to  be  a  day  or  two  less.  The  following 
table  was  compiled  by  Count  Morozzo,  in  a  litter  from  him  to  Lace- 
pede,  to  show  the  periods  of  incubation,  compared  with  those  of  the  life 
of  certain  birds. 


jyame  oj   ine  nira. 

jreriua  oj  incuoa. 

Swan, 

42  days 

Parrot, 

40 

Goose, 

30 

Eagle, 

30  X 

Bustard,       - 

30  ♦ 

Duck, 

30^ 

Turkey,       - 

30  ) 

Peacock, 

26  to  27 

Pheasant,     - 

20  to  25 

Crow, 

20 

Nightingale, 

19  to  20 

Hen,             -        - 

19  to  21 

Pigeon, 

17  to  18 

Canary, 

13  to  14 

Goldfinch,  - 

13  to  14 

about  200  years. 
100  years. 
80  or  more. 


not  known. 

25  to  2J5 
18  to  20 
100  or  more. 

17  to  18 

12  to  15 
16  to  17 

13  to  14 

18  to  20 


Artificial  means  have  been  adopted,  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
to  catch  chickens  from  the  eggs,  without  the  assistance  of  the  hen.  In 
Egypt,  the  method  adopted  is  to  place  the  e[rgs  in  stoves,  erected  for 
their  reception,  and  to  supply  them   with  such  a  degree  of  heat,  as  is 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  119 


POULTRY. 


necessary  to  call  them  into  life.     By  this  means,  it  is  said  that  tens  of 
thousands  of  chickens  are  annually  hatched  in  the  above  country.  , 

Reaumur,  the  celebrated  naturalist,  instituted  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, to  reduce  the  art  of  hatching  chickens,  to  fixed  prniciplcs.  Ac- 
cording to  him,  the  degree  of  heat  necessary  to  accomplish  the  object, 
is  96  of  Fahrenheit.  He  also  invented  a  kind  of  hollow  covers,  or  low 
boxes,  without  bottoms,  and  lined  with  fur,  which  he  called  artijicial  pa- 
rents. These  were  designed  to  shelter  the  chickens  when  hatched, 
and  to  afford  them  protection  similar  to  that  of  the  wings  of  the  hen. 

Hens  which  do  not  lay  in  the  winter,  should  have  access  to  slacked 
lime,  pounded  bones,  oyster  shells,  or  other  matter,  which  con<tains  lime, 
or  some  of  its  compounds,  because  something  of  the  kind  is  necessary 
to  form  the  shell  of  their  eggs.  This  is  not  necessary  for  those  hens 
which  are  fed  on  wheat,  as  that  grain  contains  phosphate  of  lime,  the 
substance  of  which  egg-shells  are  composed. 

It  is  obviously  an  important  point  to  ascertain  the  most  economical 
method  of  keeping  and  fattening  poultry.  Boiled  potatoes,  as  food 
for  poultry,  is  both  excellent  and  economical.  Some  writers  recom- 
mend a  proportion  of  beets,  ripe  and  sweet  pumpkins,  and  squashes,  to 
be  mixed  with  the  potatoes  ;  others  recommend  a  small  portion  of 
bran,  or  Indian  meal. 

To  fatten  chickens  expeditiously,  the  Domestic  Encyclopedia  recom- 
mends, to  take  a  quantity  of  ground  rice,  and  an  equal  quantity  of 
common  flour ;  mix  sufficient  for  present  use  with  milk  and  a  little 
coarse  sugar ;  stir  the  whole  well  over  the  fire,  till  it  makes  a  thick 
paste ;  and  feed  the  chickens  in  the  day  time  only,  by  putting  as  much 
of  it  as  tliey  can  eat,  but  no  more,  into  the  troughs  belonging  to  the 
coops.  It  must  be  eaten  while  warm ;  and  if  they  have  also  beer  to 
drink,  they  will  soon  grow  very  fat.  A  mixture  of  oat-meal  and  trea- 
cle, combined  till  it  crumbles,  is  said  to  form  a  food  for  chickens,  of 
which  they  are  so  fond,  and  with  which  they  thrive  so  rapidly,  that  at 
the  end  of  two  months,  they  become  as  large  as  the  generality  of  full- 
grown  fowls,  fed  in  the  common  way.  But  no  common  fowl  is  to  be 
compared  with  a  capon  thus  fed. 

A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer  recommends  to  confine  fowls 
in  a  large  airy  enclosure,  and  feed  them  on  broken  Indian  corn,  Indian 
meal,  or  mush  with  raw  potatoes,  cut  into  small  pieces,  not  larger  than 
a  filbert ;  placing  within  their  reach  a  quantity  of  charcoal,  broken  into 
small  pieces,  which  he  says  they  will  greedily  eat,  and  thereby  promote 
a  rapid  digestion  of  their  food.  By  this  method,  they  will  fatten  in 
one  half  the  usual  time,  and  with  much  less  expense. 

The  French,  who  are  great  egg  eaters,  take  unusual  pains  to  obtain 
fresh  laid  eggs  in  winter.  For  this  purpose,  they  keep  their  hens  in  a 
dry  warm  place,  it  being  well  known  that  exposure  to  wet  weather,  es- 
pecially cold^  wet  weather,diminishes  their  propensity  to  lay.  Stimulating 
food  is  given  them,  such  as  barley  wheat,  boiled,  and  given  warm, 
and  also  curds,  buckwheat,  parsley,  and  other  herbs,  chopped  fine,  oats 
and  wheat,  and  occasionally  hemp-seed,  and  the  seed  of  nettles. 
White  cabbages,  chopped  up,  are  excellent  in  winter  for  all  sorts  of 
poultry. 

The  ailments  of  fowls  are  numerous ;  but  they  would  seldom  be  seen* 
if  the  proper  caie  were  taken.    If  well  fed,  and  kept  perfectly  clean* 


120  FAMILY 


POULTRY. 


fowls  will  seldom  be  sick  ;  and  in  respect  to  age,  they  should  never  be 
kept  more  than  two  or  three  years,  since  beyond  this  period,  they  are 
of  little  value  as  layers. 

With  ordinary  management,  however,  fowls  will  sometimes  be  trou- 
bled with  diseases,  among  the  most  fatal  of  which  is  the  disorder  called 
gapes ;  a  disease  which,  in  New  England,  we  believe,  generally  goes 
by  the  name  of  pip. 

In  chickens,  the  gapes  is  said  to  arise  from  a  worm,  and  sonie  say  a 
collection  of  worms  in  the  wind-pipe  ;  according  to  others,  it  is  a  thick 
viscous  matter,  which  lines  the  windpipe.  Mr.  Mowbray  informs  us, 
that  the  pip  is  a  white  scale,  growing  on  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  which 
must  be  torn  off,  and  the  part  rubbed  with  salt.  Whatever  be  the  na- 
ture of  the  disease,  it  usually  destroys  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  chick- 
ens that  are  hatched.  Various  prescriptions  have  been  suggested,  for 
its  cure.  Some  advise  to  mix  soft  soap  with  meal  dough  ;  others,  to 
make  a  decoction  of  red  pepper,  w^ith  which  to  M'ct  up  mush,  to  be  giv- 
en to  the  chickens.  Others  recommend,  in  respect  to  fiill  grown  fowls, 
which  are   afflicted  with  this  disease,  to  pull  the  feathers  from  the  tail. 

The  TURKEY,  it  is  thought,  belonged  originally  to  North  America  ; 
but  is  now  common  throughout  Europe.  It  was  formerly  found  wild, 
in  the  forests  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  ;  and  flocks  are,  to  this 
day,  occasionally  seen.  The  wild  Turkey  is  generally  larger  tiian  the 
domesticated. 

Young  turkies  are  liable  to  the  pip,  which  often  proves  speedily  fatal. 
The  remedies  suggested  in  respect  to  chickens,  which  have  this  dis- 
ease, may,  perhaps,  be  found  equally  beneficial  in  respect  to  turkies. 
A  writer  remarks,  however,  that  on  inspecting  the  rump  feathers,  two 
or  three  of  their  quills  will  be  found  to  contain  blood  ;  but  on  drawing 
them  out,  the  chick  soon  recovers,  and  afterwards  requires  no  other 
care  than  common  poultry. 

The  GUINEA  HEN,  is  a  bird  well  known  in  England,  but  is  a  na- 
tive of  Africa  and  America.  The  flesh  is  thought  by  many  to  be  deli- 
cious ;  it  requires  great  care  in  being  reared  in  this  climate  ;  a  good 
common  hen  will  hatch  the  eggs  much  better  than  the  Guinea  hen  her- 
self, and  to  common  hens  in  this  country  should  the  eggs  of  the  Guinea 
hen  alwajs  be  entrusted.  The  Guinea  hen  does  not  conform  to  cli- 
mate, like  many  other  birds :  it  lays  its  eggs  on  the  bare  ground,  and 
after  the  young  are  hatched,  it  often  neglects  them.  This  bird  will  lay 
many  eggs ;  but  they  are  extremely  small  for  the  size  of  the  bird  ; 
much  less  than  a  pullet's  egg. 

The  GOOSE.  This  common  bird  is  probably  the  wild  goose  do- 
mesticated. The  latter,  it  is  well  known,  is  a  bird  of  passage,  and  on 
the  approach  of  spring,  large  flocks  of  them  are  seen  wending  their 
way  towards  the  polar  regions.  The  fortunate  sportsman  sometimes 
brings  one  down  from  his  airy  height.  If  only  wounded,  he  may  be 
tamed,  and  will  readily  pair  with  the  common  grey  goose. 

The  goose  is  a  valuable,  but  expensive  bird  ; — valuable,  as  it  furnish- 
es feathers  for  our  beds  ;  and,  in  this  view,  may  be  regarded  as  necessa- 
ry,— expensive,  requiring  considerable  food,  during  the  winter  season, 
but  more  expensive,  from  the  injury  that  it  occasions  to  our  meadows 
and  pasture  lands. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 121 

*    •*  — 

POULTRY. 

The  method  of  rearing  geese  is  so  well  known,  and  so  uniform,  that 
it  will  be  unnecessary  to  describe  it.  It  may  be  proper,  however,  to  no- 
tice a  recommendation  found  in  VVillich's  Encyclopedia  ;  viz.  to  break 
the  shell  near  the  beak  of  the  young  goslin,  about  the  period  of  its 
hatching.  This  we  should  deem  injudicious  and  unnecessary.  Wild 
geese  can  have  no  assistance  of  this  kind,  and  we  conclude  that  goslins 
can,  generally  speaking,  make  their  way  into  the  world,  without  tlie 
proposed  manipulation. 

As  geese  form  a  principal  delicacy  at  our  tables,  the  most  expeditious 
mode  of  fattening  them,  is  an  object  of  some  importance.  Hence,  it 
has  been  recommended  to  keep  them  cooped  up  in  a  dark  and  narrow 
place,  where  they  are  to  bo  fed  with  ground  malt,  mixed  with  milk,  or, 
if  milk  bo  scarce,  with  barley  meal,  mashed  up  with  water.  Cobbett 
recommends  feeding  them  with  corn,  some  raw  Swedish  turnips,  car- 
rots, white  cabbages,  or  lettuce. 

The  Complete  Farmer, an  English  work,  says;  "if  you  would  fatten 
geese,  you  must  shut  them  up  when  they  are  about  a  month  old,  and 
they  will  be  fat  in  about  a  month  more.  Be  sure  to  let  them  have  al- 
ways? in  a  small  rack,  some  fine  hay,  which  will  much  hasten  their  fat- 
ting. But  for  fatting  older  geese,  it  is  commonly  done  when  they  are 
about  six  months  old,  or  soon  afler  harvest,  when  they  have  been  in 
stubble  fields,  from  which  food  they  will  grow  tolerably  fat.  But  those 
-who  are  desirous  of  having  them  very  fat,  shut  them  up  for  a  fortnight 
or  three  weeks,  and  feed  them  with  oats,  split  peas,  barley  meal,  or 
ground  malt  mixed  with  milk.  But  the  best  thing  to  fatten  them  with, 
is  malt  mixed  with  beer.  You  must,  however,  observe,  in  fattening  all 
sorts  of  water-fowl,  that  they  usually  sit  with  their  bills  upon  their 
rumps,  where  they  suck  out  the  greater  part  of  the  moisture  and  fatness, 
at  a  small  bunch  of  feathers,  which  you  will  find  standing  upright  on 
their  rumps,  and  always  moist,  with  which  they  trim  their  feathers, 
which  renders  them  more  oily  and  slippery  than  the  feathers  of  other 
fowls,  and  causes  the  water  to  slip  ofFthem.  If,  therefore,  the  upright 
feathers  are  cut  away  close,  they  will  become  fat  in  less  time,  and  with 
less  food  than  otherwise.  If  you  give  them  rye,  before  or  about  mid- 
summer, it  will  strengthen  them,  and  keep  them  in  health,  that  being 
commonly  their  sickly  time.'' 

In  choosing  geese  for  table,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  feet  and 
legs  be  yellow,  which  is  an  indication  of  the  bird  being  young  ;  the  legs 
of  old  geese  are  red.  If  recently  killed,  the  legs  will  be  pliable,  but  if 
stale,  they  will  generally  be  found  dry  and  stiff. 

A  new  breed  of  geese,  called  Bremen  geese,  has  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  which  is  said  to  be  decidedly  superior  to  any  hereto- 
fore known  in  this  country.  They  were  first  imported,  we  believe,  by 
Mr.  James  Sisson,  of  Warren,  (R.  I.)  who  received  a  premium,  in  Oc- 
tober, 1M26,  from  the  Rhode  Island  Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Domgstic  Industry,  for  the  exhibition  of  some  geese  of  this  breed. 
They  are  said  to  possess  the  following  advantages,  over  any  other  ajii- 
mals  of  their  kind  :  they  grow  to  a  greater  size,  may  be  raised  with 
more  facility,  are  fattened  with  less  grain,  and  make  more  delicious 
food. 

DUCK.    Of  the  duck  there  are  many  varieties ;  but  they  may  be 
11 


122  FAMILY 


POULTRY. 


reduced  to  two  general  classes — the  wild  and  the  tame.  Of  the  wild 
duck,  the  canvass-backed  is  peculiar  to  America  ;  where  it  is  in  higher 
estimation  than  any  other,  on  account  of  the  exquisite  flavor  of  its 
flesh.  It  abounds  in  the  neighborhood  of  Chesapeake  bay  ;  but  is  sel- 
dom seen  north  of  Pennsylvania. 

The  Mallard  is  the  most  common  of  wild  ducks,  and  is  ihv  original 
of  our  domestic  duck.  Wild  ducks  pair  in  the  spring,  build  their  nests 
among  rushes  near  the  water,  and  lay  from  ten  to  sixteen  eggs.  The 
female  is  a  very  artful  bird,  and  does  not  always  make  the  nest  close 
to  the  water,  but  frequently  at  a  good  distance  from  it ;  in  which  case, 
she  will  carry  the  young  to  it  in  her  beak,  or  between  her  legs.  There 
are  various  means  used  to  catch  wild  ducks  and  geese,  of  which  one 
«eems  worth  mentioning.  The  person  wishing  to  take  these,  wades  in- 
to the  water  up  to  the  chin,  and,  having  his  head  covered  with  a  cala- 
bash, approaches  the  place  where  the  ducks  are:  when  tliey,  not  re- 
garding an  object  of  this  sort,  suffer  the  man  freely  to  mix  with  the 
flock  ;  atter  this,  he  has  only  to  pull  them  by  the  legs  into  the  water, 
one  after  the  other,  till  he  is  satisfied  ;  returning  as  unsuspected  by  the 
remainder,  as  when  he  tirst  came  among  them.  This  method  is  fre- 
quently put  in  practice  on  the  river  Ganges,  using  the  earthen  vessels 
of  the  Gentoos,  instead  of  the  calabashes  ;  these  vessels  ore  what  the 
Gentoos  boil  their  rice  in,  and  after  being  once  used,  they  consider 
them  defiled,  and  throw  them  into  the  river  as  useless,  'i'he  ducks, 
seeing  these  vessels  float  down  the  stream,  look  upon  them  with  disre- 
gard, and  the  duck-takers  find  them,  on  this  account,  convenient  for 
their  purpose. 

The  tame  duck  is  the  most  easily  reared  of  all  our  domestic  animals ; 
and  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  sufficiently  sluggish  and  muddy  stream 
will  procure  their  living,  and  even  grow  fat  without  being  led.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  confide  them  to  the  care  of  a  hen,  because  the  duck 
is  a  heedless  and  inattentive  mother,  and  frequently  leaves  her  eggs, 
until  they  spoil.  After  hatching  her  brood,  she  forthwitli  leads  them 
to  a  pond,  shows  them  the  water,  and  appears  to  think  that  she  has 
performed  every  duty  which  is  required  of  her. 

A  singular  mode  of  fattening  ducks  obtains  in  France.  In  the  au- 
tumn, when  tolerably  fat,  they  are  shut  up,  eight  by  eight,  in  a  dark 
place,  and  crammed  with  boiled  corn.  They  are  sometimes  suflocated, 
but  if  they  are  soon  bled,  they  are  not  the  worse  for  it.  1  hey  pass 
fifteen  days  in  a  state  of  oppression  and  suffocation,  which  makes  their 
livers  grow  large.  "When  the  tail  spreads  out  like  a  fan,  they  are  fat 
enough  ;  they  are  then  turned  out  to  bathe,  after  which  they  are  killed. 
Two  days  after  killing,  they  are  opened  below,  and  tlieir  wings  and 
legs  taken  off,  and  the  flesh  covering  the  rump  and  stomach.  The 
whole  is  put  into  a  salting  tub,  with  the  neck  and  end  of  the  rump,  and 
left  covered  with  salt  for  fifteen  days,  after  which  they  are  cut  into  four 
quarters,  and  put  into  the  pot.  They  are  first  seasoned  with  cloves, 
and  other  spices  put  in  them.  Some  leaves  of  Spanish  laurel,  and  a 
little  salt-pctre  having  been  put  in  the  brine  to  give  the  meat  a  red 
color. 

WILD  PIGEON  OP  America.     "The  wild  pigeon  of  the  United 
States,"  says  Wilson  in  his  Ornithology,  "  inhabits  a  wide  and  exten* 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  123 


WILD  PIGEON. 


sive  region  of  North  America,  on  this  side  of  the  Great  Stony  Moun- 
tains, beyond  which,  to  the  westward,  I  have  not  heard  of  one  being 
seen.  According  to  Mr.  Hutchins,  they  abound  in  the  country  round 
Hudson's  bay,  where  they  usually  remain  as  late  as  December,  feeding, 
when  tlie  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  on  the  buds  of  juniper.  They 
are  spread  over  the  whole  of  Canada,  were  seen  by  Capt.  Lewis  and 
his  party,  near  the  great  falls  of  the  Missouri,  upwards  of  2500  miles 
from  its  mouth,  reckoning  the  meanderings  of  the  river,  were  also  met 
with  in  the  interior  of  Louisiana,  by  Col.  Pike,  and  extend  their  rang« 
as  far  south  as  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ;  occasionally  visiting  or  breeding 
in  almost  every  quarter  of  the  United  States. 

"  But  the  most  remarkable  characteristic  of  these  birds  is  their  asso- 
ciating together,  both  in  their  migrations,  and  also  during  the  period  of 
incubation,  in  such  prodigious  numbers  as  almost  to  pass  belief;  a  cir- 
cumstance which  has  no  parallel  among  any  other  of  the  feathered 
tribes   on  the  face  of  the  earth,  with  which  naturalists  are  acquainted. 

"  These  migrations  appear  to  be  undertaken,  rather  in  quest  of  food 
than  merely  to  avoid  the  cold  of  the  climate.  Vast  multitudes  congre- 
gate in  the  western  forests,  particularly  in  the  states  of  Ohio,  Kentucky, 
and  Indiana.  These  extensive  regions  abound  with  the  beach  nut, 
which  constitutes  the  chief  food  of  the  wild  pigeon.  During  their  stay 
they  fix  upon  some  spot  in  a  forest  as  their  roosting  place.  These  roost- 
ing places  sometimes  occupy  a  large  extent.  When  they  have  fre- 
quented one  of  these  places  for  some  time,  the  appearance  it  exhibits 
is  surprising.  The  ground  is  covered  to  the  depth  of  several  inches 
with  their  excrement ;  all  the  tender  grass  and  underwood  is  destroyed  ; 
the  surface  strewed  with  large  limbs  of  trees  broken  off  by  the  weight 
of  the  birds  clustering  one  above  another ;  and  the  trees  themselves, 
for  thousands  of  acres,  killed  as  completely  as  if  girdled  with  an  axe. 
The  marks  of  this  desolation  remain  for  many  years  on  the  spot ;  and 
numerous  places  could  be  pointed  out,  where,  for  several  years  ailer, 
scarce  a  single  vegetable  made  its  appearance. 

"  \V  hen  these  roosts  are  first  discovered,  the  inhabitants  from  con- 
siderable distances  visit  them  in  the  night,  with  guns,  clubs,  long  poles, 
pots  of  sulphur,  and  various  other  engines  of  destruction.  In  a  few 
hours  they  fill  many  sacks  and  load  their  horses  with  them.  By  tho 
Indians,  a  piijeon  roost,  or  breeding  place  is  considered  an  important 
source  of  national  profit  and  dependence  for  that  season  ;  and  ali  their 
active  ingenuity  is  exercised  on  the  occasion.  The  breeding  place  dif- 
fers from  the  former  in  its  greater  extent.  In  the  western  countries 
above  mentioned,  these  are  generally  in  beech  woods,  and  often  extend 
in  nearly  a  straight  line,  across  the  country  for  a  great  way.  Not  far 
from  Shelby  ville,  in  the  state  of  Kentucky,  about  five  years  ago,  there 
was  one  of  these  breeding  places,  which  stretched  through  the  woods  in 
nearly  a  north  and  south  direction  ;  was  several  miles  in  breadth,  and 
was  said  to  be  upwards  of  forty  miles  in  extent !  In  this  tract  almost 
every  tree  was  furnished  with  nests  wherever  the  branches  could  ac- 
commodate them.  The  pigeons  made  their  first  appearance  there 
about  the  tenth  of  April,  and  left  it  altogether,  with  their  young,  before 
the  twenty-fifth  of  May. 

*'  To  form  a  rough  estimate,"  continues  Mr.  Wilson,  "  of  the  daily 
consumption  of  one  of  these  immense  flocks,  let  us  first  attempt  to  cal- 


124  FAMILY 


WILD    PIGEON. CARRIEU    PIGEON. 

cul§.tc  thenumbtrs  of  that  above  mentioned,  as  seen  in  passing  between 
Frankfort  and  the  Indiana  territory.  If  we  suppose  this  column  to 
have  been  one  mile  in  breadth, — and  I  believe  it  to  have  been  much 
more,  and  that  it  moved  at  the  rate  of  one  mile  in  a  minute,  four  hours, 
the  lime  it  continued  passing,  would  make  its  whole  length  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  miles.  Again,  supposing  that  each  square  yard  of  this 
moving  body  comprehended  three  pigeons,  the  square  yards  in  the 
whole  square  multiplied  by  three,  would  give  two  thousand  two  hundred 
and  thirty  millions,  two  hundred  and  seventy-two  thousand  pigeons  ! 
an  almost  inconceivable  multitude,  and  yet  probably  far  below  the  ac- 
tual amount.  Computing  each  of  these  to  consume  half  a  pmtof  mast 
daily,  the  whole  quantity,  at  this  rate,  would  equal  seventeen  millions, 
four  hundred  and  twenty-four  thousand  bushels  per  day.  Heaven  has 
wisely  and  graciously  given  to  these  birds  rapidity  of  flight  and  a  dis- 
position to  range  over  vast  uncultivated  tracts  of  the  earth  ;  otl/erwise 
they  must  have  perished  in  the  district  where  they  resided,  or  devoured 
the  whole  productions  of  agriculture,  as  well  as  those  of  the  forest. 

"  Happening  to  go  ashore  one  charming  afternoon,  to  purchase  some 
milk  at  a  house  that  stood  near  the  river,  and  while  talking  with  the 
people  within  doors,  I  was  suddenly  struck  with  astonishment,  by  a 
loud  rushing  roar,  succeeded  by  instant  darkness,  which,  at  the  first 
moment,  I  took  for  a  tornado,  about  to  overwhelm  the  house, and  every 
thing  around  in  destruction.  The  people,  observing  my  surprise,  said 
coolly,  '  it  is  only  the  pigeons,'  and  on  running  out,  I  beheld  a  flock, 
thirty  or  forty  yards  in  width,  sweeping  along,  very  low,  between  the 
house  and  the  mountain,  or  height  that  formed  the  second  bank  of  the 
river.  These  continued  passing  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  at  length  varied  their  bearing,  so  as  to  pass  over  the  mountain, 
behind  which  they  disappeared  before  the  rear  came  up." 

CARRIER  PIGEON.  This  is  a  name  given  to  a  variety  of  the 
tame  pigeon,  or  house  dove,  from  being  sometimes  employed  to  con- 
vey letters,  or  small  packets,  from  one  place  to  another.  Mention  is 
made  of  them  by  ancient  writers.  Modern  history  records  several  in- 
teresting accounts  of  the  employment  of  these  aerial  messengers. 
"When  the  city  of  Ptolemais,  in  Syria,"  says  the  Percy  Anecdotes, 
"was  invested  by  the  French  and  Venetians,  and  it  was  ready  to  fall 
into  their  hands,  they  observed  a  pigeon  flying  over  them,  and  immedi- 
ately conjectured  that  it  was  charged  with  letters  to  the  garrison.  On 
this,  the  whole  army  raising  a  loud  shout,  so  confounded  the  poor  aeri- 
al post,  that  it  fell  to  the  ground  ;  and  on  being  seized,  a  letter  was 
found  under  its  wings,  from  the  sultan,  in  which  he  assured  the  garri- 
son that "  he  would  be  with  them  in  three  days,  with  an  army  sufficient 
to  raise  the  siege."  For  this  letter  the  besiegers  substituted  another, 
to  this  purpose,  "  that  the  garrison  must  see  to  their  own  safety,  for  the 
sultan  had  such  other  affairs  pressing  him,  that  it  waiS  impossible  for 
him  to  come  to  their  succour;"  and  with  this  false  intelligence,  they 
let  the  pigeon  pursue  his  course.  The  garrison,  deprived  by  this  de- 
cree of  all  hopes  of  relief,  immediately  surrendered.  The  sultan  ap- 
peared on  the  third  day,  as  he  had  promised,  with  a  powerful  army, 
and  was  not  a  little  mortified  to  find  the  city  already  in  the  hands  of 
the  Christians. 

*'  Carrier  pigeons  were  again  employed,  but  with  better  success,,  a.i 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  125 


CAKKIER    PIGEON. 


the  siege  of  Leyden,  in  1675.  The  garrison  were,  by  means  of  the  in- 
formation thus  conveyed  to  them,  induced  to  stand  out,  till  the  enemy, 
despairing  of  reducing  the  place,  withdrew.  On  the  siege  being  rais- 
ed, the  Prince  of  Oranae  ordered  that  the  pigeons,  which  had  rendered 
such  essential  service,  should  be  maintained  at  the  public  expense,  and 
that  at  their  death  they  should  be  embalmed  and  preserved  in  the  town 
house,  as  a  perpetual  token  of  gratitude. 

"In  the  East,  the  employment  of  pigeons  for  the  conveyance  of  let- 
ters, is  still  very  common ;  particularly  in  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Egypt. 
They  are  also  employed  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  but  rather  for  the 
purposes  of  amusement,  than  for  objects  of  great  utility. 

"  The  diligence  and  speed,  with  which  these  feathered  messengera 
wing  their  course,  is  extraordinary.  From  the  instant  of  their  libera- 
tion, their  flight  is  directed  through  the  clouds,  at  an  immense  height  to 
the  place  of  their  destination.  They  are  believed  to  dart  onwards  in  a 
straight  line,  and  never  to  descend,  except  when  at  a  loss  for  breath, 
and  then  they  are  to  be  seen  commonly  at  dawn  of  day,  lying  on  their 
backs  on  the  ground,  with  their  bills  open,  sucking  in  with  hasty  avidi- 
ty the  dew  of  tiie  morning.  Of  their  speed,  the  instances  related,  are 
almost  incredible. 

"  Some  years  ago,  a  gentleman  sent  a  carrier  pigeon  from  London, 
by  the  stage  coach,  to  his  friend  in  Edmundsbury,  together  with  a 
note,  desiring  that  the  pigeon,  two  days  after  the  arrival  there,  might 
be  thrown  up,  precisely  when  the  town  clock  struck  nine  in  the  morn- 
ing. This  was  done  accordingly,  and  the  pigeqn  arrived  in  London, 
and  flew  to  the  Bull  Inn  in  Bishopgate  street,  into  the  loft,  and  was 
there  shown  at  half  an  hour  past  eleven  o'clock,  having  flown  seventy- 
two  miles  in  two  hours  and  a  half. 

"It  is  through  the  attachment  of  the  animals  to  the  place  of  their 
birth,  and  particularly  to  the  spot  where  they  have  brought  up  their 
young,  that  they  are  thus  rendered  useful  to  mankind. 

"  When  a  young  one  flies  very  hard  at  home,  and  is  come  to  its  full 
strength,  it  is  carried  in  a  basket,  or  otherwise,  about  half  a  mile  from 
home,  and  iheo  turned  out ;  after  this  it  is  carried  a  mile,  then  two, 
four,  eight,  ten,  twenty,  &c.,  till  at  length  it  will  return  from  the  fur- 
thermost parts  of  the  country." 

11* 


136  FAMILY 


PRESERVATION    OF    HEALTH. 


PART  III. 

rRESERVATION    OF   HEALTH,    6zC, 

Every  one  is  liable  to  suffering,  either  from  accident  or  disease.  Yet» 
it  is  certain  that  a  lar^e  proportion  of  the  accidents  which  occur,  as 
well  as  many  of  the  diseases  which  afflict  mankind,  are  the  result  of 
carelessness  and  neglect.  Less  haste,  or  a  little  more  forethought, 
would  often  save  a  hone  from  being  broken  ;  and  a  little  more  atten- 
tion to  diet,  air,  exercise,  cleanliness,  moderation  in  drink,  needless  ex- 
posure, &c.  &c.,  would  frequently  prevent  dangerous  and  protracted 
illness,  and  especially  those  chronic  diseases,  which,  if  less  immediate- 
ly dangerous,  occasion  suffering  and  distress,  perhaps  through  life. 

Yet,  it  is  nevertheless  true,  that  accidents  and  diseases  will  some- 
times occur.  Tliey  will  occur  suddenly  and  unexpectedly.  A  physi- 
cian may  not  be  within  immediate  call;  and  before  he  can  be  summon- 
ed, life  may  have  become  extinct,  or  the  foundation  laid  for  months  of 
debility  and  suffering. 

Such  calamities,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  might  not  unfrequently  be  pre- 
vented, by  a  little  knowledge  of  the  human  frame,  and  of  a  few  simple 
medicines,  or  expedients  easily  comprehended;  almost  always  at  hand, 
and  which  every  person  of  common  understanding  may  administer  and 
apply. 

Without,  theref&re,  infringing  upon  the  province  of  the  regularly 
bred  physician,  or  appearing  to  advocate  empyricism,  the  editor  believes 
an  article  devoted  to  the  prevention  of  diseases  and  accidents,  and  the 
management  of  the  latter  more  especially,  which  shall  be  divested  of 
the  technical  language  of  the  profession — may  bo  useful  to  those  fami- 
lies, for  which  this  work  is  designed. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  a  regular  treatise  on  surgery  and  practice  is 
not  here  attempted.  Such  an  attempt  would  justly  subject  the  con- 
ductor of  this  work  to  ridicule;  nor  will  it  fall  within  the  object  and 
scope  of  this  part  of  the  work  to  sanction  "  nursery  gossip  * — nor  to 
countenance  and  spread  abroad  the  "  mendacious  reports  of  nostrum, 
♦makers  and  venders."  But  rather  to  select  such  hints  on  the  subject 
of  preserving  the  health,  and  to  recommend  such  remedies  for  certain 
accidents  as  have  been  furnished  by  enlightened  experience,  and  which 
are  safe  and  useful  in  the  hands  of  the  professionally  unlearned. 

Hence,  it  will  be  obvious,  that  this  article  is  not  designed  for  the  crit- 
ically learned.  Should  such  an  one — to  use  the  language  employed  in 
an  admirable  work  of  a  similar  character,  and  written  by  a  distinguish- 
ed physician — "  cast  his  eye  on  these  pages,  ho  will  here  learn,  this 
book  was  written  for  the  unlearned  ;  and  he  will  also  learn  that  a  hand- 
kerchief tied  loosely  round  a  man's  leg  above  a  wounded  and  bleeding^ 
artery,  and  a  slick  twisted  into  it,  will  as  effectually  save  life  as  a  sur- 
geon's turrriquet — and  many  other  such  things.  He  will  thereforfr 
please  to  spare  this  little  work,  for  the  sake  of  him  whose  house  is  far 
removed  from  the  surgeon,  and  who  has  no  money  to  pay  the  physi- 
cian." 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  127 


RULES  FOR  THE    PRESERVATION    OF    HEALTH. 


SECTION.  I. 

RULES  AM)  HINTS  FOR  THE  PRESERVATION  OF  LIFE  AND 
HEALTH,  dec. 

Rules  of  Sir  R.  Philii-s. — !.  Rise  early,  and  never  sit  up  late. 

2.  Wash  the  whole  body  every  morning  with  cold  water,  by  means 
of  a  large  sponge,  and  rub  it  dry  with  a  rough  towel,  or  scrub  the  whole 
body  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  with  flesh  brushes. 

3.  Drink  water  generally,  and  avoid  excess  of  spirits,  wine,  and  fer- 
mented liquors. 

4.  Keep  the  body  open  by  the  free  use  of  the  syringe,  and  remove  »h- 
perioiv  obstructions  by  aperient  pills. 

5.  Sleep  in  a  room  which  has  free  access  to  the  open  air. 

6.  Keep  the  head  cool  by  washing  it  when  necessary  with  cold  wa- 
ter, and  abate  feverish  and  inflammatory  symptoms  when  they  arise,  by 
persevering  stillness. 

7.  Correct  symptoms  of  plethora  and  indigestion,  by  eating  and  drink- 
ing less,  per  diem  for  a  few  days. 

8.  Never  eat  a  hearty  supper,  especially  of  animal  food ;  and  drink 
wine,  spirits,  and  beer,  if  these  art  necessary^  only  after  dinner. 

Rules  of  Dr.  Boerhaave. — The  following  were  the  simple  and  un- 
erring directions  of  this  great  man  for  the  preservation  of  health  ;  they 
contained  the  sum  and  substance  of  his  vast  professional  knowledge 
during  a  long  and  useful  life : — "  Keep  the  feet  warm  ;  the  head  cool ; 
and  the  body  open."  If  these  were  generally  attended  to,  the  physi- 
cian's aid  would  seldom  be  required. 

Experience  of  Howard. — We  give  the  following  account  of  Mr. 
Howard's  experience,  which  was  furnished  by  him  to  a  friend,  as  con- 
taining suggestions  of  a  most  important  and  valuable  sort;  and  which, 
if  adopted  by  many  of  the  dyspeptics  of  the  day,  would  go  farther  to- 
ward their  restoration  to  a  healthful  state  of  body  and  mind,  than  the 
most  learned  prescriptions  of  the  most  celebrated  doctors. 

"  A  more  '  puny  whipster'  than  myself,  in  the  days  of  my  youth,  was 
never  seen.  I  could  not  walk  out  in  the  evening,  without  being  wrap- 
ped up  :  I  could  not  put  on  my  linen  without  its  being  aired  :  I  was, 
poUtely  speaking,  enfeebled  enough  to  have  deZicafe  neryci,  and  was, 
occasionaHy  troubled  with  a  very  genteel  hectic.  To  be  serious,  I  am 
convinced  that  whatever  enfeebles  the  body  debilitates  the  mind,  and 
renders  both  unfit  for  those  exertions,  which  are  of  such  use  to  us  all  as 
social  beings.  I  therefore  entered  upon  a  reform  of  my  constitution, 
and  have  succeeded  in  such  a  degree,  that  I  have  neither  had  a  cough, 
cold,  the  vapors,  nor  any  more  alarming  disorder,  smce  I  surmounted 
the  seasoning.  Prior  to  this,  I  used  to  be  a  miserable  dependant  on 
wind  and  weather;  a  little  too  much  of  the  one,  or  a  slight  inclemency 
of  the  other,  would  postpone,  and  frequently  prevent,   not  only  my 


128  FAMILY 


PIRRCTIONS    FOR    THE    PRKSERVATION    OF  HEALTH. 

amusemejits,  but  my  duties  :  or,  if  pressed  by  my  affections,  or  by  the 
necessity  of  affairs,  I  did  venture  forth  in  despite  of  the  elements,  the 
•consequences  wtre  equally  absurd  and  incommodious,  not  seldom  afflic- 
tive. I  muffled  up  even  to  my  nostrils ;  a  crack  in  the  glass  of  my 
chaise  was  suiScient  to  distress  me  ;  a  sudden  slope  of  the  wheels  to  the 
rigfht  or  left,  set  me  a  trembling  ;  a  jolt  seemed  like  a  dislocation,  and 
the  Fight  of  a  bank  or  a  precipice,  near  which  my  horse  or  carriage  was 
to  pass,  would  disorder  me  so  much,  that  I  would  order  the  driver  to 
slop,  tliat  I  might  get  out  and  walk  by  the  difficult  places.  Mulled 
wines,  spirituous  cordials,  and  large  fires,  were  to  comfort  me,  and  to 
keep  out  ihe  cold,  as  it  is  called,  at  every  stage,  and  if  I  felt  the  least 
damp  in  my  feet,  or  other  parts  of  my  body,  dry  stockings,  linen,  &c. 
were  to  be  instantly  put  on  ;  the  perils  of  the  day  were  to  be  baffled  by 
something  taken  hot  on  going  to  bed  ;  and  before  I  pursued  my  jour- 
ney, the  next  morning;,  a  dram  was  to  be  swalloTved,  in  order  to  fortify 
the  stomach.  In  a  word,  I  lived,  moved,  and  had  ra)'  being  so  much 
by  rule,  that  the  slightest  deviation  was  a  disease. 

"  Every  man  must,  in  these  cases,  be  his  own  physician.  He  must 
prescribe  for,  and  practise  on,  himself.  I  did  this  by  a  very  simple,  but 
as  you  will  think,  a  very  severe  regimen,  namely,  by  denying  myself 
almost  every  thing  in  which  I  had  long  indulged.  But  as  it  is  always 
harder  to  get  rid  of  a  bad  habit,  than  to  contract  it,  I  entered  on  my 
reform  gradually ;  that  is  to  say,  I  began  to  diminish  my  usual  indul- 
gences by  degrees.  I  found  that  a  heavy  meal,  or  a  hearty  one,  as  it  is 
termed,  aiid  a  cheerful  glass,  that  is,  one  more  than  does  you  good, 
made  me  incapable,  or  at  least,  disinclined  to  any  useful  exertions  for 
some  time  after  dinner  hours  ;  and  if  the  dilutive  powers  of  tea  assisted 
the  work  of  a  disturbed  digestion,  so  far  as  to  restore  my  faculties,  a 
luxurious  supper  came  in  so  close  upon  it,  that  I  was  fit  for  nothing  but 
dissipation,  till  I  went  to  a  luxurious  bed,  where  I  finished  the  ener- 
vating practices,  by  sleeping  eight,  ten,  and  sometimes  a  dozen  hour* 
on  the  stretch.  You  will  not  wonder  that  I  rose  the  next  morning 
with  the  solids  rela.xed,the  juices  thickened,  and  the  constitution  weak- 
ened. 

"  To  remedy  all  this,  I  ate  a  little  less  at  every  meal,  and  reduced  my 
drink  in  proportion.  It  is  really  wonderful  to  consider,  liovv  impercep- 
tibly a  single  morsel  of  animal  food,  and  a  tea  spoonful  of  liquor  de- 
ducted from  the  usual  quantity  daily,  will  restore  the  mental  functions, 
without  any  injury  to  the  corporeal — nay,  with  increase  of  vigour  to 
both.  I  brought  myself,  in  the  first  instance,  from  dining  on  many 
dishes,  to  dining  on  a  lew,  and  then  to  being  satisfied  with  one  ;  in  like 
manner,  iusti-ad  of  drinking  a  variety  of  wines,  1  made  my  election  of 
a  single  sort,  and  adhered  to  it  alone.        4 

My  next  business  was  to  eat  and  drink  sparingly  of  that  adopted 
disband  bottle.  My  ease,  vivacity,  hralth,  and  spirits  augmented.  My 
clothing,  &c.  underwent  a  similar  refoiui ;  the  effect  of  all  which  is, 
and  has  been  for  many  years,  that  I  am  neither  affected  by  seeing  my 
carriage  dragged  up  a  mountain,  or  driven  down  a  valley.  If  an  acci- 
dent happens,  I  am  prepared  for  it,  I  mean  so  far  as  respects  unneces- 
sary terrors  ;  and  I  am  proof  against  ail  changes  in  the  atmosphere, 
wet  clothes,  damp  feet,  night  air,  transitions  from  heat  to  cold,  and  the 
i  ong  train  of  hypochondria  affections." 


,  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  129 


HINTS  TO   STUDENTS. 


Hints  to  Students. — Students,  more  than  most  persons,  are  apt  to 
brinor  upon  themselves  a  train  of  stomachic  and  nervous  affections,  in 
consequence  of  an  intense  application  of  mind,  and  neglect  of  appro- 
priate exercise  in  the  open  air.  No  one,  however,  can  long  hope  for 
the  enjoyment,  either  of  health  or  vigor  of  mind,  who  is  not  in  the  daily- 
habit  of  exercise  abroad.  It  is  important,  also,  that  his  study  should  be 
large,  perfectly  dry,  and  often  well  ventilated.  Great  attention  should 
also  be  paid  to  position.  Students,  whether  they  stand  or  sit,  and  by 
turns  they  should  do  both,  should  maintain  an  erect  posture.  Care 
should  be  exercised  not  to  press,  for  any  length  of  time,  against  a  hard 
substance.  The  rocking  chairs  with  a  leaf,  or  round  table,  situated  in 
front  of  them,  and  which  are  often  found  in  our  colleges,  are  highly 
improper.  It  is  also  recommended  to  students,  for  the  purpose  of  giv- 
ing exercise  and  strength  to  the  lungs,  frequently  to  read  and  speak 
loud.  But  some  caution  will  be  necessary,  lest  the  exercise  be  carried 
too  far.  Vociferation  should  never  be  indulged.  A  naturally  weak, 
voice  may  be  greatly  strengthened  by  exercise  ;  and  even  a  natural  im- 
pediment removed,  by  careful  and  judicious  perseverance.  The  case 
of  Demosthenes  illustrates  this.  His  \*«ice  was  so  weak,  and  indis- 
tinct, that  he  could  be  scarcely  heard  or  understood  ;  yet  he  contrived 
to  remedy  both  defects,  by  declaiming,  while  ascending  the  brow  of  a 
hill  or  walking  amid  the  noise  of  the  waves  along  the  sea  shore. 

We  must  also  enter  our  protest  against  midnight  studies.  The  late 
President  Dwight,  whose  experience  rendered  him  perfectly  compe- 
tent to  impart  advice  on  this  subject,  gave  it  as  his  opinion,  that  as  a 
general  rule,  nothing  was  gained  by  any  student,  by  application  to  his 
books,  after  ten  o'clock  at  night.  The  morning  is  the  season  most  ap- 
propriate to  study.  It  is  also  the  best  season  for  exercise.  But  both 
objects  may  be  accomplished  by  early  rising ;  a  point  of  great  impor- 
tance, both  in  respect  to  clearness  of  mind,  health  of  body,  and  rapid 
improvement.  But  in  few  things,  perhaps,  do  students  fail  more  than 
in  the  kinds  of  exercise  adopted.  They  should  not  be  those  kinds, 
which  are  of  course  violent ;  nor  those'  which  exercise  only  particular 
parts  of  the  body.  Great  fatigue  should  be  avoided.  In  general,  ri- 
ding on  horseback,  walking,  or  working  in  the  garden,  are  to  be  prefer- 
red to  most  other  kinds  of  exercise. 

The  utility  of  exercise,  however,  is  often  much  diminished,  by  its  be- 
ing taken  as  exercise.  On  this  point  we  quote  the  language  of  a  dis- 
tinguished writer,  as  well  as  student :  "  A  solitary  walk,  or  ride,  mere- 
ly for  the  sake  of  exercise,  and  with  no  other  object  to  stimulate  our 
progress,  as  it  is  of  all  amusements  the  dullest,  so  it  is  found  rather 
hurtful  than  advantageous.  The  mind  still  meditates  in  soli'tude,  and 
the  body,  at  the  same  time,  labours  ;  so  that  both  are  exhausted  at  once, 
and  the  student  returns  to  his  Hoset  fatigued,  dejected,  and  disappoint- 
ed. Some  little  amusement  must  therefore  be  contrived,  or  some  bu- 
siness engaged  in,  which  may  operate  as  a  loadstone,*  in  attracting  us, 
without  being  sensible  of  our  own  efforts,  from  our  libraries,  up  the 
mountain,  and  along  the  forest,  where  health,  with  all  her  thousand 
joys,  delights  to  fix  her  abode." 

With  regard  to  diet,  no  good  reason  exists,  why  the  student  should 
deny  himself  any  plain  and  wholesome  food,  provided  that  ho  eats  not 
to  complete  satiety.  This  should  always  be  avoided,  as  should  supper 
late  in  the  evening. 


130  FAMILY 


QUANTITY  OF  FOOD. — ABSTINENCE. 

And  in  regard  to  drink,  water  doubtless  should  constitute  his  princi- 
pal drink.  But  more  than  most  persons,  should  the  student  abstain 
from  the  use  of  spirituous  liquors.  They  are  a  bane,  to  which  none  of 
the  habits  of  his  life  present  any  antidote  whatever.  The  laborer  in 
the  field,  by  his  powerful  exerci.se,  may  perspire  away  in  a  measure  the 
effects  of  stimulating  liquors  :  but  the  student  in  iiis  application  has  no 
such  effort  to  anticipate.  Stimulating  liquors,  and  close  study,  will 
soon  undermine  and  destroy  the  best  constitution  ever  given  to  man. 

QUANTITY  OF  FOOD.  In  respect  to  the  quantity  of  food  adapt- 
ed  to  the  preservation  of  health,  perhaps  no  invariable  rule  can  be 
given.  "As  a  general  rule,"  observes  the  authors  of  the  Journal  of 
Health,  "it  will  be  found,  that  those  who  exercise  much  in  the  open 
air,  or  follow  laborious  occupations,  will  demand  a  larger  amount  of 
food  than  the  indolent,  or  the  sedentary.  Young  persons,  also,  com- 
monly require  more  than  Uv  ie  advanced  in  years  ;  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  cold,  more  than  those  of  warm  climates.  We  say  this  is  a 
general  rule ;  for  very  many  exceptions  are  to  be  found,  in  each  of 
these  particulars.  Thus,  we  not  unfrequently  find,  that  one  individu- 
al requires  more  food  to  support  his  system  than  another,  of  the  same 
frame  of  body  and  trade,  .j^nd  who  partakes  of  the  same  degree  of  exer- 
cise. In  fact,  ©ne  jjersoii  will  support  his  strength,  or  even  become 
more  robust  upon  the  same  quantity  of  food,  which  will  occasion  in 
another,  debility  and  cinaciation." 

In  general,  persons  eat  by  far  too  great  quantity  of  food.  The  digest- 
ive powers  are  constantly  put  upon  the  stretch,  ..lu!  the  ultimate  effect 
is,  that  they  become  weakened  and  incapable  of  converting  into  nutri- 
ment a  quantity  of  food,  essential  to  a  vigorous  state  of  the  system.  It 
should  not  be  forgotten — an  observation  we  believe  of  the  celebrated 
Dr.  Abernethy — that  it  is  not  the  quantity  of  food,  which  is  eaten,  but 
the  quantity  digested,  which  administers  to  the  support  of  the  body. 
Hence,  all  that  is  consumed  beyond  the  point  of  easy  digestion  tends 
to  load  and  clog  the  machine — to  impair  the  energies — and  to  render  it 
less  fit  for  future  agreeable  movements.  The  exact  point  when  a  per- 
son should  lay  aside  his  knife  and  fork  we  do  not,  and  cannot  perhaps 
determine  ;  but  each  one  may  judge  in  general,  for  himself.  But  if 
he  experience  any  sensation  of  oppression — any  "load  at  the  stomach" 
— he  has  eaten  too  much.  A  single  mouthful  taken  after  feeling  satis- 
fied, is  injurious;  indeed,  we  should  contriye  to  stop  short  of  that 
poini. 

In  regard  to  children,  a  somewhat  different  regimen  may  doubtless 
with  safety  be  adopted.  A  judicious  writer  remarks,  "  whatever  regi- 
men you  prescribe  for  children,  provided  you  only  accustom  them  to 
plain  and  simple  food,  you  may  let  them^jpat,  run,  and  play  as  much  as 
they  please,  and  you  may  be  sure  they  will  nevfr  eat  too  much,  or  be 
troubled  with  indigestion.  But  if  you  starve  them  half  the  day,  and 
they  find  means  to  escape  your  observation,  they  will  make  themselves 
amends,  and  eat  till  they  are  sick,  or  even  burst." 

ABSTIN  ENCE.  Abstinence  is  the  avoiding  or  refraining  from  any 
thing  to  which  there  is  a  natural  or  habitual  propensity.  As  a  reli- 
gious service  it  has  often  been  enjoined  in  various  systems  of  religion  ; 
but  in  the  present  article  we  design  to  speak  of  abstinence  in  relation 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  131 


ABSTINENCE. 


to  its  importance  to  health.  As  a  preventive  of  disease,  too  much, 
perhaps,  cannot  be  said  in  its  favor;  while  wonderful  effects,  in  the 
cure  of  disease,  have  been  ascribed  to  it.  One  of  these  is  recorded  in 
the  history  of  Cornaro,  a  noble  Venetian,  who,  after  a  life  of  luxury, 
was,  at  the  age  of  forty,  attacked  by  a  disease  attended  with  mortal 
symptoms;  yet  he  not  only  recovered,  but  lived  nearly  one  hundred 
years,  from  the  mere  effects  of  abstemiousness.  We  are  told  of  several 
individuals  that  have  reached  a  century,  a  century  and  a  half,  nay, 
have  even  approached  to  the  age  of  two  centuries,  supported  on  an 
extremely  slender  diet,  which  was  thought  to  contribute  materially  to 
the  preservation  of  their  health.  It  is  related  of  Howard,  the  celebra- 
ted  philanthropist,  that  he  used  to  fast  for  the  purposes  of  health,  one 
day  in  the  week.  Franklin  for  a  period  did  the  same.  Napoleon, 
whoji  he  felt  his  system  unstrung,  suspended  his  wonted  repast  and 
took  exercise  on  horseback.  We  are  not  of  the  opinion,  indeed,  of  a 
French  Physician  that  it  is  necessary  ahsolutely  to  fast,  in  order  to  at- 
tain old  age  ;  but  occasional  fasting  powerfully  tends  to  renew  the  en- 
ergies of  the  system,  as  the  stopping  of  grinding  at  the  mill  presents  an 
opportunity  for  the  head  waters  to  increase  their  power.  The  above 
Physician,  to  convince  every  one  of  the  truth  of  his  proposition,  that 
fasting  is  essential,  selects  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  hermits,  or  bish- 
ops, who  are  known  to  have  led  a  strictly  temperate  life — frequently 
fastmg,  and  regularly  alternating  their  studies  and  religious  observ- 
ances, with  bodily  labor,  or  distant  journies,  for  purposes  of  charity 
and  other  duties.  These  he  compares  with  the  same  number  of  acade- 
micians, one  half  from  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and  the  other  half 
from  that  of  Belles-lettres.  On  the  one  side,  their  joint  lives  amount- 
ed to  11589  years,  and  on  the  other  only  10511 ;  hence  he  concludes, 
that  even  frequent  fasting  would  prolong  the  lives  of  men  of  letters 
more  than  seven  years. 

Whatever  deductions  might  be  made  from  the  above  account,  certain 
it  is  that  a  moderate  diet,  with  occasional  fasting,  is  essential  to  unin- 
terrupted health  and  cheerful  spirits.  It  is  related  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
that  while  he  was  composing  his  celebrated  treatise  on  Optics,  he  con- 
fined hin^self  entirely  to  bread,  with  a  little  sack  and  water.  Gen.  El- 
liott, the  defender  of  Gibraltar,  during  eight  of  the  most  anxious  days 
of  the  siege,  lived  upon  four  ounces  of  rice  per  day.  Most  of  the  stand- 
ard works  of  English  literature  were  composed  by  men  whose  circum- 
stances compelled  them  to  adopt  a  spare  diet — they  fasted  often  times 
from  necessity,  rather  than  choice  ;  yet  their  ideas  were  doubtless  pro- 
portionately more  clear — their  conceptions  more  rapid  and  bold.  Pres- 
ident Edwards  in  his  diary  records  it  as  the  result  of  his  experience, 
that  he  was  more  sprightly  and  healthy,  both  in  body  and  mind,  for  the 
practice  of  self-denial,  in  eati^]and  drinking.  ''  By  a  sparmg  diet," 
says  he,  "  and  eating  (as  much  as  may  be)  what  is  light  and  easy  of 
digestion,  I  shall  doubtless  be  able  to  think  clearer  and  shall  gain  time, 
first  by  lengthening  out  my  life.  Secondly,  shall  need  less  time  for  di- 
gestion after  meals.  Thirdly,  shall  be  able  to  study  closer  without 
wrong  to  my  health.  Fourthly,  shall  need  less  time  to  sleep.  Fifthly, 
shall  seldom  be  troubled  with  the  head-ache."  It  was  the  reply  of  Car- 
dinal de  Sallis,  arch-bishop  of  Seville,  who  died  at  the  advanced  aso 
of  one  hundred  and  ten  years,  when  asked  what  rule  he  liad  observed 


132  FAMILY 


ABSTINENCE. 


to  preserve  his  health,  "  Why,"  said  he,  "  by  being  old,  when  I  was 
young,  I  find  myself  young,  now  when  I  am  old."  Shakespeare  has 
well  expressed  the  same  idea  in  one  of  his  plays. 

"  Though  I  look  old,  yet  I  am  strong  and  lusty  : 
For  in  my  youth  1  never  did  apply 
Hot  and  rebellious  liquors  in  my  blood; 
Nor  did  not,  with  unbashful  forehead  woo 
The  means  of  weakness  and  debility. 
Therefore,  my  age  is  as  a  lusty  winter — 
Frosty,  but  kindly." 

As  You  Like  it.— Act  11.  Scene  3. 

"  Most  of  all  the  chronical  diseases,  the  infirmities  of  old  age,  and  the 
short  periods  of  the  lives  of  Englishmen,"  said  Dr.  Cheyne,  more  tlitn  a 
hundred  years  ago,  "  are  owing  to  repletion." 

"  I  tell  you  hor^esty,"  says  Mr.  Abernethy,  "  what  I  think  is  the  cause 
of  the  complicated  maladies  of  the  human  race:  "it  is  their  gorman- 
dizing, and  stuffing,  and  stimulating  their  digestive  organs  to  an  ex- 
cess, thereby  producing  nervous  disorders  and  irritation." 

"  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  the  most  distinguished  phy- 
sicians," says  another  medical  writer,  "  that  intemperance  in  diet,  de- 
stroys the  bulk  of  mankind  ;  in  other  words,  that  what  is  eaten  and 
drank,  and  thus  taken  into  the  habit,  is  the  original  cause  of  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  diseases,  which  afflict  the  human  race." 

Abstinence,  after  excessive  fatigue,  or  rather  peculiar  moderation  in 
respect  to  eating  and  drinking,  is  important  for  all.  This  perhaps  will 
not  be  doubted,  in  relation  to  men  of  sedentary  habits.  But  its  import- 
ance is  not  much  less  to  farmers,  who,  after  the  toils  of  the  day  are  wont 
to  indulge  a  heightened  appetite  to  complete  satiety.  This  is  wrong. 
For  however  they  may  think  that  when  the  machine,  is  exhausted,  it 
requires  7/jwcA  refreshment,  a  slight  examination  of  the  effects  of  reple- 
tion, will  be  sufficient  to  condemn  the  practice.  "  For  after  eating  and 
drinking  copiously  under  such  circumstances,"  remarks  Wallace,  in  his 
Art  of  Preventing  Diseases,  "  the  system  grows  dull  and  heavy,  and 
general  lassitude  comes  on  ;  the  pulse  grows  quick,  the  face  flushes,  a 
temporary  fever  ensues  ;  the  skin  is  dry — the  mouth  clammy  ;  thirst 
attends,  and  in  the  place  of  that  recruited  strength,  alacrity  and  cheer- 
fulness, they  expected  to  obtain  from  their  hearty  meal  and  night's  re- 
j)ose,  they  arise  in  the  morning,  after  a  few  hours  of  disturbed  sleep, 
weary  and  depressed  with  pain,  or  stiffness  in  the  joints,  an  aching 
head,  and  a  stomach  loathing  its  accustomed  food.  Nor  can  it  be  oth- 
erwise ;  for  the  digestive  powers  of  the  stomach,  in  that  state  of  ex- 
haustion induced  by  fatigue,  are  incap||ble  of  performing  the  task  to 
which  they  are  excited  :  and  the  load  of  food  which  is  taken,  in  place 
of  recruiting  the  strength  and  activity  of  the  system,  is  a  cause  of  suf- 
fering and  disease,  extending  from  the  stomach  itself  to  the  residue  of 
the  system." 

EXERCISE.  In  our  hints  to  students,  we  have  alluded  to  the  Im- 
portant subject  of  exercise.  It  deserves,  however,  a  more  serious  and 
extended  notice.  At  the  present  day,  exercise,  temperance,  and  pure 
air,  none  of  which  are  costly  articles,  are  considered  indispensable  to 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


EXERCISE. FRICTION. — AIR. 


health.  "These  constitute  the  arcana  of  health  and  longevity  ;  and  it 
is  curious,  that  man  should  so  often  evince  a  total  disregard  for  those 
principles  on  which  his  existence  depends.  Exercise  of  too  violent  na- 
ture, and  a  total  want  of  it,  are  attended  with  equal  disadvantages. 
Violent  exercise  is  very  injurious  to  those  persons  who  are  unaccustomed 
to  it,  particularly  where  excesses  in  eating  and  drinking  have  been  com- 
mitted. All  sudden  transitions  from  a  slate  of  rest  to  violent  action  are 
extremely  injudicious,  particularly  in  hot  weather.  Exercise  admits 
of  being  diversified  ;  yiz.  walking,  running,  leaping,  swimming,  riding, 
different  games,  gardening,  &c.  Passive  exercise,  which  consists  of 
riding  in  a  carriage,  sailing,  friction,  swinging,  &c.  is  better  calculated 
for  debilitated  constitutions,  particularly  the  asthmatic  and  consump- 
tive. At  all  times,  that  exercise  is  to  be  preferred,  which,  with  a  view 
to  brace  and  strengthen  the  body,  we  are  most  accustomed  to  ;  and  it 
should  always  be  begun  and  finished  gradually.  Exercise  should  never 
be  taken  before  a  meal,  when  the  body  is  in  a  state  ©f  perspiration,  aa 
digestion  might  be  thereby  retarded  ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  it  is  also 
hurtful  if  taken  immediately  after  a  meal.  By  walking,  the  appetite 
and  perspiration  are  promoted  ;  the  mind  is  enlivened  by  the  change  of 
scene,  the  lungs  are  strengthened,  and  the  contraction  of  the  legs  is  re- 
Jieved.  The  inhabitants  of  large  towns  require  longer  walks  than  those 
who  breathe  a  pure  atmosphere ;  therefore,  those  ^who  lead  sedentary 
lives,  or  are  troubled  with  nervovs  affections,  should  use  daily  exercise, 
but  it  should  be  that  species  which  is  agreeable  to  the  feelings.  Exer- 
cise ought  only  to  be  continued  till  an  agreeable  perspiration  is  felt ;  if 
carried  further,  instead  of  the  body  being  strengthened,  it  will  be  weak- 
ened. The  thirst  generally  felt  after  exercise  must  not  be  immediately 
satisfied  by  cooling  drink." 

FRICTION.  One  of  the  most  gentle  and  useful  kinds  of  exercise, 
is  friction  of  the  body,  either  by  the  naked  hand,  a  piece  of  flannel,  or, 
what  is  still  better,  a  flesh  brush.  This  was  in  great  esteem  among  the 
ancients,  and  is  so  at  present  in  the  East  Indies.  The  whole  body  may 
be  subjected  to  this  mild  operation,  but  chiefly  the  belly,  the  spine,  or 
back-bone,  and  the  arms  and  legs.  But,  in  rubbing  the  belly,  the  opera- 
tion ought  to  be  performed  in  a  circular  direction,  as  being  most  favor- 
able to  the  course  of  the  intestines,  and  their  natural  action.  "  It  should 
be  performed,"  says  Sir  A.  Cooper,  ''in  the  morning,  on  an  empty  sto- 
mach, or  rather  in  bed,  before  getting  up,  and  continued,  at  least  for 
some  minutes  at  a  time." 

AIR.  The  air,  or  atmosphere,  which  we  broathe,  is  a  compound' 
consisting  of  oxygen  and  nifro^eny  in  the  proportions  of  21  or  22  parts 
of  the  former  to  78  or  79  of  the  latter.  In  neither  of  these  element* 
alone  could  we  live  ;  by  the  former,  we  should  be  so  exhilarated,  as 
quickly  to  exhaust  our  vital  powers  ;  in  the  latter  we  should  die  instant- 
ly. But  Providence  has  so  proportioned  them,  as  to  render  them  fitted 
for  respiration,  and  in  that  proportion  they  contribute  to  health. 

Whenever  the  above  proportion  of  oxygen  is  seriously  altered,  or  its 
due  supply  withheld,  the  lungs  must  suffer,  and  with  them  the  heart 
and  circulation  also.  Various  causes  may  operate  to  injure  the  vitality 
of  the  air.  In  a  light  room,  candles  may  consume  so  much  of  the  ox- 
ygen as  to  render  it  less  fitted  for  the  purpose  of  respiration;  or,  car- 
12 


134  FAMILY 


AIR. — SLKEP. 


bonic  acid  gas,  otherwise  called  ckoke-damp^  may  become  mingled  with 
it,  and  render  it  incapable  of  sustaining  life.  This  often  occurs  in 
wells  and  caverns;  or,  it  may  become  vitiated  or  impure  by  being  re- 
peatedly breathed,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  when  a  large  number  of 
persons  are  crowded  together,  in  a  small  and  confined  apartment.  In 
the  process  of  respiration,  air  undergoes  an  important  change,  rs'othing 
is  lost,  indeed,  in  respect  to  weight ;  but  the  oxygen,  combining  with 
tlie  carbon  found  in  the  blood,  forms  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  in  that  form, 
is  the  air  found,  as  it  issues  from  the  air-cells  of  the  lungs.  Hence,  it 
soon  becomes  entirely  unfitted  for  respiration,  and  incapable  of  sup- 
porting either  life,  or  combustion.  The  memorable  history  of  the  Eng- 
lish prisoners  in  Calcutta,  who  were  crowded  into  a  room  eighteen  feet 
square,  parily  under  ground,  and  having  only  one  small  opening  to  the 
light  and  air  of  day,  is  probably  familiar  to  our  readers.  Of  the  whole 
number,  146,  who  were  confined  in  that  single  apartment,  only  from 
eight  o'clock  at  night  until  six  tho  next  morning,  but  23  were  living. 
In  this  case,  the  heat  which  was  generated,  produced  a  sudden  and  high 
fever,  and  the  carbonic  acid  given  out  by  the  crowd  in  breathing,  pro- 
duced the  awful  effects  above  related.  Few  persons  can  estimate  the 
importance  of  pure  air  to  a  healthy  state  of  the  system,  or  to  persons 
who  are  suffering  under  disease,  especially  fevers.  Apartments  in 
which  the  sick  are  confined,  should  in  general  be  well  ventilated,  and 
this  may  be  easily  effected,  without  exposing  the  patient  to  a  current  of 
air,  which  is  always  to  be  avoided. 

SLEEP.  If  exercise  be  important  and  even  indispensable  to  health* 
as  has  been  remarked  in  a  preceding  article,  not  less  so  is  sleep  ;  and 
constituted  as  we  are,  it  is  a  wise  provision  of  the  Author  of  Nature, 
that  night  comes  at  proper  intervals,  when  the  exhausted  energies  of 
the  system  may  be  revived  by  '■*■  tired  nature's  sweet  restorer."  And 
here  it  may  be  observed,  in  borrowed  language,  that  "  night  is  evidently 
the  period  appropriated  by  nature  for  repose,  and  general  experience  has 
proved  that  it  is  the  only  one  during  which  we  can,  with  certainty,  ob- 
tain that  sound,  sweet,  and  refreshing  slumber,  so  necessary  for  the 
preservation  of  health.  Sleeping  during  the  day  is,  indeed,  on  many 
accounts,  a  pernicious  practice,  which  should  be  carefully  avoided,  ex- 
cepting under  particular  circumstances  of  disease,  or  when  a  sufficient 
junount  of  repose  cannot  be  obtained  at  the  natural  periods.  This, 
however,  does  not  apply  to  infants.  For  the  first  months  after  birth,  a 
healthy  child  sleeps  full  two  thirds  of  its  time.  This  propensity  re- 
quires to  be  indulged  by  day  as  well  as  by  night ;  but,  with  judicious 
management,  it  may  be  brought,  in  a  short  time,  to  require  and  enjoy 
repose  during  the  latter  period  only.  Young  children,  when  fatigued 
by  exercise,  will  also,  in  general,  bo  found  inclined  to  sleep  during  the 
day  ;  from  indulging  them  in  a  short  repose,  under  such  circumstances, 
no  bad  effects  can  result,  provided  their  clothing  be  perfectly  loose,  so 
that  every  part  of  their  bodies  is  freed  from  bands  or  ligatures. 

"  The  popular  maxim,  '  early  to  bed  and  early  to  rise,'  is  one  which 
should  be  rigidly  observed  by  every  individual.  It  has  been  remarked 
that,  in  the  natural  state,  the  disposition  to  sleep  usually  comes  on  soon 
after  the  commencement  of  darkness  ;  and,  according  to  the  oldest  and 
most  accurate  observers,  three  or  four  hours'  sleep  before  midnight,  is 
yery  nearly  as  refreshing  as  double  that  portion  in  the  morning.    Per- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 135 

EARLY  RISIN<j.— .SLKETING  ArARTMENTS. 

sons  who  spend  the  day  in  manual  labor,  or  active  exercise  in  the  open 
air,  with  great  difficulty  keep  awake  for  a  few  hours  after  the  night 
has  closed  in  ;  and  this  disposition  to  early  sleep  is,  perhaps,  one  of  the 
sti-ongest  indications  of  perfect  health. 

"  Karly  rising  is  e<iually  important  to  the  health  of  the  system  as 
early  rest.  On  no  account  should  any  one  permit  himself  to  again 
slumber,  after  the  moment  of  his  first  awaking  in  the  morning,  w  hether 
this  happen  at  the  early  dawn,  or  before  the  sun  has  risen  ;  even  though 
from  accident  or  unavoidable  causes  he  may  not  have  enjoyed  his  six 
or  eight  hours  of  repose,  it  is  much  better  to  make  up  the  deficiency, 
if  necessary,  at  some  other  time,  than  to  attempt  taking  another  nap. 
Whoever  shall  accustom  himself  thus  to  rise,  will  enjoy  more  undis- 
turbed sleep  during  the  night,  and  awake  far  more  refreshed,  than  those 
who  indolently  slumber  all  the  morning. 

"  Even  this  second  nap  is,  however,  by  no  means  so  injurious  to 
health,  as  the  practice  of  continuing  in  bed  of  a  morning,  long  after 
waking  ;  nothing  tends,  especially  in  children,  and  young  persons  gen- 
erally, more  effectually  to  unbrace  the  solids,  exhaust  the  spirits,  and 
thus  to  undermine  the  vigor,  activity,  and  health  of  the  system,  than 
such  a  practice. 

"  Let  any  one,  who  has  been  accustomed  to  lie  in  bed  till  eight  ornine 
o'clock,  rise  by  five  or  six,  spend  an  hour  or  two  in  walking,  riding,  or 
any  active  diversion  in  the  open  air,  and  he  will  find  his  spirits  more 
cheerful  and  serene  throughout  the  day,  his  appetite  more  keen,  and 
his  body  more  active  and  vigorous. 

''  ]No  one  should  retire  to  rest  immediately  after  a  full  meal,  or  in  an 
agitated  state  of  mind.  Indeed,  after  a  light  supper,  at  least  two  houri 
ought  to  elapse  before  bed-tune ;  and  as  a  requisite  for  sound  and  invi- 
gorating repose,  it  is  necessary  to  banish  all  anxious,  gloomy,  or  de- 
pressing ideas  and  thoughts,  and  every  species  of  mental  exertion.  To 
the  same  intent,  every  circumstance  calculated  to  excite  the  senses 
should  be  removed.  The  pernicious  practice,  adopted  by  many,  of 
reading  in  bed  until  they  fall  asleep,  is  particularly  to  be  avoided.  In 
place  of  this  dangerous  expedient  to  invite  sleep,  it  would  be  more  salu- 
tary to  walk  up  and  down  the  room  for  a  few  minutes,  or  to  partake  of 
any  other  gentle  exercise.  Fortunately,  however,  the  individual  who 
lives  a  life  of  temp-trance  and  virtue,  and  partakes  daily  of  sufficient 
active  exercise,  requires  no  opiate  to  lull  him  to  repose  : 

"  On  liim  the  balmy  dews 

Of  sleep  with  double  nutriment  descend." 

SLEEPING  APARTMENTS.  A  sleeping  apartment  is  one  of  the 
most  important  rooms  in  a  house;  and  cannot  well  fail  to  have  either  a 
beneficial  or  injurious  influence  upon  the  health,  as  it  is  well  or  ill  suited 
to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  appropriated. 

"  It  is  all  important,"  observes  the  Journal  of  Health,  "  that  the  lar- 
gest and  most  lofty  room,  upon  the  second  floor,  be  appropriated  for  the 
sleeping  apartment,  and  that  it  be  freely  ventilated,  during  the  day 
time,  at  all  seasons,  when  the  weather  is  not  rainy,  or  otherwise  very 
humid.  There  are  few  houses,  the  rooms  of  which  are  so  situated  as 
to  render  the  latter  impracticable  ;  and  the  influence  of  the  practice  up- 


136  FAMILY 


SLEEPrNG  APARTMENTS. — BEDS. 


on  the  health  of  the  inmates  is  too  important  to  permit  its  being  neg- 
lected from  any  slight  cause. 

"  A  bed-chamber  should  be  divested  of  all  unnecessary  furniture, 
and,  unless,  of  considerable  size,  should  never  contain  more  than  one 
bed.  There  cannot  be  a  more  pernicious  custom,  than  that  pursued  in 
many  families,  of  causing  the  children,  more  especially,  to  sleep  in 
small  apartments,  with  two  or  three  beds  crowded  into  the  same  room. 
"  The  practice  of  sleeping  in  an  apartment  which  is  occupied  during 
the  day  is  extremely  improper.  Perfect  cleanliness  and  a  sufficiently 
free  ventillation  cannot,  under  such  circumstances,  be  preserved,  espe- 
cially duiing  cold  weather  ;  hence,  the  atmosphere  becomes  constantly 
more  and  more  vitiated,  and  altogether  unfitted  for  respiration. 

"A  person  accustomed  to  undress  in  a  room  without  fire,  and  to 
seek  repose  in  a  cold  bed,  will  not  experience  the  least  inconvenience, 
even  in  the  severest  weather.  The  natural  heat  of  his  body  will  very 
speedily  render  him  even  more  comfortably  wann,  than  the  individual 
who  sleeps  in  a  heated  apartment,  and  in  a  bed  thus  artificially  warmed, 
and  who  will  be  extremely  liable  to  a  sensation  of  chilliness  as  soon  as 
the  artificial  heat  is  dissipated.  But  this  is  not  all — tJie  constitution  of 
the  former,  will  be  rendered  more  robust,  and  far  less  susceptible  to  the 
influence  of  atmospherical  vicissitudes,  than  that  of  the  latter. 

"All  must  be  aware,  that  in  the  coldest  weather,  a  fire  rn  the  bed- 
chamber can  only  be  necessary  during  the  periods  occupied  in  dressing 
and  undressing.  When  the  individual  is  in  bed,  it  is  not  only  altoge- 
ther useless,  but  to  a  certain  extent  injurious.  It  might  be  supposed, 
however,  that  bad  eflfects  would  result  from  rising  out  of  a  warm  bed, 
of  a  morning,  in  a  cold  chamber.  We  are  assured,  however,  that  if  the 
business  of  dressing  be  performed  with  rapidity,  and  brisk  exercise  be 
taken,  previously  to  entering  a  warm  apartment,  they  who  would  pur- 
sue  this  plan  would  render  themselves  less  dependent  for  comfort  up- 
on external  warmth — a  circumstance  of  very  great  importance  as  a 
means  of  guarding  against  colds,  coughs,  and  consumptions. 

"  We  would  advise  those  who  are  so  excessively  delicate  as  to  be  in- 
capable of  passing  a  few  minutes,  morning  and  evening,  in  a  cold  room, 
to  seek  some  more  genial  climate — to  such  our  winter  cannot  fail  to  be 
a  season  of  constant  suffering,  if  not  of  actual  danger. 

"  A  practice  equally  imprudent  with  that  of  occupying  a  heated  bed- 
chamber during  cold  weather,  is  the  one  very  commonly  pursued,  of 
attempting  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  this  apartment  in  summer,  by 
leaving  the  windows  open  at  night.  Many  persons  have  experienced 
serious  and  irreparable  injury  to  their  health,  by  being  in  this  manner 
subjected,  whilst  asleep,  to  a  current  of  cold  air  from  without. 

"  While  a  free  admission  of  air  is  permitted  throughout  the  day,  the 
direct  rays  of  the  meridian  sun,  being,  however,  at  the  same  time,  as 
much  as  possible  excluded,  the  windows  of  the  bedchamber  should  be 
invariably  closed  afler  night." 

BEDS.  Writers  on  the  means  of  preserving  health,  have  much  to 
say,  and  not  without  reason,  upon  the  subject  of  beds.  Few,  perhaps, 
are  sufficiently  aware  of  the  enervating  tendency  of  feather  bpds,  espe- 
cially for  youth  ;  and  even  for  persons  of  maturer  years,  it  cannot  rea-. 
sonably  be  doubted,  that  they  greatly  impair  the  strength,  especially  m 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  137 


BROS. 


I 


the  warmer  season,  by  increasing  the  heat  to  an  unnatural  degree,  and 
inducing  a  more  profuse  perspiration,  than  is  consistent  with  the  con- 
tinuance of  health. 

The  best  bed,  under  almost  any  circumstances,  is  a  mattrass  compos- 
ed of  hair  or  moss.  Cotton,  however,  will  answer  well.  With  a  pro- 
per amount  of  covering,  such  a  bed  will  be  found  sufficiently  warm  for 
health  and  comfort,  during  even  the  severest  nights  of  winter. 

Should  it  be  said  that  an  exception  should  be  made  in  respect  to  in- 
fants, it  may  be  observed  that  during  infancy  a  greater  degree  of  warmth 
is  at  all  times  demanded  than  is  necessary,  or  would  be  proper,  in  after 
life  ;  but,  as  an  infant  should  never  be  allowed  to  sleep  alone,  it  can  al- 
ways be  preserved  of  a  sufficient  temperature,  without  having  recourse 
to  the  doubtful  expedient  of  subjecting  it  to  immersion  in  a  bed  of 
feathers. 

"  Doctor  Darwin  has  advised  that  young  children  "  should  not  lie  on 
very  hard  beds,  as  it  may  occasion  them  to  rest  on  too  few  parts  at  a 
time,  which  hardens  these  parts  by  pressure,  and  prevents  their  propor- 
tionate growth."  A  bed,  such  as  is  here  described,  would  most  un- 
doubtedly be  improper  at  any  period  of  life.  There  is  a  very  material 
difference,  however,  between  a  soft  and  elastic  mattrass,  and  a  bed  so 
hard  as  to  occasion  uneasiness  to  the  parts  with  which  it  is  in  contact. 
From  sleeping  on  the  former,  even  the  most  delicate  need  not  be  de- 
terred, by  any  apprehensions  of  the  injurious  consequences  to  which  the 
doctor  alludes. 

"  If  ever  feather  beds  be  admissible,  it  is  in  the  case  of  the  aged,  who 
are  nearly  as  susceptible  to  the  influence  of  cold  as  infants  ;  to  such, 
therefore,  a  warm  bed  is  often  a  matter  of  indispensable  comfort. 

"  Feather  pillows  are  not  less  injurious  than  feather  beds-  By  pre- 
serving the  head  of  an  immoderate  warmth,  they  are  apt  to  induce  ca- 
tarrhs, and,  in  the  young,  may  become  the  remote  or  exciting  cause  of 
inflammation  in  the  ear— eruptions— pain  of  the  head,  or  even  more 
serious  diseases.  For  the  same  reason,  all  coverings  for  the  head  at 
night,  excepting  in  the  insttmce  of  females  who  are  accustomed  to  wear 
a  cap  during  the  day,  are  productive  of  bad  effects.  Children,  there- 
fore, of  both  sexes,  should  be  accustomed  from  an  early  age  to  sleep 
with  the  head  bare — the  covering  with  which  nature  has,  in  general,  so 
plentifully  supplied  this  portion  of  the  body,  being  amply  sufficient  to 
protect  it  from  cold. 

"  After  what  has  been  said  above,  upon  the  injurious  tendency  of  sub- 
jecting the  body  to  an  undue  degree  of  heat,  during  the  period  of  re- 
'  pose,  cautions  against  an  excess  of  bed  clothes  would  appear  unnecessft- 
ry.  It  is  all  important  that  the  body  be  covered  with  a  sufficiency  of 
clothing  to  preserve  it  comfortably  warm ;  and  this  may  be  effected 
during  health,  and  in  individuals  accustomed  to  exercise,  by  fewer  blan- 
kets, coverlets,  and  comfortables  than  many  are  accustomed  to  pile  upon 
the  bed. 

"So  injurious  is  an  excess  of  heat,  during  repose,  esteenied  by  Dr. 
Beddoes,  that  he  has  advised,  and  with  great  propriety,  that  young 
persons,  especially  when  they  present  symptoms  of  languor  and  debili- 
ty, or  complain  of  unrefreshing  sleep,  should  be  examined  when  in  bed, 
**  and  if  found  too  warm,  awakened  without  compunction." — The  bed 

12* 


138  FAMILY 


BEDS. CLE  ANLIN  ESS. 


clothes  should  then  be  thrown  off,  "  or  if  the  dry  heat  of  the  surface  be 
considerable,"  he  adds,  "it  will  be  best  to  walk  up  and  down  the  room 
in  a  dress  so  contrived  as  to  guard  the  extremities  from  chill,  while  it 
permits  the  residue  of  the  body  to  be  freely  ventilated."  Cool  rooms 
— mattresses,  and  light  bed  clothes,  will  in  all  cases  prevent  the  neces- 
«ity  of  having  recourse  to  the  expedient  here  directed. 

"  A  proper  night-dress  is  an  object  of  no  little  importance. — A  loose 
flannel  gown  for  winter,  and  one  of  muslin  for  summer,  will  be  found 
the  most  proper,  more  especially  for  children.  No  part  of  the  clothing 
worn  during  the  day  ought,  in  fact,  to  be  retained  at  night.  Those,  in 
particular,  who  are  accustomed  to  wear  flannel  will  find  it  advantageous 
to  dispense  with  it  whilst  in  bed — or  to  exchange  it  for  an  under-dress 
of  cotton.*  Whatever  dress  is  adopted,  it  should  be  free  from  every 
•pedes  of  ligature,  particularly  at  those  parts  which  encompass  the 
neck  or  the  extremities.  This  is  an  all  important  caution,  from  a  neg- 
lect of  which  serious  injury  has  repeatedly  resulted. 

♦'  Closely  shrouding  a  bed  with  Curtains,  is  one  of  those  numerous 
instances  in  which  the  requisitions  of  fashion  are  found  to  be  opposed 
to  health.  By  preventing  a  free  circulation  of  the  air,  they  oblige  the 
individual  who  reposes  within  them,  to  breathe  an  atmosphere  vitiated 
by  repeated  respiration.  They  become  likewise  receptacles  for  fine 
particles  of  dust,  which  are  liable  to  be  inhaled  during  sleep,  whenever 
disturbed  by  the  motion  of  the  curtains  or  of  the  bedstead  :  this  alone 
according  to  Willich,  is  a  cause  to  which  many  young  persons  may  re- 
fer the  first  developementof  a  consumptive  attack. 

"  Equally  pernicious  is  the  practice  of  sleeping  with  the  face  ehvel- 
oped  in  the  bed-clothes,  as  well  as  that  most  ridiculous  custom,  so  pre- 
Talentin  this  country,  of  suspending  a  curtain  over  the  front  of  an  in- 
fant's cradle. 

"  Their  own  feelings  might  be  supposed  sufficient  to  induce  all  to  as- 
pume  in  bed  that  position^  in  which  every  portion  of  the  body  will  be 
left  the  freest  from  constraint ;  yet  in  the  case  of  children,  some  cau- 
tions may  be  necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  an  awkward  position  from 
being  indulged  in,  calculated  to  produce  a  prejudicial  effect  upon  the 
eymmeirical  growth  and  perfect  developement  of  the  system.  Hence 
it  is  prudent  when  young  persons  lie  upon  their  backs,  to  roduco  the 
size  of  the  pillows,  in  order  to  guard  against  a  contortion  of  the  spine  ; 
while  lying  on  the  side  requires  pillows  sufficiently  large  to  fill  up  the 
Bpace  between  the  head  and  point  of  the  shoulder.  A  constrained  po- 
ailion,  if  it  have  no  other  bad  effect,  is  a  certain  preventive  to  sound 
and  refreshing  sleep. 

»'  Beds  should  never  be  placed  upon  the  floor,  as  it  is  well  known  that 
in  all  apartments  occupied  by  living  beings,  the  inferior  portions  of  the 
atmosphere  are  always  the  most  impure.  The  most  wholesome  situa- 
tion for  the  bed  's  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  and  raised  some  feet  from 
the  floor.  From  the  vitiated  state  of  the  atmosphere  immediately 
above  the  latter,  and  the  great  importance  of  a  free  ventilaton,  the 
practice  of  placing  the  children's  bed  beneath  another  bedstead  during 
the  day,  cannot  be  too  severely  reprobated." 

CLEANLINESS.  It  would  be  quite  idle  to  attempt  to  prove,  in  a 
formal  manner,  the  importance  of  cleanhness  to  individual  comfort  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  139 


BATHING. COLD    BATHS. 


health  ;  because  he  who  should  soberly  maintain  the  contrary,  would 
be  entitled  to  no  belter  appellation  than  that  of  a  fool,  or  a  madman. 

On  viewing-  the  surface  ofthe  skin,  even  with  the  naked  eye,  we  find 
it  porous ;  but,  by  means  of  a  good  glass,  these  pores  will  be  discovered 
to  be  very  numerous.  The  object  of  these  pores  is  to  give  out  perspi- 
ration, and  when  abundant,  it  appears  in  what  is  called  sweat.  Besides 
this,  there  is  also  a  discharge  of  an  oily  fluid,  also  carbonic  acid  gas, 
and  nitrog-en  or  azote.  These  discharges  are  all  essential  to  health. 
Hence,  when  the  pores  become  closed  by  the  disuse  of  water,  or  from 
any  other  cause,  colds,  rheumatisms,  eruptions,  &c.  are  the  conse- 
quence. 

Shall  we  wonder,  therefore,  that  medical  writers  insist  so  much  on 
the  importance  of  frequent  ablutions,  and  on  a  change  of  linen  in  re- 
spect to  our  persons,  beds,  Sic.  Hufeland,  a  distinguished  writer,  gives 
us  the  following  rules  for  preserving  cleanliness,  and  a  sound  state  of 
the  skin,  and  which,  in  his  opinion,  if  properly  observed,  would  tend  to 
the  prolongation  of  life. 

1.  "  Remove  carefully  everything  that  the  body  has  secreted,  as  cor- 
rupted or  prejudicial.  This  may  be  done  by  changing  the  linen  of- 
ten; daily,  if  it  be  possible,  and  also  the  bed  clothes,  or  at  least  the 
sheets ;  by  using  instead  of  a  feather  bed,  a  mattress,  which  attracts 
less  dirt ;  and  by  continually  renewing  the  air  in  apartments,  and  par- 
ticularly in  one's  bed-chamber. 

2.  "  Let  the  whole  body  be  washed  daily  with  cold  water,  and  rub 
the  skin  strongly  at  the  same  time,  by  which  means  it  will  acquire  a 
great  deal  of  life  and  vigor. 

3.  "  One  ought  to  bathe  once  a  week,  the  whole  year  through,  in  te- 
pid water ;  and  it  will  be  of  considerable  service  to  add  to  it  some 
soap." 

BATHING.  Bathing  is  a  practice  coeval  with  mankind.  The  an- 
cient Greeks,  Romans,  and  Germans,  as  well  as  the  Persians,  Turks, 
and  especially  the  modern  Egyptians,  enjoy  the  comforts  and  luxuries 
procured  by  bathing,  in  a  degree  of  which  we  can  scarcely  form  an  ad- 
equate conception.  Considered  as  a  species  of  universal  domestic  reme- 
dy, as  one  which  forms  the  basis  of  cleanliness,  bathing,  in  its  differ- 
ent forms,  may  be  pronounced  one  ofthe  most  extensive  and  beneficial 
restorers  of  health  and  vigor.  Baths  may  be  considered  as  cold,  cool, 
varm,  and  hot. 

GOLD  BATHS.  Cold  baths  are  those  of  a  temperature  varying 
from  the  33d  to  the  55tli  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer.  The  " 
general  properties  ofthe  cold  bath,  consist  in  its  power  of  contracting 
the  animal  fibres,  and  imparting  action  and  energy  to  the  system.  It 
cannot  be  resorted  to,  however,  with  advantage  and  safety  in  certain 
cases,  as — 1.  "In  a  full  habit  of  body,  or  what  is  called  general  pletho- 
ra, on  account  of  the  frequent  febrile  disposition  attending  such  indi- 
viduals. 2.  Jn  hemorrhages  or  fluxes  of  blood,  open  wounds  or  ul- 
cers, and  every  kind  of  inflammation,  whether  external  or  internal.  3. 
In  obstructions  ofthe  intestines,  or  habitual  costiveness.  4.  In  aflTec- 
tions  ofthe  breast  and  lungs,  such  as  ditficult  respiration,  short  and  dry 
coughs,  &c.    5.  When  the  whole  mass  ofthe  fluids  appears  to  be  vitiEk- 


140  FAMILY 


COLD    BATHS. 


ted,  or  tainted  with  a  peculiar  acrimony,  which  cannot  be  easily  defin- 
ed, but  is  obvioiis  from  a  sallow  color  of  the  face,  slow  healing  of  the 
flesh  when  cut  or  bruised,  and  from  a  scorbutic  tendency  of  the  whole 
body.  6.  In  gouty  and  rheumatic  paroxisms.  7.  In  cutaneous  erup- 
tions, which  tend  to  promote  a  critical  discharge  of  humours  by  the 
pores.  li.  During  pregnancy.  And,  9.  In  a  distorted  or  deformed 
state  of  the  body,  except  in  particular  cases  to  be  ascertained  by  profes- 
aional  men." 

In  respect  to  the  cold  bath,  the  following  things  should  be  observed. 
1.  "  It  is  a  vulgar  error,  that  it  is  safer  to  enter  the  water  when  the  bo- 
dy is  cool,  and  that  persons  heated  by  exercise,  and  beginning  to  per- 
spire, should  wait  till  they  are  perfectly  cooled.  Thus,  by  plunging  in- 
to it,  in  this  state,  an  alarming  and  dangerous  chillness  frequently  seizes 
them,  and  the  injury  sustained  is  generally  ascribed  to  their  going  ir>to 
it  too  warm ;  while  it  doubtless  arises  from  the  contrary  practice. 
Dr.  J.  Currie,  of  Liverpool,  in  his  valuable  "  Treatise  on  the  effects  of 
Water  in  Fevers,''"'  says,  with  equal  truth  and  precision,  that  ''  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  exercise,  before  profuse  perspiration  has  dissipated  the 
heat,  and  fatigue  debilito-ted  the  living  power,  nothing  is  more  safe, 
according  to  my  experience,  than  the  cold  bath.  This  is  so  true,  that  I 
have,  for  some  years,  constantly  directed  infirm  persons  to  use  such  a 
degree  of  exercise,  before  immersion,  as  may  produce  some  increased 
action  of  the  vascular  system,  with  some  increase  of  heat,  and  thus  se- 
cure a  force  of  reaction  under  the  shock,  which  otherwise  might  not  al- 
ways take  place.  But,  though  it  be  perfectly  safe  to  get  into  the  cold 
bath  in  the  earlier  stages  of  exercise,  nothing  is  more  dangerous  than 
this  practice,  after  exercise  has  produced  profuse  perspiration,  and  ter- 
minated in  languor  and  fatigue ;  because,  in  such  circumstances,  the 
heat  is  not  only  sinking  rapidly,  but  the  system  parts  more  easily  with 
the  portion  that  remains."  In  short,  it  is  a  rule,  liable  to  no  exception, 
that  moderate  exercise  ought  always  to  precede  cold  bathing,  to  pro- 
mote the  re-action  of  all  the  vessels  and  muscles,  on  entering  the  wa- 
ter;  for  neither  previous  rest,  nor  exercise  to  a  violent  degree,  are  pro- 
per on  tliis  occasion. 

2.  The  duration  of  every  cold  bathing  applied  to  the  whole  body 
ought  to  be  short,  and  must  be  determined  by  the  bodily  constitution, 
and  the  sensations  of  the  individual ;  for  healthy  persons  may  continue 
much  longer  in  it  than  valetudinarians ;  and  both  will  be  influenced  by 
the  temperature  of  the  air,  so  that  in  summer  they  can  enjpy  it  for  an 
hour,  when,  in  spring  or  autumn,  one  or  two  minutes  may  be  sufficient. 
Under  similar  circumstances,  cold  water  acts  on  aged  and  lean  persons 
with  more  violence  than  on  the  young  and  corpulent ;  hence  the  former, 
even  in  the  hottest  days  of  summer,  can  seldom  with  safety  remain  in 
the  bath  longer  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  while  the  latter  are  generally 
able  to  sustain  its  impressions  for  double  that  time. 

3.  The  head  should  first  come  in  contact  with  the  water,  either  by 
immersion,  pouring  water  upon  it,  or  covering  it  for  a  minute  with  a 
wet  cloth,  and  then  diving  head  foremost  into  the  water. 

4.  As  the  immersion  will  be  less  felt  when  it  is  efiected  suddenly  ; 
and  as  it  is  of  consequence  that  the  first  impression  should  be  uniform 
over  the  body,  we  must  not  enter  the  bath  slowly  or  timorously,  but, 
with  a  degree  of  boldness.    A  contrary  method  would  be  dangerous  ; 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  141 


COLD  BATHS. 


as  it  might  propel  the  blood  from  the  lower  to  the  upper  parts  of  the 
body,  and  thus  occasion  a  fit  of  apoplexy.  For  these  reasons  the  show- 
erbalkis  attended  with  considerable  advantages,  because  it  transmits 
the  water  quickly  over  the  whole  body  ;  and,  consequently,  is  more 
consistent  with  the  rules  before  mentioned. 

5.  The  morning  is  the  most  proper  time  for  using  the  cold  bath,  un- 
less it  be  in  a  river :  in  which  case  the  aflernoon,  or  from  one  to  two 
hours  before  sunset,  will  be  more  eligible  ;  as  the  water  has  then  ac- 
quired additional  warmth  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  immersion 
will  not  interfere  with  digestion  ;  on  the  whole,  one  hour  after  a  light 
breakfast, — or  two  hours  before,  or  four  hours  after  dinner,  are  the  best 
periods  of  the  day  for  this  purpose. 

6.  While  the  bather  is  in  the  water,  he  should  not  remain  inactive, 
but  apply  brisk  general  friction,  and  move  his  arms  and  legs,  to  pro- 
mote the  circulation  of  the  fluids  from  the  heart  to  the  extremities.  It 
would,  therefore,  be  extremely  imprudent  to  continue  in  the  water  till 
a  second  chillness  attacks  the  body  ;  a  circumstance  which  would  not 
only  defeat  the  whole  purpose  intended,  but  might,  at  the  same  time, 
be  productive  of  the  most  injurious  effects. 

Immediately  after  the  person  leaves  the  bath,  it  will  be  necessary  for 
him  to  wipe  iand  dry  his  body  with  a  coarse  and  clean  cloth.  He  should 
not  afterwards  sit  inactive,  or  enter  a  carriage,  unless  warmly  clothed 
and  wearing  flannel  next  the  skin  ;  if  season  and  circumstances  permit, 
it  will  be  more  proper,  and  highly  beneficial,  to  take  gentle  exercise 
till  the  equilibrium  of  the  circulation  be  restored,  and  the  vessels,  as 
well  as  the  muscles,  have  acquired  a  due  degree  of  re-action. 

The  best  place  for  cold  bathing  is  in  the  invigorating  water  of  the 
sea,  or  a  clear  river  ;  and  where  neither  of  these  can  be  conveniently 
resorted  to,  we  recommend  the  Shower  Bath.  Its  effects  are  doubtless 
more  powerful  than  those  of  the  common  bath  :  and  though  the  latter 
covers  the  surface  of  the  body  more  uniformly,  yet  this  circumstance 
by  no  means  detracts  from  the  excellence  of  the  former  :  because  those 
intermediate  parts,  which  the  water  has  not  touched,  receive  an  elec- 
tric and  sympathetic  impression,  in  a  degree  similar  to  those  brought 
into  actual  contact.  As  every  drop  of  water  from  the  shower  bath  op- 
erates as  a  partial  cold  bath,  its  vivifying  shock  to  robust  individuals  is 
more  extensive  and  beneficial  than  from  any  other  method  of  bathing. 

Hence  this  bath  is  possessed  of  the  following  important  advantages  ; 
1.  The  sudden  contact  of  the  water  may  be  repeated,  prolonged,  and 
modified  at  pleasure.  2.  The  head  and  breast  are  tolerably  secure,  as 
it  descends  towards  the  lower  extremities  :  thus,  the  circulation  is  not 
impeded,  breathing  is  less  afltected,  and  a  determination  of  blood  to  the 
head  and  breast  is  effectually  obviated.  3.  As  the  water  descends  in 
single  drops,  it  is  more  stimulating  and  pleasant  than  the  usual  immer- 
sion, and  can  be  more  readily  procured  and  adapted  to  circumstances. 
And,  4.  The  degree  of  pressure  from  the  weight  of  water  is  here,  like- 
wise, in  a  great  measure  prevented ;  nor  is  the  circulation  of  the  fluids 
interrupted  so  as  to  render  the  use  of  this  bath  in  any  degree  danger- 
ous ; — a  circumstance  of  the  highest  importance,  because,  by  the  ordi- 
nary immersion,  persons  are  often  exposed  to  injuries  which  they  least 
apprehend. 


142  FAMILY 


COOL    BATHS. — WARM    BATHS  HOT    BATHS. 


COOL  BATHS  may  be  called  those  which  are  of  a  temperature  be- 
tween the  56th  and  76th  degrees  of  Fahrenheit's  scale.  They  are  of 
great  service  in  all  cases  where  cold  bathinjr  has  before  been  recom- 
mended, and  require  nearly  similar  precautions.  As  their  influence, 
however,  on  first  entering  them  is  less  violent,  though  their  subsequent 
effect  may  be  attended  with  equal  advantages,  it  follows,  that  even 
persons  of  a  more  delicate  organization  may  resort  to  them  with  great- 
er safety. 

With  respect  to  rules  for  cool  bathing,  we  refer  the  reader  to  those 
stated  in  the  preceding  article ;  and  shall  only  remark,  that  notwith- 
standing its  effects  are  less  perceptible  while  the  body  continues  in 
the  water,  it  is  necessary  that  the  bather,  on  coming  out  of  it,  should 
be  wiped  dry  with  the  greatest  expedition,  to  prevent  catarrhal  affec- 
tions. 

WARM  BATHS,  are  such  as  have  the  temperature  above  the  76, 
and  not  exceeding  the  96  or  98  degree  of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer. 
"  Physicians,  as  well  as  patients,  have  hitherto  been  too  generally  ac- 
customed to  consider  a  warm  bath  as  weakening  the  body,  and  useful 
only  for  the  removal  of  certain  diseases,  especially  those  of  the  skin. 
Experience,  however,  has  amply  proved,  that  there  can  be  no  safer  and 
more  efficacious  remedy,  in  a  variety  of  chronic  or  inveterate  com- 
plaints, than  the  warm  bath,  if  properly  used,  and  continued  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time.  Instead  of  heating  the  human  body,  as  has 
erroneously  been  asserted,  it  has  a  cooling  effect,  insomuch  as  it  obvi- 
ously abates  the  quickness  of  the  pulse,  and  reduces  the  pulsations  in 
a  remarkable  degree,  according  to  the  length  of  time  the  patient  con- 
tinues in  the  water.  After  the  body  has  been  overheated  by  fatigue 
from  travelling,  violent  exercise,  or  from  whatever  cause,  and  likewise 
afler  great  exertion  or  perturbation  of  mind,  a  tepid  bath  is  excellently 
calculated  to  invigorate  the  whole  system,  while  it  allays  those  tem- 
pestuous and  irregular  motions,  which  otherwise  prey  upon,  and  at 
length  reduce  the  constitution  to  a  sick-bed.  Its  softening  and  assua- 
sive  power  greatly  tends  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  body  ;  on  which 
account  it  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  state  of  such  youth  as  manifest 
a  premature  disposition  to  arrive  at  a  settled  period  of  growth  ;  and  it 
has  uniformly  been  observed  to  produce  this  singular  effect  in  all  cli- 
mates." 

HOT  BATHS  are  those  which  have  a  temperature  above  98  or  100 
degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  and  are  occasionally  increased  to  110  or  120  de- 
grees, and  upwards,  according  to  the  particular  nature  of  the  case,  and 
the  constitution  of  the  patient.  There  can  be  no  stated  rules  laid 
down  for  its  use,  as  every  thing  depends  upon  the  particular  circum- 
stances of  each  patient.  No  prudent  person  will,  we  trust,  have  re- 
course to  a  hot  bath  without  medical  advice. 

CONTAGION,  or  infection,  is  the  communication  of  disease  from 
one  body  to  another.  Without  entering  into  the  disputed  points  on 
this  subject,  it  is  probable,  without  debate,  that  some  diseases  are  con- 
tagious; and  hence  the  propriety  of  certain  rules  to  be  observed  in  the 
apartments  of  those  who  are  confined  by  infectious  disease. 

1.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  sick,  and  their  attendants, 
that  there  be  a  constant  admission  of  fresh  air  into  the  room,  and  es 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  143 


CONTAGION. PURIFYING    AND   DISINFECTING  AGENTS. 

pecially  about  the  patient's  bed.  The  door,  or  a  window,  should  there- 
fore be  kept  open  both  day  and  night,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  the 
wind  from  blowing  directly  on  the  patient. 

2.  An  attention  to  cleanliness  is  indispensable.  The  linen  of  the 
patient  should  be  often  changed  ;  and  the  dirty  clothes,  Szc.  should  be 
immediately  put  into  fresh  cold  water,  and  afterwards  well  washed. 
The  floor  of  the  room  should  be  cleansed  every  day  with  a  mop,  and 
all  discharges  from  the  patient  should  be  immediately  removed,  and 
the  utensils  washed. 

3.  Nurses  and  attendants  should  endeavour  to  avoid  the  patient's 
breath,  and  the  vapor  from  the  discharges ;  or,  when  that  cannot  be 
done,  they  should  hold  their  breath  for  a  short  time.  They  should 
place  themselves,  if  possible,  on  that  side  of  the  bed  frpm  which  the 
current  of  air  carries  off  the  infectious  vapors. 

4.  Visiters  should  not  come  near  to  the  sick,  nor  remain  with  them 
longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary  ;  they  should  not  swallow  the  spit- 
tle, but  should  clear  the  mouth  and  nostrils  when  they  leave  the  roorfi. 

4.  No  dependence  should  be  placed  on  vinegar,  camphor,  or  other 
supposed  preventives,  which,  without  attention  to  cleanliness  and  ad- 
mission offresh  air  are  not  only  useless,  but  by  their  strong  smell  ren- 
der it  impossible  to  perceive  when  the  room  is  filled  with  bad  air,  or 
noxious  vapors. 

If  these  rules  be  strictly  observed,  an  infectious  disease  will  seldom 
ifever,  be  communicated;  but,  if  they  be  neglected,  especially  where 
the  patient  is  confined  to  a  small  room,  scarcely  one  person  in  fifty  who 
may  be  exposed  to  it  can  resist  the  contagion  ;  even  infants  at  the 
breast  do  not  escape  it,  though  providentially  less  liable  to  be  affected 
than  adults. 

Since  infection  originates  in  close,  crowded,  and  dirty  rooms,  those 
who  make  a  practice  of  admitting  the  fresh  air,  at  some  convenient 
time,  every  day,  and  of  frequently  cleansing  and  fumigating  their 
apartments,  bedding,  furniture,  &;c.,  and  washing  the  wall  with  quick- 
lime, mixed  with  water,  in  the  room,  may  be  assured  they  will  preserve 
their  families  from  malignant  fevers,  as  well  as  from  other  diseases. 

The  process  of  fumigation  is  as  follows  : 

Take  an  equal  quantity  of  powdered  nitre,  and  strong  vitriolic  acid, 
or  oil  of  vitriol,  (about  six  drams  of  each  are  sufiicient)  ;  mix  them  in 
a  tea-cup,  stirring  them  occasionally  with  a  tobacco-pipe,  or  piece  of 
glass;  the  cup  must  be  removed  occasionally  to  different  parts  of  the 
room,  and  the  fumes  will  continue  to  arise  for  several  hours.  The  oil 
of  vitriol  should  be  in  quantity  not  weight. 

PURIFYING  AND  DISINFECTING  AGENTS.  In  connection 
with  the  above  observation  on  contagion,  it  may  be  proper  in  this  place 
to  state,  that  certain  purifying  and  disinfecting  agents  have  wuthin  a 
few  years  been  discovered,  and  which  promise  to  be  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance to  the  world.  These  are  the  chlorides  of  soda  and  lime.  Al- 
ready have  they  been  extensively  used  on  the  Continent,  and  are  be- 
ginning to  be  used  in  the  United  States.  By  means  of  these,  gutters, 
vaults,  sinks,  sewers,  hospitals,  alms-houses,  may  be  entirely  purified ; 
and  even  putrefaction  disarmed  of  its  noxious  and  destructive  influ- 
ence. 


144  FAMILY 


TOBACCO. 


The  chloride  of  soda,  which  is  liquid,  is  more  expensive,  and  more 
powerful  than  the  chloride  of  lime,  which  is  in  form  of  a  white  powder, 
and  hence  the  former  is  applicable  to  disinfecting  operations  on  a  small 
scale.  They  are  both  used,  mixed  with  more  or  less  water,  according 
to  the  intention  in  view.  If  a  body  is  to  be  preserved  before  burial, 
add  about  a  pint  of  the  concentrated  chloride  of  soda  to  a  bucket-full 
of  water,  and  cover  the  body  with  a  sheet  dipped  in  this  solution, 
which  must  be  sprinkled  occasionally  over  the  corpse.  Or  if  the  chlo- 
ride of  lime  is  employed,  make  a  mixture  of  about  a  pound  of  the 
chloride  with  two  buckets-full  of  water,  and  proceed  as  before. 

For  Vaults^  take  two  ounces  of  the  chloride  of  lime  to  three  or  four 
pints  of  water,  and  sprinkle  from  time  to  time,  by  means  of  a  watering- 
pot. 

To  preserve  the  health  of  workmen  employed  in  common  sewers,  a 
pound  of  the  chloride  of  lime  should  be  dissolved  in  three  buckets-full 
of  water,  and  a  bucket-full  of  the  solution  should  be  placed  by  the  side 
of  the  workmen,  to  be  employed  by  them  in  washing  their  hands  and 
arms,  and  moistening  their  nostrils,  and  for  sprinkling  on  the  filth. 

For  Ships^  take  a  spoonful  or  more  of  either  chloride,  add  it  to  a 
bottle  of  water,  and  sprinkle  the  solution  in  the  hold,  and  over  the 
decks. 

For  purifying  offensive  Water^  mix  it  with  the  chloride  of  lime  in 
the  proportion  of  one  or  two  ounces  of  the  latter  to  about  sixty-five 
gallons  of  the  former.  After  being  thus  disinfected,  the  water  must  be 
exposed  to  the  air,  and  allowed  to  settle  for  some  time  before  it  can  be 
drunk. 

TOBACCO.  The  chewing  of  tobacco  has  been  and  is  still  \ery 
extensive  throughout  our  country,  and  indeed  throughout  the  world, 
wherever  it  is  known.  Extensive  liowever  as  its  use  is,  and  "  bewitch- 
ing''' as  Sir  Hans  Sloan  says  it  is  ;  it  no  longer  remains  doubtful  that 
it  is  a  practice,  fraught  with  almost  innumerable  evils.  Were  other 
testimony  insufficient,  that  of  the  ablest  physicians  of  the  country 
should  decide  the  question.  "  The  chewing  of  tobacco"  says  Dr.  John 
C.  Warren,  as  quoted  by  the  author  of  Dyspepsia  forestalled  and  resist- 
ed— "  is  not  necessary  or  useful  in  any  case,  that  I  know  of:  and  I 
have  abundant  evidence  to  satisfy  me,  that  its  use  may  be  discontinued 
without  pernicious  consequences.  The  common  belief,  that  it  is  bene- 
ficial to  the  teeth,  is,  I  apprehend,  entirely  erroneous.  On  the  contra- 
ry, by  poisoning  and  relaxing  the  vessels  of  the  gums,  it  may  impair 
the  healthy  condition  of  the  vessels,  belonging  to  the  membranes  of 
the  socket,  with  the  condition  of  which  the  state  of  the  tooth  is  closely 
connected." 

Similarly  strong  is  the  testimony  of  the  editors  of  the  Journal  of 
Health.  " Tobacco,"  say  they,  "is,  in  fact,  an  absolute  poison.  A 
very  moderate  quantity  introduced  into  th«  system — even  applying  the 
moistened  leaves  over  the  stomach — has  been  known  very  suddenly 
to  extingfuish  life.  The  Indians  of  our  own  country  were  well  aware 
of  its  poisonous  effecls,  and  were  accustomed,  it  is  said,  on  certain  oc- 
casions, to  dip  the  points  of  their  arrows  in  an  oil  obtained  from  the 
leaves,  which  being  inserted  into  the  flesh,  occasioned  sickness  and 
laiating,  or  even  convulsions  and  death. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  145 


EFFECTS  OF  CERTAIN  LIQUORS. 


It  must  be  evident  to  every  one,  that  the  constant  use  of  an  article 
possessing  such  deleterious  properties,  cannot  fail,  at  length,  to  in^u- 
euce  the  health  of  the  system. 

In  whatever  form  it  may  be  employed,  a  portion  of  the  active  princi- 
ples of  the  tobacco,  mixed  with  1  he  saliva,  invariably  finds  its  way  into 
the  stomach,  and  disturbs  or  impairs  the  functions  of  that  oriran. 
Hence,  most,  if  not  all,  of  those  who  are  accustomed  to  the  use  of  to- 
bacco, labour  under  dyspeptic  symptoms.  They  experience,  at  inter- 
vals, a  want  of  appetite — nausea — inordinate  thirst — vertigo — pains 

and  distention  of  the  stomach — disagreeable  sensations  of  the  head 

tremors  of  the  limbs — disturbed  sleep,  and  are  more  or  less  emacia- 
ted. 

Of  smoking  and  snuffing,  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  add  that  the 
practice  is  followed  in  general  by  the  same  evils  which  afflict  the  to- 
bacco chewer.  Nor  is  there  any  safety  or  immunity  for  such  persons, 
but  abstinence — resolute  and  entire  abstinence. 

EFFECTS  OF  CERTAIN  LIQUORS.  The  late  Dr.  Rush,  who 
paid  great  attention  to  the  subject,  has  presented  us  with  the  follow- 
ing view  of  the  physical,  moral  and  immoral  effects  of  certain  liquors 
upon  the  body  and  mind  of  men,  which  we  appropriately  assign  to  this 


place. 


13 


m 

146 

FAMILY 

OPIUM   AND   LAUDANUM. 

Liquors. 

Upon  his  body.         Upon  his  mind.      Upon  his  condi- 

tion in  Society. 

Water,  (to  which  " 

'Good  api^tite. 

A  peaceable  dispo- 

f 

may  be  added 

Health, 

sition. 

Reputation 

Soda-water,) 

S 

Sound  sleep, 

Serenity  of  mind. 

and 

Molasses  and  wa- 

A nagreeaiile  com- 

Industry and 

Wealth. 

ter, 

plexion  and  long 

Domestic    happi- 

Molasses-beer    & 

life. 

ne.ss. 

Small  beer, 

> 

' 

'Strength     and    a 

power  in  the  sys- 

tem to  resist  the 

Cider, 

extremes  of  heat 

Cheerfulness, 

Friendship, 

Perry, 

o 

and  cold,  provid- 

Good humour, 

Honour, 

Wine, 

J    . 

ed  they  at  e  taken 

Generosity  and 

Public    and    pri- 

Porter and 

o 

in  small  quanti- 

Social pleasures. 

vate  confidence. 

Strong  beer. 

Oh 

ties,  and  chiefly 
with  meals. 

s- 

■ 

'Tremors    in   the 

hands, 
Sickness  and  puk- 

Idleness, 
Peevishness, 
Quarrelling    and 

!= 

ing  in  the  morn- 

Scolding, 

Poverty,     discov- 

Punch, 

ing, 

Obscene    conver- 

ered in  a  filthy 

Toddy, 

Indigestion, 

sation, 

house,    «nd    in 

Grog, 

Belching, 

Uncleanliness, 

ragged      cloth- 

Milk-punch, 

Hiccup,  . 

Black  eyes  from 

ing. 

Slings, 

Red  eyes  andnose, 

fighting, 

Debt, 

Flip, 

Rosc-budsovertlie 

Broken     bones 

Detestation       by 

Egg-nog, 

whole  face,  and 

from  falls. 

family          and 

Liquors, 

after  a  while  a 

Adultery, 

friends. 

Bitters  made  with 

i 

pallid  face, 

Gaming, 

Hospital, 

spirits, 

'1  ^ 

Fetid  breath. 

Lying, 

Jail, 

Raw-rum, 

Hoarseness, 

Cursing,  blasphe- 

Hard-labour, 

Brandy, 

A  short  cough. 

ming, 

Chains, 

Whiskey  and 

Sore  and  swelled 

Swearing, 

A    solitary    cell. 

Spirits     in      the 

legs. 

Pilfering, 

Disgrace, 

morning, 

Pains  in  the  limbs, 

Stealing, 

Universal       con- 

The same  two  or 

Burning    in   the 

Perjury, 

tempt, 

three    times    a 

palms     of     the 

Picking  pockets. 

Imprisonment 

day. 

hands  and  soals 

House  breaking, 

for  life, 

The   <»ame  every 

' 

of  the  feet, 

Assaults    on    the 

The  Gallows. 

hour  in  the  day, 

Jaundice, 

highway. 

and      in      the 

Dropsy, 

Murder. 

night, 

Loss  of  memory 

and  self  respect, 

Palsy,  Apoplexy, 

J 

1 

Madness,  Death. 

I 

L 

OPIUM  AND  LA 

UD  ANUM.     In  the  hands  of  the  judicious  physi- 

cian,  opium  is  a  val 

uable  medicine,  and   both  that  and  laudanum  in 

certain  cases  indispei 

isable.     But  when  taken  habitually  as  they  fre- 

quently  are  to  mitiga 

te  unpleasant  feelings,  or  remove  melancholy,  the 

habit  is  to  be  placed 

along  side  of  the  disgusting  practice  of  chewing 

tobacco,  and  wh 

at  is 

worse,  the  awfu 

vice  of  drinkini 

I  to  exces-s.    In 

ENCYCLOPEDIA.  147 


WOUNDS. 


point  of  morality  it  can  make  little  difference  whether  a  person  stupi- 
fies  his  faculties  by  the  use  of  brandy  or  opium  ;  and  among  men,  the 
infamy  which  is  now  attached  to  excess  in  the  use  of  the  former, 
should  alike  follow  excess  as  to  the  latter. 

"  We  have  indeed  few  genuine  opium  eaters  among  us,"  observes  the 
author  of  "  Dyspepsy  Forestalled  and  Resisted" — more  we  believe, 
than  this  author  seems  to  be  aware  of— "but,"  continues  he  "  the  lau- 
danum and  paregoric  phial  are  considered  almost  indispensable  in  eve- 
ry family.  Nor  does  the  mother  hesitate  night  after  night,  to  quell  the 
cries  of  her  infant  child,  by  administering  increasing  doses  of  these 
poisons."  Less  danger,  it  is  believed,  results  from  this  practice,  than 
this  author  imagines.  It  is  not  that  children  are  so  often  injured  :  it  is 
older  folks.  It  is  "  the  nervous  invalid"  and  "  the  delicate  votary  of 
fashion.''  And  in  respect  to  their  habitual  use  of  opium  and  lauda- 
num, no  terms  of  condemnation  are  too  severe.  Truly  and  even  elo- 
quently have  the  Editors  of  the  Journal  of  Health  expressed  their  ab- 
horrence of  this  practice.  "  However  repugnant  to  our  feelings,"  say 
they,  "  as  rational  beings,  may  be  the  vice  of  drunkenness,  it  is  not 
more  hurtful  in  its  effects  thin  the  practice  of  taking  laudanum." 
"  This  is  not  the  language  of  exaggeration  or  speculative  fear.  We 
speak  from  a  full  knowledge  of  facts.  We  repeat  it— the  person  who 
gives  into  thd  habit  for  weeks,  (he  may  not  reach  to  months,  or  if  he 
pass  these,  his  years  will  be  but  few  and  miserable,)  of  daily  measuring 
out  to  himself  his  drops  of  laudanum,  or  his  pills  of  opium,  or  the  de- 
leterious substance,  call  it  tincture,  solution,  mixture,  potion,  what  you 
will,  is  destroying  himself,  as  surely  as  if  he  were  swallowing  arsenic, 
or  had  the  pistol -applied  to  liis  head.  The  fire  of  disease  may  for  a 
while  be  concealed — he  may  smile  incredulous  at  our  prediction  :  but 
the  hour  of  retribution  will  come,  and  the  consequences  will  be  ter- 
rible." 

WOUNDS  are  recent  divisions  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  body,  occa- 
sioned by  external  causes.  They  are  generally  divided  into  five  classes, 
viz.  incised^  lacerated.,  contused,,  punctured^  and  poisoned  wounds.  We 
propose  to  offer  a  few  remarks  upon  the  first  and  last  kinds  of  wounds. 

Lncised  wounds  are  those  which  are  cut  with  a  sharp  instrument. 
These  wounds  generally  occur  suddenly  and  accidentally  ;  and  not 
unfrequently  are  of  so  severe  a  nature,  as  to  demand  immediate  atten- 
tion, even  before  a  surgeon  can  be  procured.  In  such  a  case,  what 
shall  be  done  .''  The  first  step  is  to  stop  the  bleeding.  If  an  artery  be 
cut,  the  blood  is  of  a  bright  scarlet  color,  and  gushes  from  the  bleeding 
vessel  iii  a  jet,  with  great  force.  In  this  case,  the  pressure  of  the 
thumb,  or  palm  of  the  hand,  must  be  on  the  side  of  the  wound,  next 
the  heart  ;  and  if  this  be  not  sufEcient,  pass  a  handkerchief  round  the 
limb  above  the  wound,,  tie  its  two  ends  together,  and  twist  it,  by  means 
of  a  cane,  or  stick,  until  the  blood  ceases  to  flow,  so  as  to  endanger  the 
life  of  the  patient.     Now  send  immediately  for  a  surgeon. 

But,  if  a  surgeon  be  not  to  be  obtained,  and  the  life  of  the  patient 

be  in  danger,  any  discreet  person  may  wax  together  three  or  four  threads 

of  a  sufficient  length,  cut  the  ligature  they  form,  into   as  many  pieces 

'  as  you  think  there  are  vessels  to  be  taken  up,  each  piece  being  about  a 

fx)ot  long.    Wash  the  parts  with  warm  water,  and  then  with  a  sharp 


148  FAMILY 


WOUNDS. 


hook,  or  a  slender  pair  of  pincers  in  your  hand,  fix  your  eye  steadfast- 
ly upon  the  wound,  and  direct  the  handkerchief  to  be  relaxed  by  a  turn 
or  two  of  the  stick  ;  you  will  now  see  the  mouth  of  the  artery  from 
which  the  blood  springs,  seize  it  with  your  hook  or  pincers,  draw  it  a 
little  out,  while  some  one  passes  a  ligature  round  it,  and  ties  it  up  tight, 
with  a  double  knot.  In  this  way,  take  up  in  succession  every  bleeding 
vessel  you  can  see,  or  get  hold  of. 

If  the  wound  is  too  high  up  a  limb  to  apply  the  handkerchief,  don't 
lose  your  presence  of  mind,  the  bleeding  can  still  be  commanded.  If 
it  is  the  thigh,  press  firmly  in  the  groin,  if  in  the  arm,  with  the  hand 
end,  or  ring  of  a  common  door-key,  make  the  pressure  above  the  col- 
lar bone,  and  about  its  middle  against  the  first  rib,  which  lies  under  it. 
The  pressure  is  to  be  continued  until  assistance  is  procured,  and  the 
vessel  tied  up. 

If  the  wound  is  on  the  head,  press  your  finger  firmly  on  it,  until  a 
compress  can  be  brought,  which  must  be  bound  firmly  over  the  artery 
by  a  bandage.  If  the  wound  is  in  the  face,  or  so  situated  that  pressure 
cannot  be  effectually  made,  or  you  cannot  get  hold  of  the  vessel,  and 
the  blood  flows  fast,  place  a  piece  of  ice  directly  over  the  wound,  and 
let  it  remain  there,  till  the  blood  coagulates,  when  it  may  bo  removed, 
and  a  compress  and  bandage  be  applied. 

But,  if  a  vein  only  be  cut,  and  this  will  be  known  by  the  running  of 
the  blood  in  an  unbroken  stream,  and  of  a  dark  purple,  red  color, 
cleanse  the  wound  with  a  soft  sponge,  and  warm  water,  dry  the  skin 
with  a  warm  soft  cloth,  bring  the  parts  neatly  and  closely  together, 
keeping  them  in  that  position  by  narrow  strips  of  sticking  or  adhe- 
sive pleister.  The  number  of  straps  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  ex- 
tent of  the  wound,  and  at  some  little  distance  from  one  another,  to 
allow  the  escape  of  any  fluid,  which  may  run  from  the  wound.  A  soft 
compress  of  old  linen,  or  lint  may  be  laid  over  the  wound,  thus  dres- 
sed, and  the  whole  bandaged  ogT&^ttuiy  ligli'i.  Und9?  oruiimry  cir- 
cumstances, this  dressing  should  not  be  removed,  until  the  third  or 
fourth  day,  or  longer.  If  pain  or  heat  ensue,  wet  the  part  with  spirit 
and  water.  A  cooling  diet  and  regimen  should  be  observed,  and  every 
kind  of  motion  and  disturbance  of  the  part  avoided. 

Poisoned  wounds.  By  these  are  meant  wounds  occasioned  by 
the  bite  of  the  mad  dog,  rattle-snake,  or  by  the  sting  of  the  wasp, 
hornet,  &c. 

The  signs  of  madness  in  a  dog  are  as  follows.  At  the  commence- 
ment he  becomes  sullen — retires  from  the  family,  ceases  to  bark,  but 
growls  continually  at  strangers,  and  without  any  apparent  cause  refu- 
nes  to  eat,  or  drink.  His  gait  is  unsteady,  nearly  resembling  that  of  a 
man  almost  asleep.  At  the  end  of  three  or  four  days,  he  abandons 
his  dwelling,  roving  continually  in  every  direction  ;  he  walks  or  runs, 
as  if  tipsy,  and  frequently  falls. 

His  hair  is  bristled  up  ;  his  eyes  haggard,  fixed,  and  sparkling  ;  his 
head  hangs  down  ;  his  mouth  is  open,  and  full  of  frothy  slaver  ;  his 
tongue  hangs  out,  and  his  tail  is  between  his  legs.  He  has  for  the 
most  part,  but  not  always,  a  horror  of  water,  the  sight  of  which 
seems  generally  to  redouble  his  sufferings.  He  experiences  from  time 
to  time  transports  of  fury,  and  endeavors  to  bite  every  object  whith 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  149 


WOUNDS.  —  STRAINS. 


presents  itself,  not  even  excepting  his  master,  whom,  indeed,  he  begins 
not  to  recognize.  Light  and  lively  colors  greatly  increase  his  rage. 
At  the  end  of  thirty  or  thirty-six  hours,  he  dies  in  convulsions. 

The  instant  a  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad  dog,  rattle-snake,  or  any 
rabid  animal,  or  reptile,  he  should  apply  a  ligature,  by  means  of  the 
stick,  above  the  wound,  as  tightly  as  ho  dan  well  bear  it,  and  without 
hesitation,  or  delay,  cut  out  the  parts  bitten,  taking  along  with  them  a 
portion  of  the  surrounding  sound  flesh.  The  wound  should  then  be 
freely  touched  with  caustic,  or  have  turpentine  poured  into  it.  A  de- 
coction of  Spanish  flies,  in  turpentine,  may  also  be  applied  to  the  skin 
surrounding  the  wound.  By  these  means  inflammation  will  be  exci- 
ted, and  suppuration  follow,  which  may  prevent  the  usual  dreadful 
consequences  of  such  accidents.  As  soon  as  the  parts  are  cut  out, 
take  off  the  ligature. 

Should  the  patient  be  too  timid  to  allow  the  use  of  the  knife,  burn 
the  wound  very  freely  with  caustic,  and  place  in  it  a  tuft  of  tow  or 
cotton,  well  moistened  with  the  above  decoction.  The  discharge  of 
matter  that  follows  should  be  kept  up  for  some  time.  The  only  rea- 
sonable chance  for  safety,  is  found  in  the  above  plan. 

The  use  of  the  chlorurets,  however,  in  treating  wounds  from  rabid 
animals,  is  now  becoming  general,  in  France  and  Germany,  and  many 
satisfactory  cases  are  recorded.  M.  Schoenberg,  a  German  surgeon, 
states,  that  of  three  persons  who  were  bitten  by  a  dog,  two  who  used 
tjie  chloruret  of  lime,  recovered  from  their  wounds,  whilst  the  third, 
who  refused  to  submit  to  the  treatment,  died  raving  mad.  This  gen- 
tleman applies  to  the  wounds,  twice  a  day,  a  piece  of  lint  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  the  chloruret,  and  orders  his  patients  to  take  three  times  a 
day,  from  two  drachms,  to  one  ounce  of  the  chloruret  in  water. 

A  medicine,  highly  recommended  in  hydrophobia,  is  said  to  have 
been  lately  adopted  in  France,  viz.  the  injection  of  warm  water  into  the 
veins.  To  make  the  employment  of  the  remedy  safe,  and  to  prevent 
pressure  of  the  brain,  the  same  quantity  of  blood  should  be  previously 
abstracted,  as  it  is  intended  there  should  bo  water  injected  ;  with  this 
precaution,  it  is  believed  the  remedy  is  a  very  proper  one.  The  blood 
may  be  set  flowing  from  one  vein,  w^hile  the  water  is  injected  at  another. 

For  the  stings  of  bees,  wasps,  and  hornets,  the  part  may  be  plunged 
into  extremely  cold  water,  where  it  should  be  held  for  some  time,  or 
which,  perhaps  is  still  more  effectual,  an  application  may  be  made  of 
hartshorn,  or  of  laudanum. 

Musquilo  bites  may  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  or  a  solution  of 
common  salt  and  water  made  very  strong,  will  speedily  remo"5e  the 
pain.  Camphorated  spirits,  vinegar,  &c.,  may  also  be  used  for  the 
same  purpose.  A  solution  of  Prussian  blue  in  soft  water,  with  which 
the  parts  are  to  be  kept  constantly  moist,  is  a  highly  celebrated  remedy 
for  the  stings  of  bees,  wasps,  &c.  &c. 

STRAINS  or  SPRAINS.  An  experienced  physician  holds  the 
following  language  on  the  subject  of  strains. 

"  Strains  are  often  attended  with  worse  consequences  than  broken 
bones.  The  reason  is  obvious  ;  they  are  generally  neglected.  When 
a  broken  bone  is  to  be  healed,  the  patient  is  compelled  to  keep  quiet, 

13* 


150  FAMILY 


FKOZEN    LIMBS. BURNS  AND  SCALDS. 


because  he  cannot  do  otherwise.  But  when  only  a  joint  is  strained, 
the  person  finding  he  can  still  make  a  shift  to  move,  is  sorry  to  lose  his 
time,  for  so  trifling  an  accident.  In  this  way  he  deceives  himself,  and 
converts  into  an  incurable  evil,  what  might  have  been  removed  by 
keeping  the  part  easy  for  a  few  days. 

Country  people  generally  immerse  a  strained  limb  in  cold  water. 
This  is  very  proper,  provided  it  be  done  immediately,  and  not  continu- 
ed too  long  ;  in  which  case  the  parts  are  relaxed,  instead  of  being 
braced. 

Wrapping  a  bandage  around  the  strained  part  is  also  of  use.  It 
helps  to  restore  the  proper  tone  of  the  vessels,  and  prevents  the  action 
of  the  parts  from  increasing  the  disease.  It  should  not,  however,  be 
applied  loo  tight.  But  what  we  would  recommend  above  all  is  ease. 
It  is  more  to  be  depended  on,  than  any  medicine,  and  seldom  fails  to 
remove  the  complaint. 

A  great  many  external  applications  are  recommended  for  sprains, 
some  of  which  do  good,  and  others  hurt.  The  following  are  such  as 
may  be  used  with  the  greatest  safety,  viz.  camphorated  spirit,  volatile 
liniment,  common  fomentations  of  bitter  herbs,  with  the  addition  of 
spirit  or  brandy. 

Previous  to  other  applications,  the  sprained  joint  should  be  immersed 
in  warm  soap  suds,  and  rubbed  for  an  hour  lightly  with  the  balls  of  the 
fingers.     The  evening  is  the  best  time  for  this  operation. 

TREATMEiNT  OF  FROZEN  LIMBS.  To  Uiaw  frozen  limbs, 
they  should  be  rubbed  in  snow  or  water,  with  ice  in  it,  until  sensibility 
and  motion  return.  Due  care  should  be  taken  not  to  break  slender 
parts,  such  as  fingers,  ears,  &c.  When  feeling  and  the  power  of  mo- 
tion are  restored,  continue  the  friction  with  brandy,  oil  of  amber,  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh,  ur  camphorated  spirit.  Put  the  patient  to  bed  in  a  room 
with  a  fire  in  it ;  give  mulled  wine  ;  and  in  this  situation  let  him  re- 
main until  a  perspiration  appears,  and  a  perfect  recovery  of  sensibility 
takes  place.  If  the  whole  body  be  frozen,  the  above  prescription  is  to 
be  observed.  When  signs  of  life  appear,  strong  volatiles  should  be 
applied  to  the  nose ;  blow  into  the  lungs.  Tobacco  injections  should 
never  be  used,  in  cases  of  suspended  animation. 

BURNS  and  SCALDS.  For  these,  some  persons  make  use  of  cot- 
ton bats  ;  and,  if  the  parts  are  not  blistered,  and  the  injury  not  very 
extensive,  the  remedy  is  a  good  one  ;  yet  children  will  seldom  endure 
the  application  of  cotton  wool  to  any  serious  burn.  It  is  well  to  cover 
the  surface  of  the  cotton,  which  is  applied  to  the  burn,  with  olive  oil. 

Others  recommend  the  constant  application  of  brandy,  vinegar,  and 
water  mixed  together,  the  bathing  to  be  continued  till  the  pain  is  gone. 
The  celebrated  Mr.  Abernethy,  however,  recommends  the  use  of  the 
oil  of  turpentine  mixed  with  basilicon  ;  at  llie  same  time,  to  give  the 
patient  some  warm  wine  and  a  few  drops  of  opium,  and  afterwards  to 
place  him  in  a  warm  bed.  This  stimulating  plan  of  treatment,  how- 
ever, is  not  to  be  continued  after  the  equilibrium  of  the  temperature  is 
restored.  The  following  application  for  a  burn  has  been  used  with 
great  success;  viz.  olive  oil,  three  ounces  ;  lime  water,  four  ounces — 
the  mixture  to  be  applied  to  the  affected  part  with  a  feather,  or  earners 
hair  pencil. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  151 


DRESS  AND    DIET    OF    CHILDREN. 


Burns  produced  by  gunpov/der  should  have  the  cause  removed  by  the 
pomt  of  a  needle  to  be  followed  by  an  emollient  poultice  to  the  part  af- 
fected. In  order  that  the  most  correct  treatment  for  burns  and  scalds 
should  be  known,  Mr.  Abernethy  lately  recommended  his  pupils  to  dip 
two  of  their  fingers  in  boiUng  water,  and  let  them  be  fairly  scalded  ; 
and  then  take  them  out,  and  dip  one  into  a  basin  of  cold  water,  and 
dress  the  other  with  the  turpentine  and  basilicon.  "  I  do  not  want  to 
try,  (remarked  Mr.  A, ;)  I  have  decided  already,  and  therefore  have  no 
occasion  to  scald  my  fingers."  In  addition  to  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Aber- 
nethy, we  beg  to  subjoin  that  of  Sir  A.  Cooper.  "Lime  water  and 
milk  have  been  commonly  used  ;  but  oil  of  turpentine  is  the  best  appli- 
cation. Give  opium  and  wine,  as  long  aa  the  chilly  state  continues  ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  heat  is  developed,  and  the  pulse  has  recovered  its 
power,  do  not  continue  it  any  longer;  other  means  must  then  be  em- 
ployed to  reduce  the  inflammation." 

DRESS  OF  CHILDREN.  The  dress  of  children  should  be  warm, 
but  so  soft  and  pliable  as  not  to  obstruct  the  easy  motion  of  the  joints. 
"  The  absurd  custom,"  observes  the  Book  of  Health,  "  of  confining  the 
body  of  the  infant  by  heavy  bandages,  formerly  prevalent,  is  yielding 
to  the  more  rational  dictates  of  nature  and  common  sense  ;  but  the  ri- 
diculous length  of  clothing  in  the  earlier  periods  of  infancy,  still  keeps 
its  ground,  though  equally  absurd.  To  the  child  it  is  a  continual 
source  of  considerable  uneasiness;  obstruction  is  continually  made  to 
the  freedom  of  circulation  and  breathing;  and  the  more  the  child  en- 
deavors to  relieve  itself,  the  more  it  v/astes  its  power,  and,  consequent- 
ly, interferes  v.'ith  its  growth.  Be  careful,  therefore,  not  to  increase  the 
perspiration  to  an  unnecessary  degree.  A  short  shift,  and  a  flannel 
v/aistcoat  tied  behind,  with  a  short  petticoat  sewed  to  it,  and  a  short 
gown,  rather  stouter  in  winter  than  in  summer,  are  all  the  clothes  which 
a  child  requires.  If  the  child  be  weakly,  a  flannel  shirt  may  be  useful ; 
otherwise,  too  many  clothes  will  render  it  tender,  and  susceptible  of  the 
least  cold.  Stockings  are  an  unnecessary  appendage,  until  the  child 
be  seven  or  eight  months  old ;  for  it  is  beneficial  to  expose  the  legs,  arms, 
and  breasts  of  healthy  children  to  the  open  air :  the  clothing  of  infants 
cannot  be  made  too  short." 

DIET  OF  CHILDREN.  «  Remember,  (says  Mr.  Abernethy,)  it  is 
not  the  quantity  of  food  we  eat,  but  the  quantity  we  digest,  which  af- 
fords the  nourishment  to  our  bodies."  Over-feeding,  as  well  as  im- 
properly feeding  of  children,  is  highly  injudicious  ;  therefore  the  strict- 
est attention  ought  to  be  paid  to  dieting.  Fortunate  is  the  child  who 
(during  the  first  four  months  of  its  existence)  is  nourished  with  no  oth- 
er aliment  than  the  milk  of  its  mother  ;  but,  if  the  child  be  weakly,  and 
the  mother's  milk  insufficient,  a  cup  of  beef  tea,  and  a  crumb  of  bread 
may  be  daily  given.  At  four  months  old,  the  child  may  be  fed  twice 
in  the  day ;  once  with  biscuits  or  stale  bread,  boiled  in  an  equal  mix- 
ture of  milk  and  water,  and  once  with  light  broth  and  bread,  arrow- 
root, or  rice.  After  the  first  six  months,  weak  veal  or  chicken  broth 
may  be  given ;  and,  progressively,  with  broth,  vegetables  which  are  not 
very  flatulent ;  viz.  carrots,  endive,  spinage,  parsnips,  &c.  When  the 
infant  is  taken  early  from  the  breast,  the  diet  should  principally  con- 
sist of  cow's  milk  warmed,  and  poured  on  bread,  (first  soaked  in  wa- 
ter,) and  of  light  broth  with  bread  :  should  the  child  be  purged,  the  milk 


152  FAMILY 


SLEEP. EXERCISE. 


must  be  boiled.  When  the  child  is  weaned,  and  has  acquired  its  pro- 
per teeth,  it  will  be  necessary  to  let  it  have  small  portions  of  meat  and 
vegetables ;  also,  dLshos  prepared  of  flour,  as  the  most  simple  food  is  the 
most  nutritive.  Piipiry,  confectionary,  heavy  or  compound  dishes, 
ought  to  be  withheld,  particularly  from  delicate  children.  Potatoes 
should  be  allowed  only  in  moderation,  and  those  not  eaten  with  butler, 
but  mashed  up  with  other  vegetables.  It  is  advisable  to  accustom  chil- 
dren to  a  certain  regularity  in  their  aliment,  by  giving  them  their  meals 
at  stated  periods  of  the  day  ;  which  will  render  them  less  subject  to  de- 
bility and  disease,  give  the  stomach  time  to  recover  its  tone,  and  to 
collect  the  juices  necessary  for  digestion.  To  children  of  four  or  five 
years  old,  animal  food  may  be  allowed  at  dinner ;  and  bread  and  milk 
night  and  morning ;  due  regard  being,  at  all  times,  paid  to  the  health 
and  habits  of  the  child. 

SLEEP.  "  Infants,  from  the  time  of  their  birth,  should  be  encour- 
aged to  sleep  in  the  night  in  preference  to  the  day  ;  therefore,  mothers 
and  nurses  ought  to  remove  every  thing  which  may  tend  to  disturb 
their  rest,  and  not  to  attend  to  every  call  for  taking  them  up  and  giving 
food  at  improper  periods.  Infants  cannot  sleep  too  long ;  when  they 
enjoy  a  calm,  long-continued  rest,  it  is  a  favorable  symptom.  Until  the 
third  year,  children  generally  require  a  little  sleep  in  the  middle  of  the 
day  ;  for,  till  that  age,  half  their  time  may  safely  be  allotted  to  sleep. 
Every  succeeding  year,  the  time  ought  to  be  shortened  one  hour ;  so 
tliat  a  child  seven  years  old  may  sleep  about  ten  hours.  Children  ought 
to  rise  at  six  o'clock  in  the  summer,  and  at  seven  in  the  winter.  It  is 
extremely  injudicious  to  awaken  children  with  a  noise,  or  to  carry  them 
immediately  from  a  dark  room  into  the  glaring  light,  or  against  a  daz- 
zling wall  :  the  sudden  impression  of  light  may  debilitate  the  organs  of 
vision,  and  lay  the  foundation  of  weak  eyes. — Wet  clothes  or  linen 
should  never  be  allowed  to  be  hung  to  dry  in  the  bed-room,  as  an  im- 
pure atmosphere  is  attended  with  various  and  often  fatal  consequences. 
"  Banish  (says  Professor  Hufeland)  feather  beds,  as  they  are  unnatural 
and  debilitating  contrivances."  The  bedstead  should  notbe  placed  too 
low  on  the  floor ;'  and  it  is  highly  improper  to  sufier  children  to  sleep 
on  a  couch  which  is  made  without  a  sufficient  elevation  from  the 
ground. 

EXERCISE.  "  The  effbrt  at  exercise  is  both  pleasant  and  service- 
able to  a  child  ;  and  as  it  grows  up,  it  is  proper  to  regularly  exercise  it. 
Children  who  are  perfectly  healthy  are  in  almost  uninterrupted  mo- 
tion ;  but  if  exercise,  either  from  its  violence  or  too  long  duration,  ex- 
ceed the  proper  limits,  it  naturally  quickens  the  circulation  and  respi- 
ration, which  may  occasion  the  rupture  of  small  blood-vessels  and  in- 
flammatory diseases.  A  weakly  child  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  stand 
or  walk  long  together ;  but  should  be  alternately  carried,  drawn  in  a 
vehicle,  and  invited  to  walk.  If  a  child  seek  to  put  its  feet  on  the 
ground,  let  it  do  so ;  but  do  not  force  it  to  walk.  In  the  first  period  of 
life,  the  exertion  ofcrying  is  almost  the  only  exercise  of  the  infant ;  by 
which  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  and  all  the  other  fluids,  are  render- 
ed more  uniform  ;  digestion,  nutrition,  and  the  growth  of  the^ody,  are 
thereby  promoted,  and  the  different  secretions  of  the  skin  (together 
w  ith  insensible  perspiration)  are  duly  performed.  The  loud  complaints 
of  infants  deserve  attention  ;    for  if  their  cries  be  violent  and  long  con- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 153 

^  ■'''"*■'  '  -  - 

WASHING    AND  BATHING. — TEETHING. 

tinued,  and  they  draw  their  legs  towards  the  belly,  it  may  safely  be 
concluded,  they  are  troubled  with  colic  pains  ;  and  no  time  should  be 
lost  in  yielding  relief.  To  endeavor  to  prevent  an  infant  from  crying 
on  every  occasion,  is  to  do  it  an  irreparable  injury  ;  for,  by  such  mis- 
management, it  never  acquires  a  perfectly  formed  breast,  and  frequent- 
ly the  foundation  is  laid  in  the  pectoral  vessels  for  obstructions  and 
other  diseases.  If  children  have  been  properly  exposed  to  the  air  from 
infancy,  they  :^iay,  if  healthy,  be  safely  exercised  in  it  in  all  seasons. 
The  sooner  infants  are  taken  into  the  air,  they  become  less  subject  to 
cold,  convulsions,  disordered  bowels,  and  the  rickets, — diseases  so  fre- 
quent among  those  who  are  reared  in  nurseries." 

WASHING  and  BATHING.  ''  The  benefit  to  be  derived  from  the 
daily  practice  of  washing  a  child  with  cold  water  from  head  to  foot,  is 
almost  incredible ;  it  strengthens  the  nerves,  maintains  a  sound  and 
healthy  state  of  the  pores  of  the  skin,  and  renders  the  surface  of  the 
body  less  susceptible  of  external  impressions.  In  general,  a  child  may 
bei  begun  to  be  washed  in  this  manner  in  the  third  or  fourth  week, 
warm  water  being  used  till  that  period,  which  must  be  changed  for 
cooler,  until  it  be  gradually  reduced  to  cold.  In  frosty  weather,  a  lit- 
tle warm  water  may  be  added  to  the  cold.  It  is  highly  imprudent  to 
wash  children  directly  after  they  rise  from  their  bed,  as  the  pores  are 
then  open  ;  but,  in  about  half  an  hour  afterwards,  if  they  be  cool,  they 
should  be  washed  quickly.  Avoid  wotting  the  skin  gradually  ;  else  the 
skin  is  not  excited  by  the  friction.  After  washing,  rub  the  body  until 
it  be  dry  and  warm.  Delicate  children  should  be  washed  in  the  eve- 
ning, and  placed  in  bed  immediately  afterwards. — In  a  striking  manner 
does  the  cold  bath  preserve  and  promote  the  health  of  children;  it  re- 
freshes and  invigorates  the  organs  of  the  skin,  and  considerably  miti- 
gates the  diseases  of  measles  and  small-pox.  It  is  proper  to  begin  the 
practice  in  warm  weather,  and  to  continue  it  through  every  season  af- 
l§rv.'2.rds.  Delicate  and  weakly  children  must  be  bathed  in  luke-warm 
water  ;  but,  as  they  increase  in  strength,  the  degree  of  warmth  may  be 
diminished.  For  ihe  first  two  or  three  months,  the  child  should  re- 
main in  the  bath  for  a  few  minutes  only  at  a  time ;  which  as  it  grows 
older,  may  be  gradually  increased  to  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  The  body, 
while  in  the  bath,  should  be  gently  rubbed  with  the  hand,  or  a  piece  of 
sponge,  and  the  greatest  care  taken  in  rubbing  it  dry.  If  the  shock  of 
a  cold  bath  appear  too  powerful  for  the  constitution,  bathing  in  salt 
and  water  may  be  substituted.  If  a  child  after  bathing  should  feel  dis- 
posed to  sleep,  it  may  be  indulged  ;  and  weakly  children  using  the  cold 
bath,  may  wear  a  flannel  shirt.  A  child  should  not  be  bathed  directly 
after  eating ;  nor,  in  cold  weather,  after  coming  out  of  the  bath,  exposed 
to  the  cold  air." 

TEETHING.  This  is  an  important  and  critical  period  of  a  child's 
life,  and  the  dansfer  generally  increases  in  proportion  to  the  delay  of  a 
child's  getting  its  teeth.  In  general,  children  beffin  to  cut  their  teeth 
between  the  fifth  and  eighth  month.  The  symptoms  attendant  upon 
teething  are  well  known ;  but  many  of  the  evils  may  be  prevented  by 
a  strict  attention  to  the  bowels  of  the  patient ;  for  if  the  child  be  of  a 
full  habit  of  body,  it  is  essential  to  have  them  in  a  lax  state.  If  there 
be  considerable  fever,  the  gums  may  be  scarified,  and  leeches  applied 
behind  the  ears;    but  blisters  have  been  used  instead  of  leeches,  with 


154  FAMILY 


SUMMER    COMPLAINT. HOOPING   COUGH. 

considerable  effect.  With  strong  healthy  children,  the  process  of  teeth- 
ing passes  off  without  the  least  difficulty  ;  but  it  is  generally  the  con- 
trary with  those  who  are  weak  or  unhealthy.  The  practice  of  giving  a 
child  a  coral,  or  other  hard  substance  into  its  hand,  cannot  be  too  se- 
verely reprobated;  a  crust  of  bread,  or  a  piece  of  wax  candle,  will  be 
found  much  better.  Opium  is  sometimes  given  in  order  to  allay  the 
pain  and  irritation  ;  but  as  it  is  attended  with  some  danger,  it  ought  to 
be  prohibited  from  being  used  in  the  nursery,  and  a  tea-spoonful  of  sy- 
rup of  poppies  substituted  ;  and  this  only  in  cases  of  urgency.  To  ena- 
ble a  child  to  pass  easily  through  this  dangerous  period,  every  thing 
that  has  a  tendency  to  promote  general  health,  and  prevent  fever, 
should  be  resorted  to  ;  such  as  pure  air,  exercise,  nutritious  food,  &c. 

SUMMER  COMPLAINT.  This  is  a  disease  which  is  said  to  de- 
stroy nearly  one  fourth  of  all  the  children  who  die,  in  the  Middle  and 
Southern  States.  Its  chief  causes  are,  doubtless,  heated  and  impure 
air,  and  errors  in  regard  to  diet.  Hence,  as  might  be  supposed,  the  dis- 
ease is  most  prevalent  in  crowded  cities,  and  among  the  poorer  classes, 
whose  children  are  badly  nursed,  and  especially  neglected  as  to  clean- 
liness of  their  persons  and  clothing. 

One  of  the  most  effectual  means,  therefore,  of  preserving  children 
from  an  attack  of  this  complaint,  is  to  seek  for  them  a  healthy  situa- 
tion in  the  country,  where  they  can  enjoy  the  benefit  of  pure  air.  This, 
however,  cannot  always  be  effected — still  much  may  be  done  by  pa- 
rents, who  are  confined  with  their  families  to  the  city,  to  prevent  this 
disease.  In  such  cases,  the  children  should  occupy,  always,  the  largest 
and  most  airy  room  in  the  house ;  if  possible,  on  the  secondjiloor.  The 
room  should  be  guarded  from  exposure  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun, 
while  a  constant  and  free  ventilation  is  kept  up.  The  utmost  cleanli- 
ness must  also  be  observed  in  the  room,  as  well  as  in  the  person  and 
clothing  of  tlie  children. 

During  the  summer  months,  the  daily  use  of  the  cold  or  tepid  bath, 
while  it  ensures  the  cleanliness  of  the  skin,  is  a  very  powerful  means 
of  preventing  this  disease.  It  should  not,  therefore,  be  neglected,  pro- 
vided there  is  no  circumstance  connected  with  the  health  and  constitu- 
tion of  the  child  to  forbid  its  employment. 

In  clear  weather,  and  in  the  cool  of  the  day,  children  should  be  fre- 
quently carried  abroad,  in  the  most  open  and  healthy  parts  of  the  neigh- 
borhood; or,  when  tht-  parents  have  it  in  their  power,  a  considerable 
benefit  will  bo  derived  from  repeated  rides  in  an  open  carriage,  into  the 
neighboring  country. 

HOOPING  COUGH.  This  is  a  disease  distinguishable  from  all 
others  by  its  shrill  whoop,  an<i  which  is  terminated  by  vomiting;  and 
is  also  indicated  by  a  slight  difficulty  of  breathing,  hoarseness,  &c. 

In  general,  it  is  sufficient  to  guard  the  child  from  taking  cold,  and 
from  eating  to  repletion.  If  the  attack,  however,  be  more  tlian  ordina- 
rily severe,  an  emetic  of  ipecacuanha  in  the  morning,  and  a  gentle  pur- 
gative during  the  day,  will  prove  extremely  serviceable.  Small  doses 
of  elixir  paraiioric  with  ipecac  or  antiujonial  wine  may  be  occasionally 
and  beneficially  adminisltred.  Jt  is  recommended,  also,  to  give  roasted 
apples,  slontd  piunes,  &c.,  and  frequently  to  bathe  the  fret  in  warm 
water.     The  vapor  arieing  from  a  quantity  of  hot  water,  into  which  a 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  155 


CROUP.  — MEASLES. 


liitle  vinegar  or  ether  has  been  put,  may  be  beneficially  inhaled.  A 
teaspoonful  of  equal  portions  of  linseed  oil  and  flour  of  sulphur  is  some- 
times found  useful.  This  quantity  may  be  given  to  a  child  under  four, 
years  of  age.  Vaccination  is  now  often  practised  as  an  effectual  reme- 
dy for  the  hooping  cough.  Change  of  air  is  at  all  times  important,  and 
if  practicable,  the  sea-coast  should  be  visited  in  severe  cases.  Flannel, 
next  the  skin  is  very  beneficial;  a  light  diet  should  be  used  ;  and  when 
the  patient  is  in  bed,  his  head  and  shoulders  must  be  raised.  Parents 
ought  to  pay  the  greatest  attention,  when  the  cough  comes  on,  by  bend- 
ing the  patient  a  little  forward,  which  will  be  of  great  service,  and  guard 
against  suffocation.  Cold  bathing  has  been  attended  with  the  most 
beneficial  results. 

CROUP.  This  is  a  disease  generally  confined  to  children,  and  which 
comes  on,  imperceptibly  and  suddenly.  The  first  indications  of  it  are 
a  hoarse  dry  cough  and  wheezing,  which  is  followed  by  rattling  in  the 
throat.  No  time  should  be  lost  in  obtaining  medical  aid;  yet  while  the 
physician  is  coming,  something  should  be  attempted.  A  distinguished 
physician  recommends  the  giving  of  emetics  of  ipecac,  and  oxymel  of 
squills  between ;  the  former  as  often  as  every  two  hours  at  least ; 
warm  bath  often  repeated  ;  a  blister  put  between  the  shoulder  blades ; 
calomel  two  grains,  doses  every  two  hours.  For  children  above  eight 
years  old,  the  calomel  may  be  increased  to  six,  eight  and  ten  grains, 
according  to  the  severity  of  the  disease.  A  strong  decoction  of  seneca 
(or  snake)  root,  frequently  taken  into  the  mouth  in  small  quantities, 
has  been  successfully  used  to  promote  a  separation  of  the  films  and  co 
agula  that  form  and  adhere  to  the  windpipe  and  cells  of  the  lungs. 
The  decoction  is  made  by  boiling  an  ounce  of  seneca  root  in  two  pints 
of  water  down  to  a  pint,  and  then  straining.  In  all  cases  of  croup,  the 
child  must  be  kept  nearly  upright  in  bed,  to  guard  against  suffocation. 
If  the  child  be  threatened  with  suffocation,  sneezing  may  be  excited  by 
introducing  strong  snuff  up  the  nostrils  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  pen- 
cil. 

MEASLES.  This  disease  is  contagious,  and  spreads  widely  by  its 
effluvia.  It  commences,  observes  Dr.  Clutterbuck,  with  symptoms  of 
sneezing,  red  and  watery  eyes,  and  a  short,  dry,  hoarse  cough ;  which 
symptoms  continue  for  some  time,  after  the  eruption  has  disappeared. 
Frequently  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  substance  of  the  lungs,  giv- 
ing rise  to  difficulty  of  breathing,  with  a  pain  in  the  chest,  and  a  founda- 
tion is  often  laid  for  the  pulmonary  consumption.  As  the  inflammation 
of  the  nose,  eyes,  and  throat  declines  with  the  other  symptoms,  it  is  of 
little  consequence  ;  and  unless  the  habit  or  mode  of  treatment  be  bad, 
the  disease  seldom  proves  fatal.  It  differs  much  in  different  seasons  ; 
and  its  most  frequent  consequences  are  the  various  forms  of  scrofula, 
obstinate  sores,  and  a  weak  and  inflamed  state  of  the  eyes :  the  continu- 
ance of  inflammation  in  the  chest,  in  a  chronic  foo-m,  is  another  source 
of  danger,  which  ought  to  be  carefully  guarded  against.  On  the  fourth 
day  small  red  pimples  appear,  first  on  the  face,  spreading  over  the  whole 
body  ;  the  pimples  hardly  elevated  above  the  surrounding  skin,  but  by 
the  touch  are  found  to  be  a  little  prominent.  On  the  fifth  or  sixth  day, 
they  turn  brown,  and  disappear  with  the  peeling  off  of  the  scarf-skin. 
Mild  casea  of  measles  require  o»nly  careful  nursing,  and  a  free  expecto- 


156  FAMILY 


POISO.NS. 


ration,  by  means  of  mild  purgatives,  diluting  drinks,  and  a  spare,  low 
diet.  Barley  water,  tamarind  tea,  and  any  thing  of  a  simple  nature 
should  be  taken  freely ;  but  fermented  liquors,  and  every  kind  of  animal 
food,  must  be  avoided.  All  the  drink  should  be  tepid.  When  the 
measles  suddenly  disappear,  every  exertion  must  be  made,  in  order  to 
restore  the  eruption.  -  The  patient  must  be  placed  in  a  warm  bath,  and 
warm  wine  and  water,  with  ten  drops  of  antimonial  wine,  frequently 
given.  It  may,  also,  be  necessary  to  apply  blisters  to  the  inside  of  the 
thighs  or  legs,  and  to  the  throat.  After  the  patient  has  recovered,  it 
will  be  expedient  to  give  two  or  three  doses  of  cooling,  opening  medi- 
cines, and  to  cautiously  avoid  exposure  to  cold. 


SECTION  II. 


POISONS. — SUSPENDED   ANIMATION. 

POISONS  may  be  defined  substances  which  prove  fatal  to  the  life  of 
animals,  whether  taken  by  the  mouth,  mixed  with  the  blood,  or  applied 
to  the  nerves  by  friction  of  the  skin,  or  other  means.  Most  of  the  sub- 
stances called  poisonous  are  only  so  in  certain  doses  ;  when  given  in 
smaller  quantities,  they  are,  many  of  them,  active  medicines.  Others 
are  fatal  in  the  smallest  quantities ;  such  are  those  oi  hydrophobia  and 
the  plague. 

As  we  cannot  treat  of  poisons  at  large,  we  think  our  object  will  be 
best  accomplished  by  the  following  tabular  statements ;  the  first  column 
containing  the  names  of  the  poisons ;  the  second  the  symptoms^  and  the 
last  the  remedies.  But  we  nevertheless  advise,  in  every  case  where 
poisons  have,  been  taken,  recourse  to  the  best  medical  assistance  at 
once. 

Substances.  Symptoms.  Remedies. 

CONCENTRA-         Burning  pain,  vomiting ;        Calcined  magnesia  ;    one  ounce 
TED  ACIDS:       matter    thrown    up    eficr-    to  a  pint  of  warm  or  cold  water.    A 
The  vitriolic  or  sul-    veecing    with    chalk,    salt   glassful  to  be  taken  eveiy  ttvo  mi- 
phuric,  nitric,  muri-    of   tartai",     lime   or    mag-    nates,  so  as   to  excite    vomiting. 
atic,  oialic,  &c.  nesia.  Soap,  or  chalk  and  water :    muci- 

laginous drinks  afterwards,  such  as 
lint-seed  tea  or  gum-arabic  and  wa- 
ter. 

ALKALIES:            Nearly   the  sante:    the      Vinegar  or  lemon-juice;  a  spoon- 
Potash,    Soda,  ain-   ejected    matter    doe-e     not  ful  or  two  in  a  glass  of  water  very 
monia,  lime,  &c.         e^ervesce    with    alk'alies,  frequently ;   simply  warm  water, 
but  acids. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


157 


POISONS. 


Substances. 


Symptoms. 


Retnedies. 


MERCURIAL           Sense  of  constriction  in  White  of  e^rgs ;  twelve  or  fifteen 

PREPARA-  the  throat ;    matter   vomit-  eggs  beaten  up,  and  mixed  w^ith  a 

TIONS:  ed  sometimes   mixed  with  quait  of  cold   water.     A  glassful 

Corrosive       subli-  blood.  every  three  minutes;    milk,  gum 

mate,&c.  water,  lintseed  tea. 


pain 


ARSENICAL 
PREPARA- 
TIONS:  aeain,  u  me  pois< 

White  arsenic,  &c.    soon  counteracted. 


Extreme      irritation,      Warm  water  with  sugar,  in  large 
I,  sickness,  and  speedy  quantities,     to    excite    vomiting. 


^ ,  ,  jpeedy  quantities,     to    excite    vomiting. 

death,  if  the  poison  be  not  Lime-water,  soap  and  water,  pearl- 
ash  and  water,mucilaginous  drinks. 


PREPARA-  Symptoms    nearly    the       White  of  eggs ;    mucilaginous 

TIONS   of  COP-  same  as^from  mercury.         drinks.     See   Mercurial  Pre- 

PER :  PARATioNS,  above. 
Brass,       verdigris, 
halfpence,  &c. 

PREPARA-  Extreme  sickness,  with       Warm  water  or  sugar  and  wa- 

TIONS  of  ANTI-  other  symptoms  of  poison,   ter  ;    afterwards  a  grain  of  opium, 

MO  NY  :  as  above  stated.                      or  fifteen  drops  of  laudanum,  every 

Emetic  tartar,  &c.  quarter  of  an  hour,  for  two  or  three 

times. 


NITRE,  or 
SALTPETRE. 


Obstinate     vomiting 
sometimes  of  blood,  &c. 


The  same  as  for  arsenic,  with 
the  exception  of  lime-water  and  al- 
kaliei. 


PHOSPHORUS. 


Like  mineral  acids. 


Like  mineral  acids. 


LEAD  :  Great  pain   in  the  sto-       Large  doses  of  Glauber's  or  Ep- 

Sugar  of  lead,  Gou-   mach,  with  constriction  of  som  salts,  in  warm  water, 
lard's  extract,  &c.      the  throat,  &c. 


BARYTES: 

The  carbonate,  mu- 
riate, &c. 


PRUSSIC  ACID. 


SAL  AMMO- 
NIAC. 


Vomiting,    convulsions.       Half  an  ounce  of  Epsom  or  Glau- 
pain    in    the    sto-   ber's  salts  dissolved  in  a  quart  of 
water.    Several  glasses  to  be  taken. 
In    place    of   these    salts,    large 
draughts' of  hard  well-water. 


mach,  &c 


The  most  virulent  poi-       Emetics;    afterwards  oil  of  tur- 
son,  producing  almost    in-   pentine,  ammonia,    brandy,  with 
stant  deatli,  when  applied  warmth,  friction,  a^^d  blisters, 
even  in  small  quantities  to 
the  surface  of  the  body. 

Excessive  vomitings,  Vomiting  to  be  rendered  easy  by 
convulsions,  pain  in  the  large  draughts  of  warm  sugar  jmd 
bowels,  alteration  in  the  water.  If  vomiting  be  notprodu- 
features:  death.  cedbythe  poison,  it  must  be  ex- 

cited by  the  finger.      Afterwards 
opiates. 

14 


158 


FAMILY 


Substances. 


POISONS. 


Symptoms. 


Remedies. 


GLASS,  or  If  taken  in  coarse  pow-       Large  quantities   of  crumb   of 

ENAMEL.  der,     produces      irritation  bread  should  be  eaten ;  afterwards 

and    inflammation    of   the  an  emetic  of  white  vitriol,  Jind  dc- 
bowels.  mulcent  drinks. 

ALCOHOL  :            Intoxication  ;     when  ta-  A  powerful  emetiirof  white  vi- 

Brandy,  rum,  gin,    ken  in  large  quantities,  in-  triol,  or  emetic  tartar ;   vomiting  to 

wine,  &c.                   sensibihty,     apoplexy,    or  be  encouraged  by  warm  water,  and 

paralysis  ;        countenance  large  clysters  of  salt  water  ;  bleed- 

swoln,   and  of  a  dark  red  ing  ;     if  the  head  be  very  hot,  cold 

colour ;  breathing  difficult ;  wet  cloths  may  be  applied ;    if  tlie 

often  deatli.  extremities  be  cold,  friction. 


IRRITATING 

VEGETABLE 

POISONS  : 

Monk's  hood,  mea- 
dow saffron,  ipeca- 
cuanha, hellebore, 
bear's  foot,  savine, 
&c. 


Acrid  taste;  excessive 
heat  ;  violent  vomiting ; 
purging ;  great  pain  in 
the  stomach  and  bowels. 
Externally  applied,  many 
of  them  produce  inflamma- 
tion, blisters,  pustules. 


If  vomiting  be  produced  by  the 
poison,  large  draughts  of  warm 
water,  or  thin  gruel,  lo  render  it 
easier.  If  insensibility  bo  present, 
white  vitriol,  or  otlier  active  eme- 
tic ;  after  the  operation  of  which,  a 
brisk  purgative  ;  then  a  strong 
infusion  of  coffee  or  vinfegar  dilu- 
ted with  water. 


NARCOTICS  :  Stupor  ;  desire  to  voniit ; 

Opium,      henbane,  heavinq|g  in  tlie  head  ;    di- 

hemlock,        night-  lated  pupil  of  the  eye ;    de- 

ghade,  &c,  Urium  ;  speedy  death. 


Pour  or  five  grains  of  emetic 
tartar  in  a  glass  of  water.  If  this 
dose  does  not  succeed,  four  grains 
of  blue  vitriol  as  an  emetic.  Do 
not  give  large  quantities  of  water. 
After  the  poison  has  been  ejected, 
give  vinegar,  lemon  juice,  or  cream 
of  tartar  and  strong  coffee. 


ACRID  Nausea;    heat;    pain  in       Three  grains  of  emetic  tartar  in 

NARCOTICS:      the    stomach  and   bowels:   a  glass  of  water  :  in  fifteen  mi  nutee 

Mushrooms.  vomiting  ;  purging  ;  thirst ;  the  dose  to  be  repeated.       After 

convulsions  ;  cold  sweats  ;  vomiting,  frequi?nt  doses  of  Gltu- 

dealh.  ber's  or  Epsom  salts,  and  stiaml.i- 

ting  clysters. 


Nux  vomita,  St.  None  of  these  inflame 
Ignatius's  bean,  the  the  parts  they  touch.  In- 
upas,  coculus  indi-  troduced  into  the  stomach, 
CU8,  &c.  or  applied  to  wounds,  they 

are  rapidly  absorbed,  pro- 
ducing generally  rigidity, 
convulsions,  and  death. 


•  The  emetic  as  under  Mush- 
rooms :  lungs  to  be  inflated.  Two 
ounces  of  water,  one  drachm  of 
ether,  two  drachms  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, and  half  an  ounce  of  sugar, 
mixed  together  ;  two  spoonfuls  of 
which  to  be  taken  every  ten  min- 
utes. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


159 


POISONS. 


Substances. 


Symptoms. 


Remedies. 


POISONOUS  In  an  hour  or  two,    or       An  emetic  ;    vomiting  to  be  ex- 

FISH  :  sooner,  after  some  fish  have  cited  by  tickling  the  throat  with 

Oldvvife,       lobster,    been  eaten,  more  especially  the    finger,    and  by   draughts   of 
crab,   dolphin,  con-  if  stale,   weight  at  tlie  sto-  warm  water.     After  vomiting,    an 
ger  eel,  muscle,  &c.   mach,    sickness,  giddiness,  active  purgative ;  afterwards  vine- 
thirst,  &c.  come   on  :     in  gar  and  water,  or  water  sweetened 
some  cases,  death.  with  sugar,   and  an    addition    of 

f  ether.     After  the  evacuations,  lau- 

danum. 


POISONOUS 
SERPENTS : 

The  viper,  or  adder, 
rattle-snake,  &c. 


A  sharp  pain  in  the 
wounded  part,  soon  extend- 
ing over  the  body  ;  great 
swelling  ;  firet  hard  and 
pale,  then  reddish;  faint- 
ings,  vomitings,']  convul- 
sions ;  inflammation,  often 
extensive  suppuration,  gan- 
grene, and  death. 


A  moderately  tight  ligature  to 
be  applied  above  the  bite,  and  the 
wound  left  to  bleed,  after  being 
washed  with  warm  water.  The 
actual  cautery,  lunar  caustic,  or 
butter  of  antimony  to  be  applied  ; 
then  lint  dipped  in  equal  parts  of 
olive  oil  and  spirit  of  hartshorn. 
Ligature  to  be  removed,  if  the  in- 
flammation be  consideraljle.  Warm 
diluting  drinks,  with  small  doses 
of  ammonia  or  hartshorn,  to  cause, 
perspiration.  Tlie  patient  should 
be  well  covered  in  bed,  drinking 
occaaibnally  warm  wine.  If  gan- 
grene threaten,  wino  and  bark 
must  be  freely  given. 


SPANISH  Nauseous  odor  of  the  Vomiting  freely  excited  by 
FLIES.  breath  ;  bui-ning  heat  in  sweet  oil,  sugar  and  water,  or  lint- 
tlie  throat  and  stomach  ;  seed  tea ;  emollient  clysters.  Cam- 
vomiting,  often  bloody  ;  phor  dissolved  in  oil  may  be  rub- 
painful  priapism,  heat  in  bed  over  the  belly  and  thighs, 
the  bladder,  convulsions, 
delirium,  death. 


VENOMOUS  In  general  only  a  slight       Hartshorn  and  oil,  salt  and  wa- 

INSECTS:         degree   of  pain  and  swell-  ter:  a  few  drops  of  hartshorn  may 

Tarantula,     scorpi-  ing;     sometimes  sickness  bctakeninternally  inaglass  ofwa- 

on,    hornet,     was[i,    and  fever.  ter.     The  sting  rnay,  in  general, 

bee,  gnat,  &c.  be  removed  by  making  a   strong 

pressure  over  it  with  the  barrel  of  a 
small  watch  key. 

In  many  cases  of  poisoning,  emetics  are  necessary,  in  order  to  remove 
the  poison  from  the  stomach.  It  has,  however,  been  proved,  that  a  late 
invention, 

The  STOMACH  PUMP,  is  much  more  expeditiously  effectual  than 
emetics,  and  is  now  very  often  resorted  to  by  medical  practitioners  for 
such  purposes;  but  the  use  of  this  instrument  can  scarcely  be  confided 
to  inexperienced  hands. 

POISON  from  the  inhalation  o/",  or  being  immersed  in  noxious  Gas. 
Whenever  persons  are  found  in  a  state  of  apparent  death  from  being 


160  FAMILY 


POISON. DROWNING. 


immersed  in,  or  having  inhaled  noxious  gas,  whether  from  the  fumes  of 
burning  charcoal,  the  exhalations  of  lime-kilns,  the  gas  from  fermenta- 
tions, the  choak-damp  of  mines,  the  gas  from  wells,  or  the  gas  in  the 
iosver  parts  of  caverns,  tlie  following  method  must  be  pursued  for  their 
recovery. 

Expose  the  patient  to  atmospheric  air  without  any  fear  of  the  cold ; 
remove  all  his  clothes  and  place  him  upon  his  back,  ivith  the  head  and 
breast  somewhat  elevated  so  as  to  promote  respiration.  On  no  ac- 
count administer  tobacco  fumigations  or  place  the  sufferer  in  a  warm 
bed.  Give  a  few  glasses  of  lemon-juice  and  water,  or  vinegar  weak- 
ened by  the  addition  of  three  parts  water;  sprinkle  the  body,  particu- 
larly the  face  and  breast,  with  cold  vinegar ;  after  this  rub  the  body 
with  cloths  steeped  in  vinegar,  camphorated  spirits  of  wine,  or  any 
other  spirituous  fluid ;  at  the  end  of  two  or  three  minutes  wipe  the 
parts  which  have  been  wetted  with  a  warm  towel,  and  after  the  interval 
of  two  or  three  minutes  recommence  the  sprinkling  and  rubbing  with 
cold  vinegar  and  spirits.  These  means  must  be  persevered  in  for  some 
time.  Irritate  the  soles  of  the  feet,  and  palms  of  the  hands,  and  the 
whole  course  of  the  back  with  a  brush  ;  administer  a  clyster  consisting 
of  one  part  vinegar  and  two  parts  water  ;  after  a  few  minutes  admin- 
ister another  prepared  with  two  ounces  of  common  salt  and  one  ounce 
of  Epsom  salts  dissolved  in  water.  Irritate  the  nostrils  by  a  little  roll 
of  paper  or  a  feather  ;  or  burning  matches,  or  volatile  alkali,  taking 
care  that  the  phial  containing  this  last  article  be  not  held  long  at  the 
irose.  The  lungs  should  also  be  inflated.  All  these  methods  failing, 
the  patient  should  be  bled  in  the  foot  if  the  face  continue  red,  the  lips 
swoln,  and  the  eyes  as  it  were  starting  from  their  sockets.  Emetics 
should  be  avoided,  except  where  persons  recovering  are  troubled  with 
excessive  nausea ;  when  the  patient  is  restored  to  his  senses,  he  may 
be  put  into  a  warm  bed  in  an  apartment  having  all  the  windows  open. 
He  may  then  take  a  few  spoonfuls  of  some  good  wine,  as  sherry,  or 
Madeira  ;  the  wine  may  be  warmed  and  sugar  added.  It  has  often 
happened  that  five  or  six  hours  have  elapsed  before  persons  have  been 
restored. 

A  well  attested  account  has  recently  been  published,  of  the  speedy 
recovery  of  a  person,  who  had  become  insensible  by  reason  of  noxious 
vapor,  at  the  bottom  of  a  well,  by  means  of  cold  water  dashed  from 
above  on  his  head, 

DROWNING  is  the  act  of  suffocating  or  being  suffocated,  by  a  to- 
tal immersion  in  water.  The  length  of  time  during  which  a  person 
may  remain  in  this  element,  without  being  drowned,  is  very  unequal 
in  different  individuals,  and  depends  as  much  on  the  temperature  of 
the  water  as  on  tiie  particular  constitution  of  the  subject:  in  general, 
however,  there  is  less  prospect  of  recovery,  after  having  continued 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  watery  grave.  In  such  cases,  death  ensues  from 
impeded  respiration,  and  the  consequent  ceasing  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood,  by  which  the  body  loses  its  heat,  and  with  that  tlie  activity 
of  the  vital  principle.  Dr.  Goodwyn  justly  observes,  that  the  water 
produces  all  the  changes  which  take  place  in  drowning,  only  indirect- 
l_y,  by  excluding  the  atmospheric  air  from  the  lungs,  as  they  admit  but 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  161 


DROWNING. 


a  very  inconsiderable  quantity  of  fluid  to  pass  into  them  during  im- 
mersion. Hence  we  find,  that  inflation  of  the  lungs  is  one  of  the 
principal  means  of  restoring  life. 

Previous  to  any  active  measures  being  taken  for  recovering  drowned 
persons,  the  following  circumstances  ought  to  be  duly  weighed  by  those 
engaged  in  this  humane  office  : — 1.  The  season  and  weather.  2. 
Length  of  time  the  person  has  continued  under  water.  3.  The  state 
of  his  mind  when  the  accident  happened  ;  whether  he  was  intoxicated, 
frightened,  &c.  4.  Constitution  of  the  body,  and  whether  he  was  in 
a  state  of  perspiration.  5.  The  height  from  which  he  fell,  and  whether 
his  head  plunged  foremost.  6.  Depth  of  the  water  ;  whether  it  was 
cold  or  warm,  sea,  or  river  water,  and  how  he  was  dressed.  Lastly,  7. 
The  manner  in  which  he  was  taken  out,  whether  by  the  legs,  and  with- 
out receiving  any  injury,  or  by  instruments ;  and  whether  he  was  rolled 
about  in  a  tub,  or  what  other  methods  were  pursued  for  his  restoration. 

Few  improvements  appear  to  have  been  made  in  the  treatment  of 
the  drowned,  since  this  important  branch  of  medical  science  was  first 
discussed.  We  shall  briefly  state  the  principal  rules  of  conduct  to  be 
observed,  with  respect  to  persons  in  that  deplorable  situation. 

Symptoms  of  Apparent  Death  by  Drowning. — Coldness;  pale- 
ness of  the  whole  body  ;  the  lips  of  a  livid  hue  ;  the  mouth  feither 
open  or  firmly  closed  ;  the  tongue  blue,  swelled  and  protruded  ;  the 
eye-lids  closed,  the  eyes  turned,  and  their  pupils  dilated  ;  the  face 
swelled  and  blue  ;  the  lower  belly  hard  and  inflated.  The  first  signs 
of  returning  animation  are,  convulsive  starting  of  the  muscles  of  the 
face,  or  feet ;  motion  of  the  eye-lids  ;  a  spasmodic  shivering  of  the 
body. 

Treatment. — 1.  After  having  been  carefully  taken  out  of  the  water 
by  the  arms,  so  as  to  prevent  the  least  injury  to  the  head  and  breast, 
the  body  ought  to  be  carried  to  the  nearest  house,  in  a  bier  if  possible, 
with  the  head  somewhat  raised  ;  or,  in  fine  v/arm  weather,  the  resus- 
citative  process  may  with  more  advantage  be  performed  in  the  open 
air,es  pecialiy  in  sun-shine. 

2.  When  the  subject  is  deposited,  the  upper  part  of  the  body  should 
be  supported  half-sitting,  with  the  head  inclining  towards  the  right 
side. 

3.  The  clothes  are  to  be  taken  off  without  delay,  but  with  the  great- 
est precaution  ;  as  violent  shaking  of  the  body  might  extinguish  the 
latent  spark  of  life. 

4.  The  mouth  and  nose  must  be  cleansed  from  the  mucus  and  froth, 
by  means  of  a  feather  dipped  in  oil. 

5.  The  whole  body  should  now  be  gently  wiped  and  dried  with  warm 
flannel  cloths,  then  covered  with  blankets,  feather-beds,  hay,  straw, 
&c.  In  cold  or  moist  weather,  the  patient  is  to  be  laid  on  a  mattress 
or  bed,  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  fire,  or  in  a  room  moderately  heat- 
ed ;  but  in  the  warm  days  of  summer,  a  simple  couch  is  sufficient. 

6.  If  the  patient  be  very  young,  or  a  child,  it  may  be  placed  in  bed 
between  two  persons,  to  promote  natural  warmth. 

7.  In  situations  where  the  bath  cannot  be  conveniently  procured, 

14* 


162  FAMILY 


DKOW>-ING. 


bladders  filled  with  lukewarm  water  should  be  applied  to  different 
parts  of  the  body,  particularly  to  the  pit  of  the  stomach  ;  or  a  warm- 
ing-pan wrapped  in  flannel  gently  moved  along  the  spine  ;  or  aromatic 
fomentations  frequently  and  cautiously  repeated. 

8.  As  the  breathing  of  many  persons  in  an  apartment  would  render 
the  air  mephitic,  and  thus  retard,  or  even  prevent  the  restoration  of 
life,  not  more  than  live  or  si\-  assistants  should  be  suffered  to  remain  in 
the  room  where  the  body  is  deposited. 

Stimulants  generallt  employed.  1.  Moderate  friction  with  soft 
warm  flannel  at  tlie  beginning,  and  gradually  increased  by  means  of 
brushes  dipped  in  oil  till  pulsations  of  the  heart  are  perceptible. 

2.  Inflation  of  the  lungs,  which  may  be  more  conveniently  effected 
by  blowing  into  one  of  the  nostrils,  than  by  introducing  air  into  the 
mouth.  For  the  former  purpose,  it  is  necessary  to  be  provided  with  a 
wooden  pipe,  fitted  at  one  extremity  for  filling  the  nostril,  and  at  the 
other  for  being  blown  iiito  by  a  healthy  person's  mouth,  or  for  receiv- 
ing the  muzzle  of  a  pair  of  common  bellows,  by  which  the  operation 
may  be  longer  continued.  At  first,  however,  it  will  always  be  more 
proper  to  introduce  the  warm  breath  from  the  lungs  of  a  living  person, 
than  to  commence  with  cold  atmospheric  air.  louring  this  operation, 
the  other  nostril  and  the  mouth  should  be  closed  by  an  assistant,  while 
a  third  person  gently  presses  the  chest  with  his  hands  as  soon  as  the 
lungs  are  observed  to  be  inflated. 

3.  Stimulating  clysters,  consisting  of  warm  water  and  common  salt, 
era  strong  solution  of  tartar  emetic,  or  decoctions  of  aromatic  iieibs, 
or  six  ounces  of  brandy  should  be  speedily  administered.  We  do  not 
consider  injections  of  the  smoke  of  tobacco,  or  even  clysters  of  that 
narcotic  plant,  in  all  instances  safe  or  proper. 

4.  Let  the  body  be  gently  rubbed  with  common  salt,  or  with  flannels 
dipped  in  spirits  ;  the  pit  of  the  stomach  fomented  with  hot  brandy, 
the  temples  stimulated  with  spirits  of  hartshorn,  and  the  nostrils  oc- 
casionally tickled  with  a  feather. 

5.  Persons  of  a  very  robust  frame,  and  whose  skin  after  being  dried 
assumes  a  rigid  and  contracted  surface,  may  be  put  into  a  sub-tepid 
bath,  of  about  65*^  which  must  be  gradually  raised  to  75"  or  80°  of 
Fahrenheit's  scale,  according  to  circumstances  ;  or  the  body  carried 
to  a  brewhouse,  and  covered  with  warm  grains  for  three  or  four  hours  ; 
but  these  expedients  generally  require  medical  assistance. 

6.  Violent  shaking  and  agitation  of  the  body  by  the  legs  and  arms, 
though  strongly  recommended,  and  supposed  to  have  often  forwarded 
the  recovery  of  children  and  boys,  apears  to  us  a  doubtful  i-emedy, 
which  can  be  practised  only  in  certain  cases. 

7.  Sprinkling  the  naked  body  of  a  drowned  person  with  cold  water ; 
Bubmitting  it  to  the  operation  of  a  shower-bath,  or  the  sudden  shocks 
of  the  electric  fluid  ;  as  well  as  whipping  it  with  nettles,  administering 
emetics,  and  blood-letting,  are  desperate  expedients,  which  should  be 
resorted  to  only  after  the  more  lenient  means  have  been  unsuccessfully 
employed. 

It  is,  however,  a  vulgar  and  dangerous  error  to  suppose  that  persons 
apparently  dead  by  immersion  under  water  are  irrecoverable,  because 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  163 

CHOKING. 

life  does  not  soon  re-appear  ;  hence  we  seriously  entreat  those  who  are 
thus  employed  in  the  service  of  humanity  to  persevere  for  three  or  four 
hours  at  least  in  the  application  of  the  most  appropriate  remedies 
above  described  ;  for  there  are  many  instances  recorded  of  patients 
who  recovered  after  they  had  been  relinquished  by  all  their  medical 
and  other  assistants. 

Treatment  on  the  return  of  life.  As  soon  as  the  first  symp- 
toms of  that  happy  change  become  discernible,  additional  care  must 
be  taken  to  cherish  the  vital  action  by  the  most  soothing  means.  All 
violent  proceedings  should,  therefore,  be  immediately  abandoned,  no 
farther  stimulants  applied,  nor  even  the  ears  of  the  patient  be  annoyed 
by  loud  speaking,  shouting.  Sic.  At  that  important  crisis,  moderate 
friction  only  is  requisite.  And,  if  the  reviving  person  happen  to  be  in 
the  bath,  he  may  either  remain  there,  provided  his  sensations  be  easy 
and  agreeable,  or  be  removed  to  a  comfortable  bed,  after  being  expe- 
ditiously dried  with  warm  flannels  :  fomentations  of  aromatic  plants 
may  then  be  applied  to  the  pit  of  the  stomacli  ;  bladders  filled  with 
warm  water,  placed  to  the  left  side  ;  the  soles  of  the  feet  rubbed  with 
salt ;  the  mouth  cleared  of  froth  and  mucus,  and  a  little  white  wine,  or 
a  solution  of  salt  in  water,  dropped  on  the  tongue.  But  all  strong 
stimulants,  such  as  powerful  electric  shocks,  strong  odors  of  volatile 
salts,  Szc.  are  at  this  period  particularly  injurious.  Lastly,  the  patient 
after  resuscitation,  ought  to  be  for  a  short  interval  resigned  to  the 
efforts  of  Nature,  and  left  in  a  composed  and  quiescent  state  :  as  soon 
as  he  is  able  to  swallow,  without  compulsion  or  persuasion,  warm 
wine,  or  tea,  witli  a  few  drops  of  vinegar,  instead  of  milk,  or  gruel, 
v/arm  beer,  and  the  like,  should  be  given  in  small  quantities  frequently 
repeated. 

CHOKING.  As  soon  as  any  person  is  observed  to  be  choked,  and 
more  particularly  children,  the  obstructing  body  should  be  felt  for  with 
a  finger  at  the  top  of  the  throat ;  it  is  possible  many  times  to  remove 
it  directly,  and  should  we  fail  in  this,  the  puking  excited  by  the  finger 
frequently  removes  the  oflending  body. 

Food,  and  foreign  substances  are  sometimes  lodged  in  the  top  of  the 
wind-pipe  and  produce  immediate  suflfocation  ;  help  in  this  case  must 
be  afiforded  at  the  moment,  by  introducing  the  finger.  Sometimes, 
however,  a  bunch  of  thread  with  several  small  nooses,  secured  upon  the 
end  of  a  piece  of  whalebone,  will  frequently  be  serviceable,  in  remov- 
ing sharp  pointed  bodies,  as  fishbones,  needles,  Szc.  Should  this  fail, 
a  piece  of  sponge  may  be  fastened  to  the  whalebone,  and  passed  into 
the  stomach,  and  when  it  becomes  enlarged  by  moisture,  it  most  fre- 
quently brings  away  any  foreign  substance  which  may  be  present :  the 
enlargement  of  the  sponge  may  be  forwarded  by  the  patient  swallow- 
ing a  little  water.  Vomiting  will  sometimes  succeed  ;  tliough  this 
should  not  be  attempted  when  the  substance  is  sharp  and  pointed. 

Unless  the  offending  body  can  be  seen,  any  apparatus  is  unsafe  ex- 
cept in  the  hands  of  an  experienced  surgeon. 

Presence  of  mind  will  enable  any  person  to  do  much,  in  all  cases  of 
casualty,  and  particularly  in  this,  and  the  directions  above,  are  suffi- 
cient. The  finger,  and  the  vomiting  it  is  sure  to  produce,  will  do  much 
more  at  the  instant  than  is  commonly  thought. 


164  FAMILY 


FAMILY    DISPENSATORY. 


LIGHTNING.  Persons  apparently  dead  from  lightning  may  be 
frequently  restored  by  proper  means.  Sprinkling  or  affusion  of  cold 
water,  and  in  general  the  means  laid  down  for  aerial  poisons,  are  to  be 
persevered  in.  A  rigidity  of  the  limbs  usually  attends  persons  recov- 
ering from  a  stroke  of  lightning  ;  sprinkling,  and  rubbing  the  parts 
with  cold  water  should  often  be  used. 

The  means  to  be  used  for  the  recovering  of  persons  suddenly  depri- 
ved of  life,  are  nearly  the  same  in  all  cases.  They  are  practicable  by 
every  one  who  happens  to  be  present  at  the  accident,  and  require  no 
great  expense,  and  less  skill. 

The  great  aim  is  to  preserve  or  restore  the  vital  warmth  and  motion. 
This  may  in  general  be  attempted  by  heat,  frictions,  blowing  air  Into 
the  lungs,  administering  clysters,  cordials,  &c.  These  must  be  varied 
according  to  circumstances.  Common  sense  and  the  situation  of  the 
patient,  will  suggest  the  means  of  relief.  Above  all  we  would  recom- 
mend perseverance.  Much  good  may,  and  no  harm  can  result ;  who 
would  grudge  pains  in  such  a  case  ? 


SECTION  III. 

FAMILY    DISPENSATORY. 


Every  family  should  know  something  about  the  weights  and  meas- 
ures which  are  used  by  apothecaries,  and  the  signs  by  which  they  are 
denoted. 

WEIGHTS. 

The  pound     -     16  contains  twelve  ounces, 

-  ounce     -     3         -         eight  drachms, 

-  drachm  -     3         -         three  scruples, 

-  scruple  -     9         -         twenty  grains. 

-  grain      -     gr 

The  grain  weights  are  stamped  with  punch  marks,  indicative  of  the 
number  of  grains  each  is  equivalent  to. 

MEASURE  OF  FLUIDS. 
The  gallon        -        cong.  contains  eight  pints. 

-  pint  -     (octavus.)     -        sixteen  fluid  drachms. 

-  fluid  ounce         f  3  eight  fluid  drachms. 

-  fluid  drachm      f  3  sixty  minims. 

-  minim  or  drop      Til 

A  table  spoonful  is  supposed  to  be  equal  to  half  an  ounce,  or  four 
drachms — yet  many  of  the  modern  spoons  will  contain  five  drachms. 
A  tea  spoonful  will  equal  sixty  or  seventy  drops.  A  drop  will  contain 
a  quantity  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the  mouth  of  the  vial  from  which 
it  falls.     A  common  ounce  vial  should  be  a  medium  size. 

Where  the  dose  furnished  for  an  adult  is  a  certain  quantity,  the 
proper  dose  for  a  person  of  fourteen  years  will  be  two  thirds  of  that 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  165 


FAMILY    DISPENSATORY. 


quantity — for  seven  years,  one  half— for  five  years,  one  third — for 
three  years,  one  fourth — for  twenty-eight  months,  one  fifth — for  four- 
teen months,  one  eighth — for  seven  months,  one  twelfth — for  two 
months,  one  fifteentlF— for  one  month,  one  twentieth — under,  one 
twenty-fourth.  * 

It  is  recommended  that  laudanum,  antimonial  wine,  and  other  active 
fluids,  should  not  be  given  to  young  children  after  there  is  a  cloud  in 
them,  as  the  strength  is  then  uncertain.  In  such  cases,  the  substance 
having  fallen  to  the  bottom,  the  top  of  the  fluid  is  weaker,  and  the 
bottom  stronger. 

Laxative  Pills.  Take  of  powder  of  cinnamon,  10  grains  ;  socoto- 
rine  aloes  in  fine  powder,  and  castile  soap,  of  each  one  drachm.  Beat 
them  together  in  a  stone  or  iron  mortar,  adding  one  or  two  drops  of 
sirup  or  molasses.  Make  into  32  pills.  Dose  for  grown  persons,  two 
at  bed  time. 

Pills  of  Aloes  and  Fetida.  Take  socotorine  aloes,  assafcetida, 
and  soap,  equal  parts.  Pill  with  gum  arable.  These  pills  are  good  in 
indigestion,  attended  with  costiveness,  and  wind  in  the  stomach  and 
bowels. 

Hull's  Colic  Pills.  Take  cinnamon,  cloves,  mace,  myrrh,  safiron, 
ginger,  castile  soap,  of  each  one  drachm,  socotorine  aloes  one  ounce, 
essence  of  peppermint  sufficient  to  moisten  it.  Make  common  sized 
pills,  and  take  them  till  they  operate. 

Purging  Pills.  Take  rhubarb  one  part,  cream  tartar  three  parts, 
grind  together,  and  take  a  tea-spoonful  in  molasses  occasionally  to 
prevent  costiveness. 

Sir  H.  Halford's  Aperient  Pills.  Take  of  blue  pill,  twenty 
grains  ;  compound  extract  of  colocynth,  half  a  drachm  :  mix  and  di- 
vide into  twelve  pills.  One  or  two  to  be  taken  for  a  dose  every  second 
or  third  night. 

Strengthening  Pills.  Take  of  subcarbonate  of  iron,  two  drachms; 
ipecacuanha,  in  povvder,  one  scruple  ;  extract  of  gentian,  two  scruples; 
socotorine  aloes,  powdered,  eight  grains  ;  simple  sirup  or  mucilage, 
enough  to  form  a  mass  ;  divide  into  forty  pills.  Take  two  or  three 
twice  or  thrice  a  day. 

To  Excite  Perspiration.,  Take  of  opium,  six  grains  ;  camphor, 
twelve  grains  ;  James'  powder,  twelve  grains ;  conserve  enough  to 
form  into  twelve  pills.     One  to  be  taken  at  bed  time,  occasionally. 

Adhesive  Plaster.  Take  of  yellow  resin,  half  a  pound  ;  lead 
plaster,  three  pounds  ;  melt  the  lead  plaster  by  a  gentle  heat,  then  add 
the  resin  in  powder,  and  mix.  This  is  the  plaster  commonly  applied 
to  cuts,  and  to  hold  together  the  edges  of  recent  wounds. 

Anodyne  Plaster.  Take  of  hard  opium,  powdered,  half  an  ounce  ; 
resin  of  spruce  fir,  powdered,  three  ounces ;  lead  plaster,  a  pound,  melt 
the  plaster  and  resin  together,  and  then  add  the  opium  and  mix. 

Strengthening  Plaster.  Take  of  litharge  plaster,  four  ounces ; 
white  resin,  one  ounce  ;  yellow  wax,  olive  oil,  of  each  half  an  ounce  : 


166  FAMILY 


FAMILY    DISPENSATORY. 


rub  the  iron  with  the  oil,  and  adding  tlie  other  ingredients,  mix  the 
whole. 

PicRA.  Socotorine  aloes,  one  pound  ;  white  canella,  three  ounces ; 
separately  powdered  and  then  mixed.  Good  purgative.  Dose  be- 
tween a  scruple  and  a  drachm.     May  be  taken  in  sirup  or  molasses. 

Sweating  Powder,  or  Dover's  Powder.  Ipecac  in  powder  ; 
opium,  (dry,)  of  each  one  part ;  sulphate  of  potash,  eight  parts  ;  grind 
them  together  to  a  fine  powder.  Dose  from  five  to  twenty  grains,  as 
the  stomach  and  strength  will  bear  it ;  lessen  the  dose  if  it  threatens  to 
puke.  This  is  a  powerful  sweating  remedy  in  fevers,  rheumatisms, 
and  dropsy,  excellent  in  colds  and  suppressed  respiration.  In  general, 
this  is  the  best  opiate,  as  the  Ipecac  lessens  the  danger  of  a  habitual 
use  of  opium — a  thing  to  be  avoided  next  to  habits  of  intoxication. 

Elixir  Proprietatus,  Elix.  Pro.,  or  Tincture  of  Myrrh  and 
Aloes.  Take  of  myrrh  in  powder,  two  ounces  ;  alcohol,  one  pound 
and  a  half ;  water,  half  a  pound ;  mix  the  alcohol  with  the  water  and 
add  the  myrrh.  Steep  four  days,  and  then  add,  socotorine  aloes,  an 
ounce  and  a  half;  saffron,  an  ounce.  Steep  three  days,  and  pour  off 
the  clear  liquor  from  the  sediment.     Laxative  and  stomachic. 

Tincture  of  Bark,  or  Huxham's  Tincture.  Take  of  Peruvian 
bark  in  powder,  two  ounceis  ;  orange  peel  dried,  half  an  ounce  ;  Vir- 
ginia snake  root  bruised,  three  drachms  ;  saffron,  one  drachm  ;  proof 
spirits  (rum,)  two  pounds  ;  steep  fourteen  days  and  strain.  Good  pre- 
paration of  the  bark  taken  as  a  bitter,  a  tea-spoonful  to  a  glass  of  wine 
before  eating  ;  useful  in  low  fevers. 

Tincture  of  Guaiac.  Take  of  gum  guaiac,  one  pound  ;  alcohol, 
two  pounds  and  a  half;  steep  for  seven  days,  and  strain.  A  powerful 
sweating  remedy  in  rheumatism  and  old  goaty  affections.  Dose,  a  tea- 
spoonful  in  spirit. 

Laudakum.  Take  of  opium,  two  ounces ;  diluted  alcohol,  two 
pounds  ;  digest  seven  days.  This  is  an  elegant  opiate,  but  separates 
by  keeping. 

Elixir  Asthmatic.  Take  liquorice  root,  (pounded  pretty  fine,)  one 
pound  ;  common  honey,  one  pound ;  Benzoic  acid,  or  flowers,  half  an 
ounce  ;  gum  opium  (good,)  half  an  ounce  ;  gum  camphor,  a  third  of 
an  ounce  ;  oil  of  annise,  two  drachms  ;  common  pearlash,  half  an 
ounce  ;  best  old  spirits,  eight  pints.  To  the  liquorice  pounded  pretty 
fine,  add  the  other  ingredients,  taking  care  to  pulverize  the  opium. 
When  prepared,  it  should  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  ten  or  twelve  days, 
and  decanted  clear.  The  remaining  liquor  must  be  squeezed  from  the 
roots  and  filtered  through  a  piece  of  unsized  paper. 

Linseed  Meal  Poultice.  Scald  your  basin  by  pouring  a  little  hot 
water  into  it  ;  tlien  put  a  small  quantity  of  finely  ground  linseed  meal 
into  the  basin,  pour  a  little  hot  water  on  it,  and  stir  it  round  briskly, 
until  you  have  well  incorporated  it ;  add  a  little  more  meal  and  a  little' 
more  water,  then  stir  it  again.  Do  not  let  any  lumps  remain  in  the 
basin,  but  stir  the  poultice  well,  and  do  not  be  sparing  of  your  trouble. 

Bread  and  Water  Poultice.     Put  half  a  pint  of  hot  water  into 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  ]Q7 


PAMILX    DISPENSATORY. 


a  pint  basin,  add  to  this  as  much  of  the  crumbs  of  bread  as  the  water 
will  cover,  then  place  a  plate  over  the  basin,  and  let  it  remain  about 
ten  minutes  ;  stir  the  bread  about  in  the  water,  or,  if  necessary,  chop 
it  a  little  with  the  edge  of  the  knife,  and  drain  off  the  water  by' hold- 
ing the  knife  on  the  top  of  the  basin ;  but  do  not  press  the  bread  as  is 
usually  done  ;  then  take  it  out  lightly,  and  spread  it  about  one  third  of 
an  inch  on  some  soft  linen,  and  lay  it  upon  the  part.  If  the  part  to 
which  it  is  applied  be  a  wound,  a  bit  of  lint  dipped  in  oil  may  be  pla- 
ced beneath  the  poultice.  «  This  poultice,"  says  Mr.  Abernethy,"  may 
be  made  with  poppy  water,  if  thought  necessary  ;  it  may  be  made  with 
hemlock  juice,  if  recently  expressed,  which  is  a  very  good  application 
to  irritable  sores  ;  but  there  is  nothing  better,  that  I  know  of,  than  the 
bread  poultice  to  broken  surfaces," 

Mustard  Poultice.  Take  of  mustard  seed,  and  linseed,  of  each, 
(m  powder,)  half  a  pound  ;  hot  vinegar,  a  sufficient  quantity  ;  mix 
them  to  the  consistency  of  a  poultice,  and  the  poultice  will  be  fit  for 
use. 

Yeast  Poultice.  Take  of  flour,  a  pound  ;  yeast  of  beer,  half  a 
pint ;  mix,  and  expose  the  mixture  to  a  gentle  heat,  until  it  begins  to 
swell,  when  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Simple  Ointment.  Take  olive  (sweet)  oil,  five  parts  ;  white  wax, 
two  parts  ;  melt  together.  May  be  used  for  softening  the  skin,  and 
healing  chaps  and  excoriations. 

Golden  Ointment.  Take  of  purified  quicksilver,  an  ounce  ;  nitric 
acid,  eleven  drops  ;  lard,  six  ounces ;  olive  oil,  four  ounces  ;  dissolve 
the  mercury  in  the  acid,  then  mix  the  hot  solution,  with  the  oil  and 
lard  melted  together.  This  is  an  excellent  ointment  for  sore  eyes,  scald 
head  and  most  sorts  of  ulcers.  When  first  used,  it  should  be  mixed 
vnth  an  equal  quantity  of  simple  ointment. 

Sulphur  Ointment.  Take  of  hog's  lard,  four  parts ;  flowers  of 
sulphur,  one  part  ;  to  each  pound  of  this  ointment  may  be  added,  vol- 
atile oil  of  lemons,  or  oil  of  lavender,  half  a  drachm.  A  certain  reme- 
dy for  the  cure  of  itch.  A  pound  serves  for  four  unctions.  The  pa- 
tient should  be  rubbed  four  nights  in  succession,  each  time  one  fourth 
part  of  the  body. 

Sir  H.  Halford's  Pile  Ointment.  Take  one  ounce  of  golden  oint- 
ment, and  the  same  quantity  of  almond  oil  ;  mix  them  carefully  in  a 
mortar.     Apply  this  ointment  to  the  part  affected  once  or  twice  daily. 

Yellow  Basilicum  Ointment.  Take  of  yellow  wax,  white  resin, 
and  frankincence,  of  each  one  quarter  of  a  pound ;  mix,  and  melt  over 
a  gentle  fire,  then  add  lard,  one  pound :  strain  the  ointment  while 
warm.     This  ointment  is  the  best  dressing  for  all  heathy  ulcers. 

Simple  Sirup.  Take  of  double  refined  sugar,  fifteen  parts  ;  water, 
eight  parts.  Let  the  sugar  be  dissolved  by  a  gentle  heat,  and  boiled  a 
little,  so  as  to  form  a  sirup. 

Sirup  of  Ginger.  Take  of  best  ginger,  three  ounces;  boiling  wa- 
ter, four  pounds ;  double  refined  sugar,  seven  and  a  half  pounds  ;  steep 
the  ginger  in  the  water,  in  a  close  vessel,  for  twenty-four  hours,  then 


168  FAMILY 


FAMILY    DISPENSATORY. 


to  the  strained  liquor  add  the  best  sugar,  so  as  to  make  a  sirup.  This 
is  an  agreeable  and  moderately  aromatic  sirup ;  impregnated  with  the 
flavor  and  the  virtues  of  the  ginger. 

Sirup  of  Lemons.  Take  of  juice  of  lemons,  suffered  to  stand  till 
the  sediment  falls,  then  strain  off  the  liquor,  three  parts ;  double  refined 
sugar,  five  parts ;  dissolve  the  sugar  in  the  juice  till  it  forms  a  sirup. 
In  the  same  way,  are  prepared  sirup  of  mulberry  juice  ;  sirup  of  rasp- 
berry juice,  and  sirup  of  black  currant  juice.  All  these  are  pleasant 
cooling  sirups ;  quenching  thirst ;  and  may  be  used  in  gargles  for  sore 
mouths. 

Volatile  Liniment.  Take  spirit  of  hartshorn,  one  part ;  sweet  oil, 
or  fresh  butter,  two  parts  ;  mix,  and  shake  in  a  viol.  Sometimes  a  lit- 
tle laudanum  or  camphor  is  added. 

Liniment  of  Oil  and  Lime.  Take  of  linseed  oil,  lime  water,  of 
each  equal  parts ;  mix  them.  This  liniment  is  extremely  useful  in 
burns  and  scalds  ;  efficacious  in  preventing  inflammation  after  such  ac- 
cidents. 

Camphorated  Oil.  Take  of  olive  oil,  two  ounces;  camphor,  half 
an  ounce ;  dissolve  the  camphor  in  the  oil.  Good,  applied  to  local 
pains  ;  to  glandular  swellings,  and  to  the  bowels  in  tympany. 

Opodeldoc.  Take  of  the  best  hard  soap,  two  ounces ;  camphor, 
one  ounce  ;  very  strong  spirit,  one  pint :  mix  the  soap  with  the  spirit, 
and  let  them  stand  in  a  moderate  heat,  until  tlie  soap  is  dissolved,  occa- 
sionally shaking  the  vial ;  then  add  the  camphor,  and  continue  to  shake 
the  vessel  frequently  until  the  whole  is  dissolved.  Useful  in  sprains, 
bruises,  and  in  rheumatic  pains.  Good  to  disperse  swellings,  tumors 
and  the  like. 


■I 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


189 


COTTON. 


PART  IV. 


MANUFACTURES. 


COTTON.  The  rearing  of  cotton,  and 
the  manufacture  of  it  into  various  fabrics, 
have  of  late  years  become  objects  of  so 
much  attention,  in  several  parts  of  the 
world,  that  we  shall  devote  the  greater 
space  to  a  notice  of  these  two  subjects, 
than  our  limits  would  otherwise  seem  to 
justify. 

The  plant  which  produces  cotton  is  cul- 
tivated in  the  East  and  West  Indies,  in 
North  and  South  America,  of  which  it  is  a 
native,  and  in  Egypt,  and  other  parts  of 
the  world.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  propaga- 
ted from  seeds.  It  grows  to  a  considerable 
height,  and  has  leaves  of  a  bright  green 
color  marked  with  brownish  veins,  and 
each  divided  into  five  lobes.  The  pods 
which  contain  the  cotton,  are  triangular  in 
shape,  and  have  each  three  cells.  These, 
on  becoming  ripe,  burst,  and  disclose  their 
snow  white  contents. 
The  cotton  which  is  cultivated  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  oi three  kinds — the  nankeen  cotton,  so  called  from  its  color; 
the  green  seed  cotton,  producing  white  cotton,  and  green  seeds;'  and 
the  black  seed  cotton.  The  two  first  kinds  are  cultivated  in  the  middle 
and  upper  country,  where  they  go  by  the  name  o^  short  staple  cotton ; 
the  last  is  raised  in  the  lower  country  near  the  sea,  and  on  the  islands 
adjacent  to  the  continent.  This  is  denominated  sea  island  cotton  ;  it  is 
stronger,  finer,  and  longer  thf  n  the  short  staple  cotton,  and  bears  a  high- 
er price  in  market. 

The  manner  of  raising  cotton^  upon  which  it  will  be  proper  to  make 
a  few  observations,  is  as  follows  : — 

If  the  land  has  been  recently  cleared,  or  has  long  remained  fallow, 
turn  it  up  deep  in  winter;  and  in  the  first  week  in  March,  bed  it  up  in 
the  following  manner.  Form  25  beds  in  105  square  feet  of  land,  (be- 
ing the  space  allotted  to  each  able  laborer  for  a  day's  work)  ;  this 
leaves  about  four  feet  two  and  one-half  inches  from  the  centre  of  one 
bed  to  the  centre  oftlienext.  The  beds  should  be  three  feet  wide, 
and  flat  in  the  middle.  About  the  15th  of  March,  in  the  latitude  of 
from  29°  to  30°,  the  cultivator  should  commence  sowing,  or  as  it  is 
generally  termed  planting.  The  seed  should  be  well  scattered  in  open 
trenches,  made  in  the  centre  of  the  beds  and  covered  ;  the  proportion 
of  seed  is  one  bushel  to  an  acre  ;  this  allows  for  accidents  occasioned 
by  worms,  or  night  chills.  The  cotton  should  be  well  weeded  by  hoes 
once  every  twelve  days,  until  blown,  and  even  longer,  if  there  is  grass, 

15 


170  FAMILY 


COTTOiX. 


observing  to  hoe  up,  that  is,  to  the  cotton,  till  it  pods  ;  and  hoe  down, 
when  the  cotton  is  blown,  in  order  to  check  the  growth  of  the  plant. 
From  the  proportion  of  seed  mentioned,  the  cotton  plants  will  come 
up  plentifully,  too  much  so,  to  suffer  all  to  remain.  They  should  be 
thinned  moderately  at  each  hoeing.  When  the  plants  have  got 
strength  and  growth,  which  may  be  about  the  third  hoeing,  to  disre- 
gard worms,  and  bear  drought,  they  should  be  thinned  according  to 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  from  six  inches  to  near  two  feet  between  the 
stocks  or  plants.  In  rich  river  grounds,  the  beds  should  be  from  five 
to  six  feet  apart,  measuring  from  centre  to  centre  ;  and  the  cotlou 
plants,  when  out  of  the  way  of  worms,  from  two  to  three  feet  apart. 
It  is  adviseable  to  top  cotton  once  or  twice  in  rich  low  grounds,  and  also ' 
to  remove  the  suckers.  The  latter  end  of  July  is  generally  considered 
a  proper  time  for  topping. 

The  month  of  August  in  South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  is  the  season 
for  commencing  the  business  of  picking  cotton. 

The  quantity  of  black  seed  cotton  produced  on  an  acre  of  Georgia 
sea  island,  is  about  2001bs. ;  in  Carolina,  from  130  to  15Ulbs. ;  an  acre 
of  upland  will  commonly  produce  SOOlbs.  of  green  seed  cotton. 

The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  cotton  is  almost  entirely  effected 
by  the  hoe.     The  plough  is  scarcely  used. 

For  many  years  the  separation  of  the  seeds  was  a  work  of  great  labor. 
But  this  is  now  much  diminished  by  means  of  gins,  of  which  there  are 
two  kinds — the  roller-gin  and  the  saw-sin. 

Thejirst  of  these  gins  consists  of  two  small  cylinders,  which  revolve 
so  closely,  that  while  the  cotton  passes  through,  the  seeds  are  prevent- 
ed. 

The  second  kind,  or  saw-gin,  was  the  invention  of  Mr.  Whitney  of 
New  Haven,  Connecticut,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  labor  sav- 
ing machines  ever  introduced  into  the  country.  It  is  used  in  disenga- 
ging the  seeds  of  the  black  seeded  cotton,  which  adhere  too  strongly  to 
be  separated  by  the  roller-gin.  This  machine  consists  of  a  receiver, 
one  side  of  which  is  covered  with  strong  parallel  wires,  about  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  apart.  Between  these  wires  pass  a  number  of  circular  saws, 
revolving  on  a  common  axis.  In  the  revolutions  of  these  saws,  the  cot- 
ton becomes  entangled,  and  is  drawn  through  the  grating,  while  the 
aeeds  are,  from  their  size,  denied  a  passage. 

The  earliest  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  was  Hindoostan, 
where  it  is  still  carried  on,  as  at  the  first,  by  hand  labor.  But  by  means 
of  the  inventions  of  Hargreaves  and  Arkwright,  between  the  years  of 
1763  and  1780,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  has  so  far  outstripped  that 
of  the  East,  that  the  countries  of  the  latter  are  now  receiving  the  pro- 
ducts of  British  manufactories  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  they  can  manu- 
facture for  themselves.  Cotton  fabrics  are  also  beginnmg  to  be  export- 
ed from  the  United  States  to  the  East  to  advantage. 

Next  to  the  facilities  for  preparing  cotton  for  the  loom,  which  have 
arrived  to  an  astonishing  degree  of  perfection,  nothing  has  contributed 
to  extend  the  manufacture  more  than  the  invention  of  the pover-loom, 
by  which  the  laborious  process  of  weaving  is  converted  into  the  mere 
superintendence  of  two  and  sometimes  three  of  these  machines,  each 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  171 


COTTON. 


one  of  which  is  capable  of  producing  from  tliirty  to  forty  yards  of  cloth 
per  day.  Added  to  this,  is  the  discovery  of  a  process  for  transferring 
in  the  manufacture  of  calicoes,  the  most  delicate  patterns  from  copper 
cylinders,  instead  of  from  wooden  blocks;  by  means  of  which  the  la- 
bor and  expense  are  surprisingly  diminished. 

We  shall  next  speak  of  the  process  observed  in  the  manufacturing 
of  cotton  into  cloth,  which  we  abridge  from  the  Encyclopedia  Ameri- 
cana. 

"  After  the  cotton  has  been  ginned  and  picked  or  batted,  the  first  op- 
eration of  the  manufacturing,  is  carding.  The  carding  engine  consists 
of  a  revolving  cylinder  covered  with  cards,  which  is  nearly  surrounded 
by  a  fixed  concave  framing,  also  lined  with  cards, *with  which  the  cylin- 
der comes  in  contact.  From  this  cylinder,  called  the  breaker,  the  cotton 
is  taken  off  by  a  comb  called  the  do^ng-plate,  and  passes  through  a  se- 
cond carding  in  the  finishing  cylinder.  It  is  then  passed  through  a 
kind  of  funnel,  by  which  it  is  contracted  into  a  narrow  band  or  sliver, 
and  received  into  tin  cans,  in  a  state  of  uniform,  continued  carding. 
The  next  step  in  the  process,  is  called  drawing  the  cotton.  This  is  ef- 
fected by  the  drawing-frame^  which  in  principle  is  similar  to  the  spin- 
ning-frame. Roving  the  cotton,  which  is  the  next  part  of  the  process, 
gives  a  slight  twist,  which  converts  it  into  a  soft  and  loose  thread,  call- 
ed the  roving.  The  machine  for  performing  this  operation  is  called  the 
roving-frame,  or  double-speeder.  In  order  to  wind  the  roving  upon  the 
bobbins  of  the  spindles,  in  even,  cylindrical  layers,  the  spindle  rail  is 
made  to  rise  and  fall  slowly  by  means  of  heart- wheels  in  the  interior 
of  the  machine.  And  as  the  size  of  the  bobbins  is  augmented  by  each 
layer,  the  velocity  of  the  spindles  and  of  the  spindle-rail  is  made  to  di- 
minish gradually,  from  the  beginningto  the  end  of  the  operation.  This 
is  effected  by  transmitting  the  motion  to  both,  through  two  opposite 
cones,  one  of  which  drives  the  other  with  a  band,  which  is  made  to  pass 
slowly  from  one  end  to  the  other  of  the  cones,  and  thus  continually  to 
alter  their  relative  speed,  and  cause  a  uniform  retardation  of  the  velo- 
city. The  bobbins  are  now  transferred  to  the  spinning  frame.  The 
twist  is  given  to  the  thread  when  drawn  out  by  flyers  driven  by 
bands,  which  receive  their  motion  from  a  horizontal  fly-wheel.  The 
yarn  produced  by  this  mode  of  operation  is  called  water  twisty  from 
the  circumstance  that  the  machinery  from  which  it  is  obtained  was  at 
first  generally  put  in  motion  by  water.  In  1775  the  mule-jenny  .or 
mule  was  invented  by  Samuel  Crompton  of  Bolton.  The  spindles  artt 
mounted  on  a  moveable  carriage,  which  recedes  when  the  threads 
are  stretched,  and  return  when  they  are  to  be  wound  up.  By  means 
of  this  machine  the  size  and  twist  of  the  thread  become  uniform 
throughout."  ' 

The  following  process  of  a  pound  of  cotton  may  not  be  uninteresting 
to  our  readers.  It  appeared  originally  in  the  English  Monthly  Maga- 
zine. "There  was  sent  to  London  lately,  from  Paisley,  a  small  piece 
of  muslin,  about  one  pound  weight,  the  history  of  which  is  as  follows. 
The  wool  came  from  the  East  Indies  to  London  ;  from  London  it  went 
to  Manchester  where  it  was  manufactured  into  yarn ;  from  Manches- 
ter, it  was  sent  to  Paisley,  where  it  was  woven.  It  was  sent  to  Ayr- 
shire next,  where  it  was  tamboured  ;  it  was  then  conveyed  to  Dunbar- 
toD,  where  it  was  hand-sewed.,  and  again  returned  to  Paisley,  whence  it 


172  FAMILY 


SILK    MATJUFACTURE. SATIN. — VELVET. GAUZE. 

was  sent  to  Glasgow  and  finished,  and  then  sent  per  coach  to  London. 
It  took  three  years  to  bring  this  article  to  market,  from  the  time  that  it 
was  packed  in  India  till  it  arrived  complete  in  the  merchant's  ware- 
house in  London  ;  whither  it  must  have  been  conveyed  5,000  miles  by 
sea,  and  nearly  1000  by  land,  and  contributed  to  reward  the  labors  of 
nearly  150  persons,  whose  services  were  necessary  in  the  carriage  and 
manufacture  of  this  small  quantity  of  cotton,  and  by  which  its  value 
was  advanced  more  than  2000  per  cent." 

SILK  MANUFACTURE.  Silk  is  a  very  soft,  fine,  bright,  delicate 
thread,  the  production  of  an  insect  or  moth,  called  by  the  ancients  6om- 
hyx ;  by  the  moderns,  phalizna  mori^  or  silk  worm.  Silk  is  manufactur- 
ed into  a  variety  of  fabrics,  of  which  we  shall  notice  the  following : 

SATIN  is  a  kind  of  thick  silken  stuff,  very  smooth  and  shining ;  the 
warp  is  very  fine  and  prominent,  the  woof  coarser  and  hidden  under- 
neath :  on  which  depends  its  gloss  and  beauty.  Some  satins  are  quite 
plain,  others  wrought,  some  flowered  with  gold  or  silk,  others  striped. 
The  finest  satins  are  those  of  Florence  and  Genoa,  yet  the  French  will 
not  allow  those  of  Lyons  to  be  at  all  inferior.  Indian  satins,  or  satins 
of  China,  are  silken  stuffs,  much  like  those  manufactured  in  Europe. 
Of  these  some  are  plain,  others  worked,  either  with  gold  or  silk,  flow- 
ered, damasked,  striped,  &;c.  They  are  mostly  valued  because  of  their 
bleaching  easily,  without  losing  any  thing  of  their  lustre.  In  other  re- 
spects they  are  inferior  to  those  of  Europe.  Some  very  good  satins  are 
made  in  England. 

VELVET  ;  a  rich  kind  of  thick,  shaggy  stuff  made  o^  silk ;  the  nap, 
or  velveting,  of  this  stuff  is  formed  of  part  of  the  threads  of  the  warp, 
which  the  workman  puts  on  a  long  narrow-channelled  ruler,  and  which 
he  afterwards  cuts  by  drawing  a  sharp  steel  tool  along  the  ruler  to  the 
end  of  the  warp.  The  principal  and  best  manufactures  of  velvet  are 
in  England  and  France ;  there  are  others  in  Italy,  as  at  Venice,  Milan, 
Florence,  Genoa,  and  Lucca,  and  in  Holland  at  Haerlem  ;  those  in  Chi- 
na are  the  worst  of  all.  A  good  imitation  of  silk  velvet  is  now  to  be 
obtained,  made  of  cotton  ;  but  the  dyes  are  less  permanent  on  cotton 
tlian  on  silk. 

TAFFETY  ;  a  kind  of  fine,  smooth,  silken  stuff,  having  usually  a 
remarkable  gloss.  There  are  taffeties  of  all  colors,  some  plain,  others 
striped  with  gold,  silver,  silk,  &c.  others  chequered  or  flowered.  There 
are  three  things  that  contribute  to  the  perfection  pf  taffeties,  the  silk, 
the  water,  and  the  fire.  The  silk  should  not  only  be  of  the  finest  kind, 
but  must  be  worked  a  long  time  and  very  much  before  it  is  used.  The 
watering  seems  only,  intended  to  give  it  that  fine  lustre,  by  a  peculiar 
property  not  found  in  all  waters ;  and  lastly,  the  perfection  of  the  stuff 
depends  greatly  on  a  particular  application  of  the  fire. 

GAUZE,  a  transparent  kind  of  stuff,  which  is  woven  sometimes  of 
silk,  and  at  other  times  only  of  flax.  There  are  figured  gauzes,  some 
with  flowers  of  gold  and  silver,  on  a  silk  ground;  these  last  are  chiefly 
brought  from  China.  The  gauze  loom  is  much  like  that  of  a  eommon 
weaver's,  though  it  has  several  appendages  peculiar  to  itself. 

TABBY:  in  commerce  a  kind  of  coarse  taffety,  watered.  It  is  ma- 
nufactured like  the  common  taffety,  excepting  that  it  is  stronger  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  173 


BROCADE. — STOCKINGS. HISTORY    OP    SILK. 

thicker  both  in  the  woof  and  warp.  The  watering  is  given  to  it  by 
means  of  a  calender  ;  the  rollers  are  of  iron  or  copper  variously  engra- 
ven, which,  bearing  unequally  on  the  stuff,  render  the  surface  thereof 
unequal,  so  as  to  reflect  the  rays  of  light  differently.  It  is  usual  to  tabby 
mohairs,  ribbons,  &;c.  Tabbying  is  performed  without  the  addition  of 
any  water  or  dye,  and  furnishes  the  modern  philosophers  with  a  strong 
proof,  that  colors  are  only  appearances. 

BROCADE,  in  commerce,  a  sort  of  stuff  made  of  cloth,  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, or  silk,  raised  and  enriched  with  flowers,  foliage,  or  other  figures, 
according  to  the  fancy  of  the  manufacturer.  Formerly  the  term  was 
applied  only  to  cloths  woven  either  wholly  of  gold,  both  woof  and 
warp,  or  of  silver,  or  both  together;  but  by  degrees  it  came  likewise  to 
pass  for  such  as  had  silk  intermixed,  to  fill  up  and  terminate  the  flowers 
of  gold  and  silver.  At  present  any  stuff  or  silk,  satin,  or  even  simple 
tapestry,  when  wrought  and  enriched  with  raised  flowers,  &c.  obtains 
the  appellation  of  brocade. 

STOCKINGS.  Anciently  the  only  stockings  in  use  were  made  of 
cloth,  or  milled  staffs  sewed  together  ;  but  since  the  invention  of  knit- 
ting and  weaving  stockings  of  silk,  wool,  and  cotton  thread,  the  use  of 
cloth  stockings  is  laid  aside.  The  modern  stockings,  whether  woven 
or  knit,  are  a  kind  of  plexus,  formed  of  an  infinite  number  of  little 
knots,  called  stitches,  loops,  or  meshes,  intermixed.  Knit  stockings  are 
wrought  with  needles  made  of  polished  iron,  or  brass  wire,  which  in- 
terweave the  threads,  and  form  the  meshes  of  which  the  stocking  con- 
sists. This  operation  is  called  knitting,  the  time  of  the  invention  of 
which  it  is  difficult  to  fix  precisely,  though  it  is  commonly  attributed  to 
the  Scots,  because  the  first  works  of  this  kind  came  from  Scotland. 
Woven  stockings  are  manufactured  on  a  frame  or  machine  made  of 
iron,  the  structure  of  which  is  exceedingly  ingenious,  yet  complex. 
On  this  account  it  is  not  easily  described. 

HISTORY  OF  SILK.  The  silk  worm  is  a  native  of  China.  The 
Seres,  who  inhabit  the  northern  part  of  that  country,  cultivated  the 
precious  article.  Having  been  expelled  by  the  Huns,  A.  D.  93,  they 
settled  in  Little  Bucharia.  Silks  were  first  brought  from  China  to  Sy- 
ria and  Egypt  by  traders,  who  in  caravans  performed  journies  of  243 
days  through  the  deserts  of  Asia.  The  price  was  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  any  but  the  rich ;  and  for  a  long  time  the  use  of  silk  among  the 
Romans  was  confined  to  women  of  fortune.  The  emperor  Aurelian 
refused  his  queen  a  garment  of  silk,  by  reason  of  the  high  price  it  bore 
— its  weight  in  gold.  In  the  sixth  century,  two  monks,  who  had  been 
employed  as  missionaries  in  the  East,  penetrated  into  the  country  of  the 
Seres,  and  observed  the  labors  of  the  silk  worms,  and  the  manner  of 
working  their  production  into  elegant  fabrics.  They  imparted  the  < 
secret  to  the  emperor  Justinian,  at  Constantinople,  who  induced  them, 
by  a  great  reward,  to  return  and  bring  away  a  quantity  of  the  silk  worms' 
eggs.  They  put  the  eggs  into  the  hollow  of  a  cane,  and  brought  them 
safely  to  Constantinople,  about  the  year  S55.  The  eggs  were  hatched, 
and  the  worms  were  fed  with  mulberry  leaves  ;  and  the  insects  produ- 
ced from  this  cane  full  of  eggs  were  the  progenitors  of  all  the  silk  worms 
of  Europe,  and  the  western  parts  of  Asia.  The  people  of  the  Morea, 
15* 


174  FAMILY 


HISTORY   OF  SILK. 


and  of  the  cities  of  Athens  and  Thebes  enjoyed  the  profit  of  the  culture 
and  manufacture  of  silk  upwards  of  400  years ;  but  in  1146,  the  king 
of  Sicily  made  war  upon  Greece,  and  carried  off  a  great  number  of  silk 
weavers,  who  taught  the  Sicilians  to  raise  silk  worms,  and  Weave  silk 
gtufts.  The  Saracens  introduced  the  silk  manufacture  into  Spain  and 
Porluoal ;  and  subsequently  the  Italian  States,  France  and  England 
engaged  in  it. 

It  will  not  consist  with  our  limits  to  enter  minutely  into  the  history 
of  the  silk  business  in  foreign  countries.  Much  of  the  silk  used  in  the 
manufactures  of  France  is  raised  at  home  ;  yet  it  is  stated  that  that 
country  pays  nearly  twenty  millions  of  dollars  annually  for  raw  silk, 
raised  in  other  countries. 

The  art  of  reeling  silk  from  the  cocoons,  so  as  to  convert  it  into  a 
saleable  article,  is  known  only  in  China,  in  Bengal,  in  the  Turkish  do- 
minions, in  Italy,  and  in  the  south  of  France.  It  is  not  known  in  Great 
Britain,  where  the  climate  is  not  suited  for  that  culture.  Her  manu- 
facturers are  obliged  to  depend  upon  foreign  countries  for  the  raw  and 
thrown  or  twisted  silk,  which  they  use,  and  of  which  several  millions  of 
pounds  are  annually  imported  into  that  country. 

The  manufacture  of  this  silk  into  various  fabrics,  employs  a  large 
capita],  and  many  thousands  of  men  and  women.  "  I  calculate,"  said 
Mr.  Wilson,  a  well  informed  and  extensive  silk  manufacturer,  while 
under  examination  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  "  that 
40,000  persons  are  employed  in  throwing  silk  for  the  weaver,  whose 
wages  will,  I  think,  amount  to  £350,000.  I  estimate  that  half  a  mil- 
lion pounds  of  soap,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  most  costly  dye- 
stuffs  are  consumed,  at  a  further  expense  of  £300,000  ;  and  265,000 
more  are  paid  to  16,500  winders  to  prepare  it.  The  number  of  looms 
may  be  taken  at  40,000  ;  and  including  weavers,  warpers,  mechanics, 
harness-makers,  enterers,  twisters,  cane-spreaders,  quill-winders,  and 
draw  boys,  at  two  hands  to  a  loom,  will  employ  80,000  more  persons, 
and  the  wages  amount  to  £3,000,000.  If  we  include  infants  and  de- 
pendents, about  400,000  mouths  will  be  fed  by  the  silk  manufacture,  the 
value  of  which  I  estimate  at  ten  millions."  Mr.  Hale,  of  Spital- 
fields,  estimates  the  number  of  persons  supported  by  the  silk  manufac- 
ture, at  500,000  ;  but  Mr.  Bell,  and  some  other  intelligent  gentlemen 
engaged  in  the  trade,  do  not  carry  their  estimate  so  high  as  Mr.  Wil- 
son ;  perhaps  his,  which  is  the  rtiedium,  may  be  regarded  as  the  most 
accurate. 

Since  the  settlement  of  the  United  States  by  the  English,  several 
experiments  have  been  made  on  the  subject  of  raising  silk.  The  cul- 
tui-e  of  it  first  commenced  in  Virginia.  As  early  as  1666,  the  rearing 
of  silk  worms  was  a  part  of  the  regular  business  of  many  of  the  far- 
mers. One  man  had  70,000  mulberry  trees  growing  in  1664.  Georgia 
sent  eight  pounds  of  raw  silk  to  England,  in  1735,  and  10,000  pounds 
in  1759.  Some  attention  was  paid  to  the  culture  of  silk  in  South  CajF- 
olina,  and  in  1755,  Mrs.  Pinckney  raised  and  spun  silk  enough  for  three 
compiete  dresses.  In  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey,  the  culture  of  silk 
began  in  1771,  but  was  suspended  by  the  war  of  the  revolution. 

Mulberry  trees  and  silk  worms  were  introduced  into  the  town  of 
Mansfield,  in  the  county  of  Windham,  Conn.,  about  the  year  1760  ; 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  175 


STATISTICS    OF   SILK. — MULBERRY   TREE. 

and  in  1789,  two  hundred  pounds  of  raw  silk  were  made  in  that  town. 
At  present,  three-fourths  of  the  families  in  Mansfield  are  engaged  m 
raising  silk,  and  make  Annually  from  five  to  ten,  twenty,  and  fifty 
pounds  in  a  family,  and  one  or  two  have  made,  each,  one  hundred 
pounds  in  a  season.  It  is  believed  that  there  are  annually  made  in 
that  town  and  the  vicinity,  from  three  to  four  tons  of  silk. 

From  the  experiments  which  have  already  been  made,  ample  evi- 
dence exists  that  the  culture  of  silk  may  be  profitably  pursued  in  the 
United  States  to  almost  any  extent,  since  the  mulberry  tree  grows  indi- 
genously throughout  the  country  :  and  it  is  a  fact  well  ascertained  that 
American  silk  is  decidedly  superior  to  that  of  any  other  country  on 
the  globe.  In  France,  twelve  pounds  of  cocoons  are  required  to 
produce  one  pound  of  raw  silk,  while  eight  pounds  are  amply  suffi* 
cient  to  produce  the  same  quantity  in  this  country. 

Were  the  culture  of  silk  only  equal  to  our  home  consumption,  an 
immediate  attention  to  it  would  be  a  saving  to  the  country  of  not 
less  than  ten  millions  of  dollars  annually,  as  may  be  seen  hy  the  fol- 
lowing 

Statement  of  the  value  of  sUk  goods  imported  and  exported  in  the  years 
1821  to  1825  inclusive. 


Years. 
1821 
1822 
1823 
1824 
1825 

Imported. 
$4,-486,9.24 
6,480,928 
6,713,771 
7,203,344 
10,271,527 

Exported. 

$1,057,233 
1,016,262 
1,512,449 
1,816,325 
2,565,742 

$35,156,494  ^7,968,011 

Yet  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  a  quantity  may  bo  annually  produ- 
ced, which  shall  not  only  meet  the  home  demand  ;  but,  in  a  few 
years,  leave  a  surplus  for  exportation.  The  most  important  step  to- 
wards this  state  of  things  is  the  extensive  cultivation  of  the  white 
mulberry  tree,  the  leaves  of  which  form  the  p-oper  aliment  of  the 
silk-worm. 

Mulberry  tree.  All  practical  writers  agree  that  the  proper  soils 
for  the  mulberry  tree  are  dry,  sandy  or  stony.  Indeed,  a  soil  which  is 
of  little  value  to  the  farmer,  on  account  of  its  sterility,  will  answer 
well  for  the  mulberry  tree.  The  methods  of  propagating  the  tree  are 
various.  A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer  speaks  as  follows  of 
four  methods. 

First,  From  the  seed  ;  2d  from  roots  ;  3d  from  layers,  and  4th  from 
cuttings.  The  1st  and  4th  can  at  present  be  alone  generally  resorted 
to  in  this  country.  An  ounce  of  good,  well  cleaned  seed,  well  mana- 
ged, will  probably  produce  ten  or  twelve  thousand  plants.  It  should 
be  sowed  towards  the  last  of  April.  The  ground  being  properly  pre- 
pared, by  previous  ploughing,  or  digging,  and  manuring,  is  to  be  clean- 
ed, levelled,  and  divided  into  beds  of  four  or  five  feet  in  width.  Drills 
from  six  to  ten  inches  asunder,  and  from  one  to  two  inches  deep,  must 
then  be  made  by  a  line.  The  seed  may  be  sown  in  these  drills  dry,  or 
having  been  steeped  two  days  in  water,  rub  it  on  pack  thread  to  which 


176  FAMILY 


EGGS    OF    SILK    WORMS. HATCHING    THK    EGGS. 

it  will  adhere,  lay  the  thread  in  the  bottom  of  the  drill  and  cover  it 
with  earth.  In  two  or  three  weeks,  if  kept  moist,  the  young  plants 
will  appear.  Keep  the  beds  clear  of  weeds.  On  the  approach  of 
winter  it  may  be  well  to  cover  them  with  leaves.  If  the  seedling* 
grow  the  first  season  to  the  height  of  one  foot  or  more,  take  them  up 
in  the  spring  following,  cut  the  top  so  as  to  leave  about  three  inches 
above  ground,  cut  off  the  lower  part  of  the  root,  and  set  them  in  nur- 
series in  rows,  like  other  fruit  trees,  where  the  following  spring  they 
may  or  may  not  be  grafted,  pruned  and  cultivated,  until  they  become 
sufficiently  large  to  set  in  hedges  or  plantations.  Cuttings  should  be 
taken  from  perpendicular  shoots,  and  particularly  from  those  which 
terminate  branches.  They  should  be  of  the  last  summer's  growth,  and 
from  6  to  15  inches  in  length.  Plant  them  in  shady  borders,  early  in 
the  spring,  about  two-thirds  of  their  length  m  the  ground  ;  close  the 
earth  well  about  them,  and  in  dry  weather  let  them  be  watered.  After 
a  year,  they  may  be  transplanted  in  open  nursery  rows,  if  Veil  raoted. 

Another  mode  of  cultivating  the  mulberry,  and  one  which  has  been 
to  some  extent  adopted  in  New  England  is  to  sow  the  seed  broadcasts 
like  turnips  in  the  spring  ;  and  in  the  following  season  to  cut  the  plants 
with  a  scythq  when  wanted.  The  mowing  is  regularly  prosecuted 
every  morning,  in  the  quantities  required,  and  unless  the  season  is  one 
of  severe  drouth,  the  field  will  be  cut  twice  or  thrice  before  the  worms 
begin  to  wind  up. 

The  advantages  of  this  last  mode  are  stated  to  be 

1.  The  leaves  are  gathered  with,  less  labor  and  expense,  being  cut 
and  taken  together  like  hay,  or  grain. 

2.  The  leaves  are  larger  and  more  tender,  than  on  the  grown  tree, 
and  the  worms  eat  with  more  appetite  and  produce  more  silk. 

3.  The  time  of  gathering  the  supply  is  so  short,  that  the  leaves  are 
got  with  the  morning  dew  upon  them,  which  is  deemed  by  practical 
men  an  essential  advantage.  Other  writers  say  that  the  leaves  when 
given  to  the  worms  should  be  thorougly  dry. 

4.  More  worms  can  be  supported  from  a  given  space  of  ground,  and 
the  mulberries  are  ready  after  one  season,  instead  of  waiting  several 
years  for  the  formation  of  an  orchard. 

The  importance  of  the  culture  of  silk  will  be  our  apology  for  giving 
at  some  length,  directions  for  the  raising  of  silk  worms,  for  which  we 
are  indebted  to  a  valuable  work  entitled  "  Essays  on  American  Silk, 
&:c.  by  John  D.  Homergue." 

EGGS  OF  SILK  WORMS.  The  eggs  of  silk  worms  so  strongly 
resemble  the  seeds  of  the  poppy,  that  they  may  easily  be  taken  for 
them  ;  and  the  contrary.  In  Europe,  the  latter  have  sometimes  been 
sold  for  the  former.  Pure  water,  however,  is  an  effectual  test ;  good 
eggs  sinking  to  the  bottom,  while  poppy  seeds  and  bad  eggs  will  swim. 
Eggs,  which  have  been  washed,  should  be  dried  by  exposure  to  cool 
and  dry  air.  They  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  until  the  hatching 
season.     Cold  does  not  injure  them  provided  that  they  do  not  freeze. 

HATCHING  THE  EGGS.  The  general  rule  in  Europe  is  to  put 
the  worms  to  hatch,  as  soon  as  the  mulberry  trees  begin  to  bnd.  In  this 
country,  this  happens  usually  about  the  21st   of  May.     Should  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  177 


REARING    SILK    WORMS. RISING    OF    THE    SILK    WORMS. 

seeisoii  of  budding,  however,  be  delayed,  the  hatching  should  be  pro- 
portionally deferred. 

The  manner  of  putting  the  eggs  to  hatch,  according  to  M.  D'Ho- 
mergue,  is  as  follows : — "  They  should  be  put  in  a  pasteboard  or  wood- 
en box,  not  covered  at  the  top,  and  the  sides  not  more  than  half  an  inch 
high,  so  that  the  worms,  when  hatched,  may  easily  crawl  out,  as  will 
be  presently  mentioned.  The  size  of  the  box  should  be  suited  to  the 
quantity  of  eggs  to  be  liatched,  so  that  they  be  not  on  the  top  of  one 
another  ;  but  they  may  touch  each  other.  The  box  should  be  covered 
with  paper,  perforated  with  holes  of  the  size  of  a  large  pin's  head,  so 
that  the  worms,  when  hatched,  may  easily  pass  through  them.  They 
are  usually  hatched  in  three  days,  after  being  put  into  the  box.  When 
they  are  near  coming  out,  young  mulberry  leaves  should  be  put  on  the 
top  of  the  box,  leaving  spaces.  The  worms  as  soon  as  hatched,  will 
smell  those  leaves,  crawl  up  to  them  through  the  holes  in  the  paper 
cover,  and  begin  feeding.  Now  remove  sach  leaves  as  are  covered 
with  worms,  gently,  to  the  table  or  hurdle,  which  has  been  prepared 
to  receive  them.  It  should  be  added  that  a  warm  place  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  eggs  to  hatch  ia,  where  the  temperature  is  at  least  80  de- 
grees Fahrenheit. 

REARING  SILK  WORMS.  The  worms,  after  being  hatched  as 
above  described,  arc  to  be  laid  on  wicker  hurdles,  which  are  to  be  kept 
quite  clean.     Pine  tables  will  answer  well. 

During  the  first  day,  the  room  should  be  kept  in  the  same  degree  of 
heat ;  but,  afterwards,  as  the  strength  of  the  insect  increases,  a  lower 
temperature  is  admissible.  Dry  air  from  the  north  and  west  may  be 
let  in  ;  but  all  dampness  should  be  carefully  excluded. 

The  greatest  cleanlinesi  should  be  maintained.  In  order  to  clean  a 
table,  place  another  table  close  to  it,  on  which  lay  fresh  mulberry  leaves. 
Th5  worms  will  immediately  crawl  to  them,  leaving  the  first  table 
empty.  This  shifting  of  the  worms,  however,  should  not  take  place, 
until  after  their  first  moulting.  They  generally  moult,  or  shed  their 
skin,  four  times.  During  the  moultiug,  which  lasts  twenty-four  hours, 
they  lie  torpid,  and  do  not  feed.     They  should  then  be  left  quiet. 

RISING  OF  THE  SILK  WORMS.  «  When  the  silk  worms  are 
ready  to  make  their  cocoons,  which  in  this  country,  generally,  is  on 
the  31st  day  after  they  have  been  hatched,  a  kind  of  artificial  hedge, 
not  above  one  foot  high,  must  be  prepared,  by  means  of  some  brush- 
wood without  any  leaves,  which  is  to  be  fixed  along  the  wall,  behind 
the  table  on  which  the  worms  are.  They  crawl  of  themselves  in  this 
hedge,  which  is  called  rmw^,  and  there  make  their  cocoons.  This 
brushwood  must  not  be  fixed  straight  up  along  the  wall,  but  should  be 
inclined  above  and  below,  m  the  form  of  a  semicircle  towards  the  table 
on  which  it  is  to  rest,  because  the  worms  always  move  in  a  circular  di- 
rection ;  and  also  in  order  that,  if  they  should  fall,  they  may  not  fall 
upon  the  tabic  or  floor,  but  on  some  part  of  the  artificial  hedge,  whence 
they  may  crav/1  up  and  carry  on  their  work. 

It  is  easy  to  know  when  the  worms  are  ready  to  rise.  They  crawl  on 
the  leaves  without  eating  them  ;  they  rear  their  heads,  as  if  in  search 
of  something  to  climb  on,  their  rings  draw  in,  the  skin  of  their  necks 


178  FAMILY 


COCOONS    KEPT    FOR    USE. 


becomes  wrinkled,  and  their  body  becomes  like  soft  dough.  Their 
color  also  changes  to  a  pale  yellow.  When  these  signs  appear,  the 
table  should  be  cleaned,  and  the  hedge  prepared  to  receive  them. 

From  the  moment  that  the  cocoons  begin  to  rise,  they  cease  to  eat ; 
they  must  not  be  touched,  nor  their  cocoons,  until  they  are  picked  off, 
as  will  be  presently  mentioned." 

PICKING  OFF  THE  COCOONS.  "  The  worms  generally  form 
their  cocoons  in  three  days  after  their  rising  ;  but  they  are  not  perfect 
until  the  sixth  day,  when  they  may  be  picked  off  from  the  hedge.  In 
Europe  this  is  not  done  until  the  eighth  day,  nor  should  it  be  done 
sooner  in  this  country,  if  during  the  six  days  there  have  been  violent 
thunder-storms,  by  which  the  labors  of  the  moth  are  generally  inter- 
rupted. The  cocoons  must  be  taken  down  gently,  and  great  care  taken 
not  to  press  hard  on  them  ;  because,  if  in  tlie  least  flattened,  they  fall 
into  the  class  of  imperfect  cocoons,  and  are  greatly  lessened  in  value. 

In  picking  the  cocoons  from  the  hedge,  the  floss  or  tow  with  which 
thoy  are  covered  must  be  delicately  taken  off,  always  taking  care  not  to 
press  too  hard  on  the  cocoons. 

After  the  cocoons  are  thus  taken  down,  some  are  preserved  for  eggs 
and  others  kept  for  sale." 

COCOONS  KEPT  FOR  USE.  "  In  order  that  the  farmer  may 
judge  of  the  quantity  of  cocoons  that  it  will  be  proper  or  advisable  for 
him  to  put  aside  and  preserve  for  eggs,  it  is  right  that  he  should  be  told 
that  fourteen  ounces  of  cocoons  will  produce  one  ounce  of  eggs,  and 
one  ounce  of  eggs  will  produce  a  quintal  of  cocoons. 

In  selecting  the  cocoons  to  be  kept  for  eggs,  it  is  recommended  to  se- 
lect the  white  ones  in  preference,  and  keep  the  colored  ones  for  sale  ; 
attention  should  be  paid  to  having  an  equal  number  of  males  and  fe- 
males, and  they  are  generally  known  by  the  following  signs :  the  male 
cocoons,  that  is  to  say  those  which  contain  the  male  insects,  are  in  gen- 
eral smaller  than  the  female,  they  are  somewhat  depressed  in  the  mid- 
dle, as  it  were  with  a  ring  ;  they  are  sharp  at  one  end  and  sometimes 
at  both, and  hard  at  both  ends;  the  female  cocoons,  on  the  contrary, 
are  larger  than  the  male,  round  and  full,  little  or  not  at  all  depressed  in 
the  middle,  and  not  pointed  at  either  end.  They  ^^may  easily  be  dis- 
cerned by  a  little  habit. 

It  is  particularly  recommended  to  take  off  all  the  floss  or  tow  from 
these  cocoons,  so  that  the  moth  may  find  no  difficulty  in  coming  out. 

After  the  cocoons  have  been  taken  down  from  the  liedge,  those  which 
are  intended  for  eggs  should  be  laid,  but  not  crowded,  on  tables,  that  is 
to  say,  the  males  on  one  table  and  the  fomales  on  another,  that  they 
may  not  copulate  too  soon,  and  before  they  have  discharged  a  viscid 
humor,  of  a  yellow  reddish  color,  which  prevents  their  fecundity. 
They  discharge  this  humor  in  one  hour  after  commg  out  of  the  co- 
coons, which  is  generally  ten  days  after  these  have  been  taken  down 
from  the  hedge  ;  but  this  may  be  accelerated  by  heat. 

At  the  expiration  of  one  hour  after  the  moths  have  come  out  of  their 
cocoons,  tiie  males  and  females  may  bo  put  together  on  tables  or  on  tho 
iloor  ;  the  tables  or  floor  ought  to  be  previously  covered  with  linen  or 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  179 


COCOONS    INTENDED    FOR    SALE. 


cloth,  on  which,  after  copulation,  the  females  lay  their  eggs.  One  fe- 
male moth  or  butterfly  generally  lays  500  eggs  ;  the  male  and  female 
remain  about  six  hours  together,  during  which  time  they  copulate  ; 
after  which  they  separate,  and  the  female  is  48  or  50  hours  laying  eggs ; 
but  the  greatest  quantity  during  the  first  40  hours. 

From  the  moment  the  moths  have  come  out  of  their  cocoons  until 
the  females  have  laid  all  their  eggs,  the  room  must  be  kept  entirely 
dark  ;  the  light  debilitates  them  and  makes  them  produce  but  few  eggg, 
and  the  worms  that  come  from  them  are  weak  and  puny. 

When  the  female  moths  have  done  laying  eggs,  all  the  insects  must 
be  taJien  away,  and  may  be  given  as  food  to  the  fowls.  The  eggs  must 
remain  on  the  cloth  where  they  have  been  deposited  during  fifteen  or 
twenty  days,  until  they  shall  have  become  of  an  ash  or  slate  color, 
when  they  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  may  be  considered  as  good  eggs. 
Then  the  cloth  or  linen  must  be  folded,  and  kept  in  a  cool  and  dry 
place,  until  it  shall  be  thought  proper  to  take  off  the  eggs,  which  is 
done  by  putting  the  cloth  into  pure  water,  and  when  tlioroughly  wet- 
ted, scraping  gently  the  eggs  from  the  cloth,  taking  care  not  to  injure 
them.  When  thus  scraped  into  the  water,  all  the  good  eggs  will  go  to 
the  bottom,  and  the  bad,  if  any,  will  swim  at  the  top. 

The  eggs  being  thus  washed,  must  be  dried  in  the  open  air,  and  when 
perfectly  dry,  the  be^t  mode  to  preserve  them  is  to  put  them  into  hollow 
reeds,  or  canes,  perfectly  dry,  and  closed  at  the  two  extremities  with  a 
thin  piece  of  flaxen  or  cotton  linen  well  fastened.  It  is  also  the  best 
means  to  transport  them  from  one  place  to  another." 

COCOONS  IiNTENDED  FOR  SALE.  »  In  order  to  prevent  the 
cocoons  from  being  perforated  by  the  moths  escaping  from  them,  which 
greatly  lessens  their  value,  it  is  necessary  to  kill  the  moths.  This  is 
generally  done  by  baking  in  an  oven  or  by  steam,  but  the  best  mode, 
which  is  peculiarly  well  adapted  to  warm  climates,  is  to  lay  the  cocoons 
on  linen  or  cotton  sheets,  but  not  too  close,  or  one  upon  another,  and 
to  oipose  them  thus  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  open  air,  when  it  is  per- 
fectly dry,  during  four  days,  from  11  A.  M.  to  4  P.  M.  taking  great 
care  in  handling  them  not  to  crush  or  flatten  them,  which  is  of  the 
highest  importance.  In  that  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  moths  will 
be  killed. 

.  The  processes  of  steaming  and  baking  are  not  always  safe,  because 
they  may  be  overdone  and  the  silk  greatly  injured.  Yet  if  the  weath- 
er should  prove  obstinately  damp  or  rainy,  those  processes  must  be  re- 
curred to,  but  not  in  dry  sunshiny  weather,  when  they  can  be  avoided. 

•  The  last  thing  to  be  spoken  of  is  the  packing  of  the  cocoons  to  send 
to  market.  They  must  be  put  in  boxes  with  great  care,  not  pressed  too 
close,  lest  they  should  be  flattened,  and  close  enough  that  they  should 
not  suffer  in  like  manner  by  striking  hard  upon  each  other  in  conse- 
quence of  the  motion  of  carriages  or  stages.  The  boxes  being  dry 
and  well  conditioned  may  be  transported  by  steam-boats;  if  transport- 
ed by  sea,  they  should  not  remain  longer  than  fifteen  days  on  salt  wa- 
ter, lest  they  should  become  mouldy.  On  river  water,  and  particular- 
ly by  steam  boats,  there  is  not  the  same  danger.  The  boxes  in  eyery 
case  should  be  covered  with  a  tarpaulin  or  good  oiled  cloth,  that  they 
may  in  no  case  suffer  from  dampness  or  rain. 


180  FAMILY 


LINEN. — CAMBRIC. — LACE. 


The  price  of  good  cocoons  in  France  is  from  twenty-five  to  thirty- 
five  cents  per  pound  of  sixteen  ounces  ;  I  mean  of  perfect  cocoons. 
Perforated  cocoons,  from  which  the  moth  has  escaped,  those  which  are 
spotted,  and  the  imperfect  ones,  called  chiques^  command  no  price,  and 
are  generally  given  away  by  the  silk  culturists.  There  are  but  few  of 
them,  because  those  who  raise  silk  worms  being  experienced  in  the  bu- 
siness, produce  hardly  any  but  good  cocoons.  When  these  are  sold, 
the  bad  ones  are  thrown  into  the  bargain. 

The  price  of  cocoons  in  this  country  cannot  yet  be  settled  ;  but  it 
will  be  the  interest  of  the  silk  culturist  to  sell  them  in  the  beginning  as 
cheap  as  possible,  to  encourage  the  silk  manufactures,  which  alone  can 
procure  them  regular  purchasers,  and  without  which  their  produce  must 
lie  upon  their  hands," 

LINEN.  Linen  cloth,  it  is  well  known,  is  manufactured  from  flax, 
an  annual  plant,  with  a  slender  hollow  stem  usually  about  two  feet 
high,  the  bark  of  which  consists  of  fibres,  which  when  dressed,  are  ex- 
tensively worked  into  this  cloth,  and  other  articles,  in  various  countries 
of  the  globe.  Linens  are  manufactured  for  exportation  to  the  greatest 
extent,  and  of  the  finest  quality,  in  Ireland,  Holland,  Bohemia,  Sile- 
sia, Moravia,  and  the  Netherlands.  The  linen  manufacture  is  the  stj^- 
plo  branch  of  Irish  industry  ;  and  in  Bohemia  alone,  it  is  said  to  em- 
ploy more  than  three  hundred  thousand  persons.  The  annual  value  of 
it  in  Silesia  is  1,500,000/.  sterling  ;  and  there  are  wbole  villages  and 
towns  occupied  by  weavers.  Russia  has  three  hundred  factories  of 
linen  ;  and  this  forms  the  most  important  manufacture  and  export  of 
the  Hessian  States  in  Germany.  In  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the 
United  States,  it  has  been  carried  on  to  a  limited  extent,  and  chiefly 
for  home-consumption.  A  late  writer  remarks,  that  "  the  length  and 
comparative  rigidity  of  the  fibres  of  flax,  present  difiiculties  in  the  way 
of  spinning  it  by  the  machinery  which  is  used  for  cotton  and  wool.  It 
cannot  be  prepared  by  carding,  as  these  other  substances  are,  and  the 
rollers  are  capable  of  drawing  it  but  very  imperfectly.  The  subject  of 
spinning  flax  by  machinery,  has  attracted  much  attention  ;  and  the 
Emperor  Napoleon,  at  one  time,  offered  a  reward  of  a  million  of  francs 
to  the  inventor  of  the  best  machine  for  this  purpose.  Various  individ- 
uals, both  in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  have  succeeded  in  construct- 
ing machines  which  spin  coarse  threads  very  well,  and  with  great  rapid- 
ity. But  the  manufacture  of  fine  threads,  such  as  those  used  for  cam- 
brics-and  lace,  continues  to  be  performed  by  hand  upon  the  ancient 
spinning  wheel." 

CAMBRIC  is  a  species  of  linen  made  of  flax,  very  fine  and  whit^ 
the  name  of  which  was  originally  derived  from  the  city  of  Cambray, 
where  it  was  first  manufactured.  It  is  now  made  at  other  places  in 
France,  as  well  as  in  different  parts  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land ;  but  French  cambrics  are  still  preferred  for  their  extreme  finenese 
and  durability. 

LACE  is  a  complicated,  ornamental  fabric,  formed  of  fine  threads 
of  linen,  cotton,  or  silk.  It  consists  of  a  net  work  of  small  meshes, 
the  most  common  form  of  which  is  hexagonal.  In  perfect  thread  lace, 
four  sides  of  the  hexagon  consist  of  threads  which  are  twisted,  while 
in  the  remaining  two,  they  are  simply  crossed.     Lace  is  commonly 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  181 


CULTURE    OF     FLAX. 


made  upon  a  cushion  or  pillow,  by  the  slow  labor  of  artists.  A  piece 
of  stiff  parchment  is  stietched  upon  the  cushion,  having  holes  pricked 
through  it.  in  which  pins  are  inserted.  The  threads  previously  wound 
upon  small  bobbins,  are  woven  round  the  pins  and  twisted  in  various 
ways,  by  the  hands,  so  as  to  tbrm  the  required  pattern.  The  expen- 
siveness  of  the  different  kinds  of  lace,  is  proportioned  to  the  tedious- 
ness  of  the  operation.  Some  of  the  more  simple  fabrics  are  executed 
with  rapidity,  while  others  in  which  the  sides  of  the  meshes  are  plait- 
ed, as  in  the  Brussels  lace,  and  that  made  at  Valenciennes,  are  difficult, 
and  bear  a  much  higher  price. 

The  cheaper  kin  !s  of  lace,  have  long  been  made  by  machinery.  And 
recently  the  invention  of  Mr.  Healhcoat's  lace  machine,  has  effected 
the  fabrication  of  the  more  difficult  or  twisted  lace,  with  precision  and 
despatch.  This  machine  is  exceedingly  complicated  and  ingenious, 
and  is  now  in  operation  in  this  country  and  in  France,  as  well  as  in  Eng- 
land. 

The. best  white  lace  has  usually  been  made  of  flax  ;  but  cotton  can 
now  be  spun  so  neatly  and  finely,  that  the  use  of  it,  even  in  boneAace^ 
has  completely,  in  England,  superseded  the  use  of  flax  ;  and  indeed 
woven  lace  is  now  got  up  in  that  country,  so  neatly  as  to  have  also  su- 
perseded in  a  great  degree,  the  use  of  that  made  by  the  hand.  Gold  and 
silver  thread  is  also  wrought  into  lace.  This  is  a  stout  fabric,  common- 
ly close,  but  wrought  so  as  to  exhibit  some  sort  of  figure.  It  is  made 
of  different  widths,  but  all  narrow  like  ribbon.  There  is  also  a  icursted 
lace,  of  a,  similar  texture,  commonly  wrought  with  various  patterns  in 
colors.  This  was  formerly  much  used  on  liveries,  and  may  still  be  seen 
occasionally  on  the  lining  of  carriages. 

CULTURE  OF  FLAX.  While  the  people  of  the  United  States 
were  British  colonies,  the  culture  of  fiax  was  more  attended  to  than 
since  they  have  become  independent.  In  the  year  1770,  there  were 
exported  in  one  year  upwards  of  312,000  bushels  of  flax  seed.  For 
twenty  years  preceding  1816,  the  annual  export  of  this  article  averaged 
but  about  250,000  bushels.  The  causes  of  this  decrease  it  is  unneces- 
sary in  this  place  to  mention.  It  cannot  be  doubted,  that  the  cultiva- 
tion might  be  profitable  to  the  people  of  this  country,  and  that  it  will 
be  more  extensively  cultivated  in  future  years,  scarcely  admits  of  a  ques- 
tion. Much  of  the  soil  is  excellently  well  adapted  to  the  raising  of 
flax.  This  is  true  of  considerable  portions  of  the  state  of  Maine,  of 
New  England,  the  western  parts  of  the  state  of  New  York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  and  southward  to  the  cotton  latitude.  In  view  of  the 
importance  of  this  subject  to  our  country,  we  shall  give,  at  some  length, 
directions  for  the  cultivation  of  flax,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  an 
able  essay  from  the  pen  of  S.  W.  Poraeroy,  Esq.  published  in  the  Mass. 
Agricultural  Repository. 

Soil.  "  The  soils  which  rank  first  in  this  country,"  says  Mr.  Porae- 
roy, are  the  flat  bottoms,  that  are  covered  by  the  fall  and  spring  floods, 
which  subside  early  enough  in  the  season  to  get  in  a  crop ;  those  river 
flats  on  the  second  banks,  that  have  a  depth  of  strong  alluvial  soil ;  the 
reclaimed  marshes  and  swamps,  with  a  black,  unctuous  soil,  not  too 
peaty,  with  as  much  clay  in  the  composition,  as  will  permit  its  being 
rendered  soon  dry  and  mellow,  and  not  retain  water  on  or  near  the  sur- 

16 


182  FAMILY 


CULTURE    OF     FLAX. 


face  ;  if  it  stands  two  feet  below,  so  much  the  better,  but  must  be  well 
guarded  by  ditches  and  dykes  against  sudden  freshets.  Such  is  the 
soil  of  the  province  of  Zealand,  where  more  flax  is  raised,  and  of  a  bet- 
ter quality,  than  in  any  other  part  of  Holland.  The  next  in  estimation 
axe  the  strong  black  loams  on  clay,  or  hard  pan,  that  will  retain  mois- 
ture. Yellow  loams,  witli  a  holding  sub-soil,  may  be  rendered  suitable 
for  flax,  by  proper  cultivation  ;  and  since  the  discovery,  that  plaster  of 
Paris  is  an  excellent  manure  for  it,  a  crop  may  be  obtained  with  much 
more  certainly  on  lighter  land  than  formerly.  Perhaps  the  character- 
istic of  best  garden  mould  may  be  applied  to  a  flax  soil,  viz.  retaining 
sufficient  moisture,  and  all  that  falls,  without  ever  being  saturated  ;  but 
on  any  soils  the  surface  should  be  completely  pulverized,  and  never 
worked  when  wet. 

Manures.  "No  dung  should  be  applied  to  the  land,  when  the  flax 
is  sown  ;  but  may  be  put  on  bountifully  with  the  previous  crop.  The 
olyection  is,  that  dung  forces  the  growth  so  rapidly,  that  the  plants  draw 
weak,  have  a  thin  harle,  and  are  more  liable  to  lodge.  Lime,  marie, 
shells,  leached  ashes,  &c.  do  not  produce  such  effects.  Top  dressings, 
soon  after  the  plants  appear,  or  plaster,  ashes,  soot,  &;c.  are  highly  bene- 
ficial, as  they  not  only  encourage  the  growth,  but  are  a  protection 
against  worms,  which  sometimes  attack  the  young  plants,  and  may  be 
considered  the  only  enemy  they  have,  except  weeds. 

"Salt  has  been  mentioned  by  the  late  Dr.  Elliott,  of  Connecticut,  as 
an  excellent  manure  to  plough  in  with  the  flax,  at  the  rate  of  five 
bushels  to  the  acre  ;  probably  more  would  be  better.  Plaster  is  now 
much  used  in  Dutchess  county,  the  best  cultivated  district  in  New  York, 
aa  a  manure  for  flax,  on  which  its  good  eflecls  are  as  apparent  as  on 
corn. 

Preparation  of  the  land.  "  It  is  not  unfrequent  in  Ireland  to  ob- 
tain crops  of  flax  from  green  sward,  on  which  they  put  lime,  shells, 
limestone,  gravel,  &c.  and  break  up  in  the  fall,  cross  ploughing  and 
harrowing  fine  in  the  spring ;  but  it  most  commonly  succeeds  a  crop 
of  potatoes,  which  receive  the  manure.  In  Flanders,  hemp  was  for- 
merly more  used  as  a  preparation  for  flax  than  since  the  introduction 
of  potatoes.  In  Italy,  it  commonly  precedes  flax,  and  although  the 
land  gets  no  tillage,  as  the  hemp  is  well  manured  it  grows  strong,  and 
is  then  a  powerful  destroyer  of  weeds.  In  England,  on  some  of  the 
fen  soils  of  Lincolnshire,  the  usual  course  is  hemp  two  or  three  years 
in  succession,  well  manured,  then  flax  without  manure  ;  a  crop  of  tur- 
nips is  often  taken  the  same  season  after  the  flax,  and  hemp  succeeds 
again.  In  Russia,  it  is  said,  that  extensive  crops  of  flax  are  drawn 
from  new  cleared  lands,  afterburning  them  over,  and  harrowing  in  the 
seed  with  ashes.  The  best  preparatory  crops  in  this  country,  at  pre- 
sent, appear  to  be  potatoes,  corn,  and  roots ;  they  will  most  generally 
repay  the  extra  manure,  and  if  well  managed,  check  the  production  of 
weeds. 

"  The  following  rotations  may  serve  as  an  outline,  subject  to  be 
varied,  and  hemp  or  other  crop  introduced,  as  circumstances  require, 
viz. — 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  183 


CULTURE    OF     FLAX. 


3d 

do. 

4th 

do. 

5th 

do. 

more. 

No.  I. — Low,   COLD,    OR  RECLAIAIED  SoiLS. 

1st  year,  Potatoes. 
2d    do.    Flax,  with  seed. 

3d    do.    Herds  irrass  a»d  red  top.,  or  tall  iw^^adow  oat  grass,  to  contin- 
ue three  years  or  more,  and  the  course  repeated. 
No.  II.  — Stro>g  uplands. 
1st  year,  Potatoes  ox  corn. 
2d    do.    Corn  or  roots. 

Flax  with  seed. 

Ciover. 

Orchard  grass  or  Herds  grass,  to  continue  three  years  or 

No.  III.— Light  Lands. 

1st  year,  Potatoes  or  corn. 

2d    do.    Corn  or  roots. 

3d    do.    Flax  vvitli  seed. 

4th  do.  Clover,  to  be  mown  once,  the  after  growth  to  be  turned  in, 
and  rye  sown,  thick  on  the  furrow,  which  may  be  soiled  or  fed  in  the 
spring  by  sheep  or  milch  cows,  and  plowed  in  ;  for 

5th  year.  Corn. 
.    6th  do.    Spring  wheat,  or  harley. 

7ih  do.  Clover,  and  the  course  to  be  pursued  as  before,  when  flax 
will  occupy  the  land  every  seventh  year.  In  all  cases  except  when  hemp 
is  substituted,  the  tillage  crops  should  receive  the  dung. 

"  If  the  land  is  ploughed  into  beds,  or  convex  ridges  like  turnpike 
roads,  about  a  rod  wide,  especially  if  low  and  level,  the  crop  will  be 
much  more  secure  from  injury  by  heavy  rains,  and  the  grass  crop  will 
be  better  if  it  remains  in  that  form.  On  any  soils,  fall  ploughing  in  nar- 
row ridges  will  facilitate  its  early  working  in  the  spring,  and  should  not 
be  dispensed  with. 

Choice  of  seed. — "  That  of  the  last  year's  growth  should  be  obtain- 
ed, if  possible.  The  usual  marks  of  good  seed  are,  that  it  be  plump, 
oily,  and  heavy,  of  a  bright  brown  color,  sinking  readily  in  water,  and 
when  thrown  into  the  fire  to  crackle  and  blaze  quick.  A  very  simple 
method  of  trial  is  to  sprinkle  it  thin  between  two  pieces  of  wet  paper, 
which  plunge  into  a  hot  bed  or  dung  liill,  and  in  less  than  twenty-four 
hours,  the  proportion  that  will  vegetate  can  be  discerned,  which  should 
be  ascertained,  in  order  to  regulate  the 

"  Quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown.  On  this  head  no  particular  direc- 
tions can  be  given,  as  it  depends  on  the  various  qualities  of  soil,  good- 
ness of  seed,  fee.  The  rule  for  seeding  small  grains  is  reter^erf ;  flax 
requiring  to  be  sown  thickest  on  a  rich  soil,  as  not  more  than  one  stalk 
is  wanted  for  a  plant.  In  England  and  Scotland  never  less  than  two, 
nor  more  than  three  bushels  to  the  acre  are  sown.  Two  and  a  half  is 
the  most  usual  portion.  In  Flanders  and  Ireland,  seldom  less  than  three 
bushels  are  sown,  except  when  seed  is  an  object.  Thick  sowing  is  to 
obtain  fine  flax.  In  this  country,  it  will  be  important,  at  present,  to 
sow  at  such  a  rate  as  will  ensure  good  crops  of  each  ;  and  experience 
only  can  determine  the  exact  point. 

"  If  sown  very  thin,  too  many  lateral  branches  will  be  thrown  out, 
each  producing  a  boll  or  pod,  afibrJing  more  seed,  but  shorter  and  in- 


184  FAMILY 


CULTURE    OF    FLAX. 


ferior  flax.  If  sown  too  thick,  the  plants  will  draw  up  weak,  with  a 
single  boll  on  a  plant,  and,  subject  as  our  climate  is  to  heavy  showers 
and  thunder  gusts,  very  liable  to  lodge — one  of  the  greatest  dangers  a 
flax  crop  has  to  encounter.  Tiie  commissioners  for  promoting  flax  cul- 
ture in  Scotland,  considered  it  as  practicable,  and  strongly  recommended 
that  the  system  should  be  so  conducted,  as  to  obtain  good  flax  and  good 
geed  at  the  same  time.  It  is  so  viev.'ed  in  Ireland  ;  among  the  more 
extensive  cultivators,  except  when  wanted  for  fine  linen,  cambric,  lawn, 
&c."  Dr,  bean,  in  the  '  New  England  Farmer,'  a  work  of  great  merit, 
published  some  thirty  years  since,  when  flax  culture  was  more  attended 
to  than  at  present,  recommends  from  six  to  seven  pecks.  It  is  probable 
that  six  pecks  is  the  least,  and  two  bushels  the  extent  that  should  be 
sown  to  obtain  the  most  profitable  results,  till  the  demand  for  seed  is 
considerably  lessened. 

•  Sowing.  "  The  seed  should  be  got  in  as  eaily  as  it  is  possible  to 
prepare  the  ground.  Dr.  Deane  observes  that  a  slight  frost  after  the 
plants  are  up  will  not  injure  them.  For  no  crop  is  it  more  important 
that  the  seed  should  be  equally  distributed.  Fortunately  what  has  long 
been  a  desideratum  is  now  attained.  A  machine,  (Bennet's  machine,) 
for  sowing  small  seeds  broad  cast,  with  perfect  regularity,  great  expe- 
dition, and  in  any  desired  quantity,  has  lately  been  invented,  and  per- 
forms to  great  satisfaction. 
* 
Weeding.  "  Weeding  is  considered  in  Europe,  and  by  good  hus- 
bandmen in  this  country,  as  necessary  to  secure  a  good  crop  of  flax, 
which  is  a  very  tender  plant  when  young,  and  more  easily  checked  in 
its  progress  by  weeds  than  any  other.  It  is  not  supposed  to  be  injured 
by  the  clover  and  grass  sown  with  it ;  on  the  contrary,  the  Flemish  far- 
mers think  them  beneficial,  by  protecting  the  tender  roots  from  drouth, 
and  keeping  the  weeds  under.  It  should  be  carefully  wed  when  the 
plants  are  three  or  four  inches  high ;  they  are  not  then  injured  by  the 
laborer  going  barefooted  over  them. 

Pulling.  "  This  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  the  leaves  begin 
to  fall,  and  the  stalks  show  a  bright  yellow  color,  and  when  the  bolls 
are  turned  a  little  brown.  The  seed  will  continue  to  ripen  afterwards. 
When  the  flax  is  lodged,  it  should  be  pulled  immediately,  in  any  stage 
of  its  growth,  or  it  will  be  entirely  lost ;  great  care  is  requisite  in  sorting 
the  different  lengths,  and  keeping  them  separate  till  after  the  flax  is 
hackled,  or  much  waste  will  ensue  in  that  process. 

Saving  seed.  "  As  soon  as  the  flax  is  dry  enough  to  put  under 
cover,  the  bolls  should  be  rippled,  as  it  is  termed.  A  comb  resembling 
the  head  of  a  rake,  but  with  teeth  longer  and  nearer  together,  made  of 
hickory  or  oak,  is  fastened  upon  a  block,  and  the  flax  taken  in  parcels 
no  larger  than  the  hands  can  firmly  grasp,  is  drawn  through,  and  the 
bolls  rippled  off";  attention  to  sorting  at  the  same  time  should  be  con- 
tinued. The  bolls  are  to  be  riddled  and  winnowed  immediately;  spread 
thin  on  a  clean  floor,  or  on  sheets,  in  the  sun,  and  when  sufficiently  dry, 
and  beginning  to  open,  threshed.  By  this  method,  the  foul  seeds  are 
completely  separated  with  little  trouble,  and  good  clean  seed  is  ready 
for  an  early  market,  often  the  best,  without  the  use  of  -expensive  ma- 
chinery to  make  it  so. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  185 


CULTURE     OF    FLAX. 


"  The  preparation  of  flax  by  steeping  is  very  general  in  the  great  flax 
growing  countrie's  in  Europe,  but  it  is  not  quite  finished  in  the  water. 
It  remains  spread  some  days  on  the  grass,  which  is  necessary  to  render 
it  soft  and  give  that  silvery  appearance  so  desirable.  The  destructive 
process  of  dew  rotting,  is  most  commonly  practised  in  this  country,  and 
when  water  is  reso?ted  to,  it  is  at  an  improper  season,  and  the  process 
imperfect ;  which  is  the  cause  of  its  being  so  harsh  and  brittle.  Per- 
haps no  part  of  the  system  requires  such  an  allowance  for  difference  of 
climate.  In  the  humid  atmosphere  of  Ireland,  it  is  not  very  material 
when  it  is  spread ;  but  in  this  climate,  when  exposed  to  a  July  or 
August  sun,  every  drop  after  a  shower,  becomes  a  burning-glass,  and 
literally  scorches  the  fibres  ;  besides,  such  a  highly  putrid  fermentation 
as  will  then  take  place  in  the  water,  though  it  separates  the  harle  more 
speedily,  not  only  injures  it,  but  communicates  a  stain  that  renders  the 
process  of  bleaching  much  more  tedious  and  expensive. 

"  The  flax  should  not  be  put  into  the  water  till  about  the  first  of  Oc- 
tober, and  remain  from  ten  to  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  weather,  and  should  be  taken  out  before  the  fibres  will 
separate  freely,  spread  on  the  grass,  when  the  frost  will  very  much  as- 
sist the  operation,  and  the  flax  exhibits  a  gloss  and  softness,  that  it  is 
impossible  to  give  it  otherwise. 

"Clear,  soft,  stagnant  water  is  preferred  in  Europe.  A  canal,  forty 
feet  long,  six  broad,  and  four  deep,  is  said  to  be  sufiicient  for  .the  pur- 
pose of  an  acre  of  flax  at  one  time.  It  should  be  formed  on  a  clay,  or 
some  holding  soil,  where  tlie  water  from  a  spring  or  brook  can  be  con* 
ducted  in  with  convenience  ;  the  expense  would  not  be  great,  and  on 
most  farms  suitable  sites  may  be  had.  May  not  boiling  or  steaming  be 
found  the  most  advantageous  process  of  preparing  flax  ?  The  very  su- 
perior sample  of  thread  exhibited  at  Brighton,  in  1818,  for  which  Mrs. 
Crowninshield,  of  Danvers,  Mass.  received  a  premium,  was  spun  from 
flax  prepared  by  boiling  !  It  appears  by  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Swe- 
dish Academy,'  that  a  method  was  practised  in  Sweden  of  preparing 
flax  to  resemble  cotton,  by  boiling  it  ten  hours  in  salt  water,  spreading 
on  the  grass,  and  frequently  watering,  by  which  it  becomes  soft  and 
bleached.  Boiling  or  steaming  will  not  appear  very  formidable  or  ex- 
pensive, when  we  examine  the  subject.  A  box  twenty  feet  long,  six 
feet  wide,  and  four  deep,  well  constructed  with  stout  plank,  a  boiler, 
from  which  a  large  tube  extends  into,  and  communicates  with  the  wa- 
ter in  the  box,  will  boil  the  produce  of  a  quarter  of  an  acre  in  a  day, 
that  is,  if  we  allow  double  the  room  to  boil  in  that  is  required  for  steep- 
ing. A  steam  pipe,  instead  of  a  tube,  and  having  the  top  of  the  box 
well  secured,  would  permit  the  process  of  steaming  to  go  on.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  by  either  method,  grassing  will  be  necessary,  to  obtain  soft 
flax.  The  yarns  of  which  the  sail  cloth  is  made  at  Patterson,  are  all 
steamed.  The  navy  board  expressly  forbid  their  being  boiled  in  alka- 
line lye,  as  is  usual  in  most  manufactures  of  linen.  It  is  from  this  pre- 
caution that  their  canvass  has  the  pliable,  oily  feeling,  which  so  much 
recommends  it.  It  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  that  by  boiling  or  steam- 
ing, much  time  and  expense  will  be  saved  in  bleaching. 

Dressing.  "  In  this  process  our  climate  gives  us  a  decided  advan- 
tage over  Ireland,  Flanders,  or  the  north  of  Europe,  where  the  flax  is 
dried  on  hurdles,  over  a  peat  fire,  in  ovens,  or  in  kilns  requiring  great 

16* 


186  FAMILY 


HKMP. 


care  in  regulaiiug  the  heat,  so  as  to  prevent  injury.  All  this  trouble 
and  hazard  is  obviated  by  our  dry  atmosphere  and  keen  north-west 
winds. — Dr.  Deaiie  estimated  the  expense  of  dressing  flax  by  hand  at 
one-third  the  product.  I  believe  the  present  price  does  not  much  vary 
from  his  estimate.  A  respectable  gentleman  from  Dutchess  county. 
New  York,  informed  me  that  mills  or  machines,  impelled  by  water,  have 
been  erected  there,  that  break  and  completely  dress  the  flax  for  the  toll 
of  one  tenth  !  It  is  said  that  one  or  more  of  them  are  in  operation  in 
the  western  part  of  Massachusetts.  These  mills  were  invented  in 
Scotland,  and  are  now  said  to  be  brought  to  great  perfection.  They 
are  erected  in  all  directions  in  the  principal  flax  districts  in  Ireland,  and 
notwithstanding  the  low  price  and  limited  demand  for  labor,  are  resort- 
ed to  by  the  poorer  classes  of  people,  the  dressing  by  hand  being  mostly 
abandoned.  There  are  machines  in  F-ngland  that  dress  flax  immedi- 
ately from  the  field,  without  any  preparation  whatever.  An  account 
of  them  may  be  found  in  the  5th  volume  of  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Journal.  It  appears,  by  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  that  in  1817  they  were  in  successful  operation.  A 
man  and  three  children  impelled  the  machines  and  dressed  sixty  pounds 
&  day.  We  have  no  information  of  any  further  improvements.  Should 
they  be  susceptible  of  the  application  of  water  or  steam  power,  in  any 
degree  proportionate,  the  advantages  may  be  incalculable,  but  in  the 
present  enquiry,  we  place  these  machines,  however  desirable,  entirely 
out  of  the  question. 

Product.  "  It  is  not  uncommon  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  ob- 
tain eight  hundred  pounds  of  flax  from  an  acre  !  Six  hundred  pounds 
in  some  distiicis  is  estimated  as  an  average  ;  but  it  should  be  observed, 
that  little,  if  any  seed  is  obtained.  The  average  crop  in  New  England, 
as  far  as  our  information  extends,  cannot  be  estimated  at  more  than  two 
hundred  pounds,  or  six  or  eight  bufhels  of  seed.  (We  do  not  include 
the  rich  bottoms  on  the  Connecticut  and  some  other  rivers.)  Dr.  Deane 
was  of  opinion  that  four  hundred  pounds  might  be  calculated  on,  with 
proper  management. 

•*  We  think  that  four  hundred  pounds  of  good  clean  flax,  and  eight 
or  ten  bushels  of  seed  may  fairly  be  assumed  as  a  medium  crop  on  fa- 
vorable soils,  where  the  culture  becomes  such  an  object  as  to  make  oth- 
er farming  operations  subservient  to  it,  and  due  attention  is  paid  to  the 
change  of  seed. 

"  Those  who  grow  flax  to  any  extent  are  of  opinion,  that  the 
seed,  at  the  price  it  has  been  for  some  years  past,  pays  for  all  the  labor 
bestowed  on  the  crop  to  the  time  the  flax  is  ready  to  be  prepared  or 
rotted.'" 

HEMP  is  an  annual  plant  of  great  use  in  the  arts  and  manufac- 
tures, furnishing  thread,  cloth,  and  cordage.  Hemp  bears  a  near  anal- 
ogy to  flax,  not  only  in  form  but  also  in  culture  and  use.  The  bark  of 
the  stalk,  as  in  flax,  is  the  chief  object  for  which  it  is  cultivated.  Hemp 
is  manufactured  into  Canvass^  Russia  Duck^  Russia  Towellings  Ticks^ 
Dowlass,  &c.  The  process  of  manufacturing  these  various  articles,  wc 
shall  not  find  room  to  detail.  This  portion  of  our  work  will  be  more 
usefully  occupied  by  directions  qb  to  the  best  mode  of  cultivating  hemp 
in  the  United  Slates. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  187 


CULTIVATION    OF    HEMP. 


That  the  cultivation  of  hemp  is  important  to  the  farmers  of  the  land 
can  scarcely  be  questioned.  The  climate  and  soil  are  well  adapted  to 
it.  The  annual  import  of  the  article  from  Russia  does  not  probably 
fall  short  of  half  a  million  of  dollars.  In  addition  to  this,  we  annually 
import  in  Duck,  and  other  manufactures  of  hemp,  exclusive  of  cord- 
age, to  the  amount  of  more  than  a  million  and  a  half  of  dollars.  This 
amount  of  hemp,  and  even  more,  might  be  brought  to  market  in  a  short 
time,  from  our  own  soil,  and  the  manufacture  of  the  various  articles 
now  imported  might  be  earned  on  in  our  country,  as  well  as  those  of 
cotton  or  woollen  goods.  American  hemp,  to  say  the  least,  is  equal  to 
the  best  Russia  hemp.  By  an  experiment  made  in  1  v24,  by  direction 
of  the  commissioners  of  the  Navy,  it  would  appear  that  American 
hemp  justly  claims  the  superiority  in  respect  to  strength.  '•'■  Two  ropes, 
each  2i  mches,  one  made  of  American  and  the  other  of  Russian  hemp, 
broke  the  former  with  3209  lbs.  the  latter  with  3118  lbs." 

Cultivation  of  Hemp.  "  Hemp,  (says  a  writer  in  the  New  Eng- 
land Farmer,)  requires  a  deep  and  rich  soil.  Any  attempt  to  raise  it 
upon  a  light  soil,  or  upon  land  worn  out  and  exhausted,  until  it  is  re- 
cruited by  manure,  and  a  fertilizing  course  of  husbandry,  will  result 
only  in  disappointment.  iSor  can  it  long  be  continued  upon  the  same 
piece  of  ground,  without  an  annual  supply  of  manurt?.  liut  upon  a 
good  soil,  with  an  annual  sprmkling  of  manure,  at  the  rate  of  eight  or 
ten  loads  to  the  acre,  it  may  be  continued  for  a  succession  of  years, 
without  any  material  diminution  of  the  value  of  the  crop. 

The  ground  must  be  prepared  for  the  seed,  much  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  for  flax.  It  must  be  ploughed  and  harrowed  sufficiently  to  break 
the  clods,  and  to  render  the  soil  fine  and  mellovv.  As  different  soils 
require  different  degrees  of  labor  to  produce  this  effect,  it  must  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  the  cultivator  to  determine  when  his  ground  is  in  a 
proper  state  to  receive  the  seed.  I  can  safely  say,  that  few  farmers  err, 
in  ploughing  and  harrowing  too  much. 

The  time  for  sowing  is  about  the  iOth  of  May.  A  few  days  earlier 
or  later  will  make  no  difference.  It  must  not  be  so  early  as  to  expose 
the  tender  plant  to  severe  frosts,  and  if  sown  late  in  May,  it  will  pro- 
duce a  light  crop — the  stalks  will  have  a  thin  coat. 

No  further  attention  to  the  crop  is  required  until  the  season  of  pull- 
ing and  cutting.  Although  the  latter  mode  of  gathering  is  attended 
with  less  labor,  our  farmers  almost  universally  adopt  the  former  as  the 
most  profitable.  This  commences  about  the  lOth  of  August.  The 
time  of  pulling  isdetermmed  by  the  appearance  of  the  hemp.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  hemp  in  every  field,  distinguished  by  the  names  of 
the  male  and  the  female.  The  latter  produces  the  seed,  the  former  the 
blossom  and  the  farina.  The  male  hemp  has  but  few  and  slender 
branches  When  this  has  turned  white,  or  a  pale  yellow,  has  shed  its 
leaves,  and  the  farina  has  chiefly  fallen  off",  then  it  is  time  to  pull  it. 
The  female  hemp  has  more  and  stronger  branches,  and  continues  fresh 
and  green  until  the  seed  is  ripe.  It  is  common  to  leave  patches,  or 
narrow  strips,  where  the  seed  hemp  is  most  abundant,  until  the  seed 
has  ripened,  which  will  be  about  a  month  after  the  time  of  pulling  ;  in 
which  case,  the  economical  farmer  will  pull  out  the  male  hemp  as  far 
as  it  is  practicable  ;  for  the  fibres  of  the  hemp  that  stands  in  the  field 


188  FAMILY 


CULTIVAT.ON    OF    HEMP, 


until  ihe  seed  is  ripe,  are  always  stiiF  and  harsh,  and  will  bring  less  in 
the  market  than  that  which  has  been  pulled  at  the  proper  season. 

The  pulling  is  a  heavy  job.  One-fourth  of  an  acre  is  considered  as 
a  day's  work,  though  expert  hands  will  pull  a  third  of  an  acre.  No 
precaution  is  necessary  except  to  guard  against  breaking  the  stalks. 
The  laborer  gathers  a  few  stalks  in  his  hands  and  pulls  them  up,  and 
having  repeated  this  three  or  four  times,  he  strikes  the  roots  once  or 
twice  with  his  foot,  in  order  to  kick  ofFthe  dirt,  then  holding  the  whole 
loose  in  his  hands,  lets  the  roots  drop  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose  of 
making  that  end  of  his  handful  even.  And  in  spreading  his  hemp  on 
the  ground,  he  is  carefal  to  lay  the  butts  stiaight  and  true.  This  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  labor  of  binding. 

Rain  upon  the  hemp  after  it  is  pulled,  produces  the  same  effect  as 
upon  mown  grass.  It  discolors  it  and  injures  its  quality.  It  must 
therefore  be  suffered  to  lie  upon  the  ground  no  longer  than  it  is  neces- 
sary ibrits  preservation.  As  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  dried,  which,  in 
warm  and  drying  weather,  will  be  after  two  days  sun,  it  must  be  bound 
up  in  small  bundles  or  sheaves.  A  little  rye  straw  is  the  cheapest  and 
best  thing  for  bands.  Let  the  band  be  put  on  towards  the  top  of  the 
bundle,  and  then  shoved  down  to  about  the  middle,  otherwise  it  will 
be  difficult  to  bind  close  enough  to  hold  together,  through  all  the  sub- 
sequent handlings.  Set  up  15  or  20  bundles  together,  well  braced  at 
the  roots  to  admit  a  free  circulation  of  air,  and  to  prevent  it  from  blow- 
ing over,  and  let  it  remain  in  this  situation,  until  it  is  cured  sufficiently 
to  put  into  a  stack  or  under  cover.  This  may  be  done,  in  good 
weather,  after  two  or  three  days.  In  the  construction  of  the  stack, 
great  pains  must  be  taken,  lest  the  rain  should  find  a  passage  into  it. 
It  is  safest  to  put  it  under  cover,  either  under  sheds  about  the  barnj. 
or  by  erecting  one  for  the  purpose. 

It  may  be  asked,  why  not  transport  it  to  the  place  of  rotting  and 
immerse  it  in  the  water,  immediately  after  it  is  pulled,  or  as  soon  as 
it  is  dry,  and  save  the  trouble  of  securing  it  from  the  weather  ?  I  am 
not  prepared  to  say  that  this  cannot  be  done  with  safety,  under  vigi- 
lant care  and  attention.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  it  would  be  ex- 
posed to  greater  hazard  of  loss,  than  at  a  later  period.  At  the  time 
of  pulling,  the  weather  is  hot,  and  the  water  warm.  Putrefaction 
proceeds  with  great  rapidity.  If  the  hemp  should  remain  in  the  wa- 
ter a  little  too  long,  or  if,  after  it  is  drawn  from  the  vv^ater  there  should 
be  along  rain,  or  a  continuance  of  damp  weather  to  prevent  its  dry- 
ing, it  would  be  rotted  too  much,  and  the  fibre  would  be  materially 
injured,  if  not  destroyed.  But  when  the  hemp  is  immersed  later  in 
the  season,  after  the  weather  and  water  have  become  cool,  there  is  no 
risk  in  suffering  it  to  remain  in  the  water  a  short  time  longer  than  is 
necessary.  It  is  also  supposed  that  w^hen  the  hemp  is  rotted  in  hot 
weather,  there  will  be  a  greater  proportion  of  tow — and  after  it  is 
drawn  from  the  water,  the  bands  must  be  opened  and  the  hemp  spread, 
in  order  that  it  may  dry  quickly.  It  is  also  a  busy  season  with  the 
farmer,  and  he  can  attend  to  it  at  a  later  period,  with  less  interruption 
to  other  branches  of  husbandry.  These  are  the  reasons  which  have 
induced  our  farmers  to  postpone  the  rotting  till  the  latter  part  of  Oc- 
tober.    As  I  have  never  tried  any  experiments  in  reference  to  this 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  189 


'JULTJVATION    OF    HEMP. 


part  of  the  process,  and  indeed  have  had  but  little  experience  in  the 
culture  of  hemp  on  ray  own  farm,  I  will  not  give  an  opinion  whether 
their  reasons  are  well  founded  or  not.  I  have  not  undertaken  to  point 
out  the  best  /nelhod.  in  relation  to  any  part  of  the  process,  but  only  to 
describe  the  course  pursued  in  my  own  neighborhood. 

It  has  sometimes  been  made  a  question  whether  running  or  stagnant 
virater  was  to  be  preferred.  The  latter  is  more  generally  used  in  Eng- 
land. The  former  has  been  universally  applied  here.  A  place  is  se- 
lected near  the  margin  of  some  brook  or  small  stream,  which  will  af- 
ford a  basin  in  which  the  hemp  can  be  deposited,  and  where,  by  erect- 
ing a  dam  across  the  stream,  the  hemp  can  be  covered  with  water. 

In  the  first  place,  the  dam  is  built  of  a  sufficient  height  to  secure  the 
requisite  supply  of  water,  leaving  a  gale-way  in  the  natural  course  of 
the  stream,  and  the  top  of  the  gate  a  little  lower  than  the  height  of  the 
dam,  to  let  off  the  surplus  water.  After  the  dam  is  cf)mpleted,  shut 
the  gate  and  try  the  dam,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  it  is  water 
tight,  and  will  stand  against  the  pressure  produced  by  raising  the  pond. 
If  it  proves  sufficient,  then  let  off  the  water  and  put  in  the  hemp.  A 
space  of  two  or  three  feet  should  be  left  between  the  hemp  and  the  dam, 
so  that  if  a  leak  should  be  discovered,  there  may  be  room  to  stop  it. 
This  precaution  may  be  unnecessary  in  an  old  and  long  tried  dam,  but 
should  not  be  omitted  in  a  new  one.  Put  down  a  layer  of  hemp,  laying^ 
the  bundles  compactly,  then  a  pecond  course  on  the  first,  in  a  transverse 
direction,  and  so  on  successively,  unfil  the  whole  crop  is  deposited  in 
the  bed,  or  as  much  as  the  basin  vill  receive.  Weights,  consisting  of 
long  and  heavy  timber,  or  plank,  or  slabs  with  stones  upon  them,  must 
then  be  laid  across  the  bed  to  prevent  it  from  floating.  Having  de- 
posited the  hemp  and  secured  it  from  rising,  the  gate  way  may  be  clo- 
sed, and  the  water  raised  upon  the  hemp.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
level  of  the  hemp  must  be  lower  than  the  top  of  the  gate-way,  so  that 
the  whole  body  may  be  immersed  in  water,  and  continued  so  until  it  is 
rotted. 

The  length  of  time  necessary  to  complete  the  rotting  process  de- 
pends much  on  the  weather,  and  the  temperature  of  water.  It  may  be 
ascertained  whether  it  has  lain  in  the  water  long  enough,  by  taking  out 
one  of  the  bundles,  drying  and  braking  it.  If  the  seed  cracks  easily, 
and  the  rind,  or  harl  readily  separates  from  the  wood,  it  is  sufficiently 
rotted.  So  also,  if  while  it  lies  in  the  water,  the  roots  will  twist  off 
easily.  Hemp  put  into  the  water  the  last  week  in  October,  will  gener- 
ally require  about  three  weeks.  When  put  in  later,  J  have  known  it 
lie  seven  weeks.  If  put  into  stagnant  water,  soon  after  it  is  pulled, 
five  or  six  days  is  enough. 

When  the  hemp  is  rotted,  open  the  gate-way  and  drain  off  the  pond- 
The  hemp  must  then  be  removed  to  a  piece  of  grass  land— the  bundles 
laid  upon  the  ground  singly,  and,  after  two  or  three  days,  turned  over. 
When  partially  dried,  it  is  carried  and  set  up,  inclining  against  a  fence, 
where  it  remains  until  it  is  fit  for  the  brake.  It  may  then  be  carried 
to  the  building  or  shed  where  it  is  to  be  dressed  ;  or  the  brake  may  be 
carried  to  the  hemp,  as  is  generally  the  case  here,  and  afier  it  is  broken, 
it  is  removed  to  the  barn  for  the  finishing  process — or  if  the  weather 
is  not  too  severe,  it  may  be  dressed  where  it  is  broken. 


190  FAMILY 


TAXMNG. 


A  cheap  vehicle  or  slod,  for  the  removal  of  the  hemp  from  the  pond, 
may  be  made  of  two  pieces  of  slit  work,  about  nine  feet  in  length,  with 
three  cross  beams  of  the  same  material.  The  stakes,  driven  closely 
through  each  beam  and  runner,  will  serve  the  double  purpose  of  hold- 
ing the  sled  together,  and  keeping  the  hemp  from  falling  off.  No 
tongue  will  be  necessary.  It  may  be  drawn  with  chains.  If  however 
the  grass  ground  is  at  any  considerable  distance  from  the  pond,  wheels 
may  be  necessary. 

In  dressing,  two  brakes  are  used.  The  first,  coarser  than  a  common 
flax  brake,  the  second,  as  fine  as  a  flax  brake  at  the  head,  with  one  ad- 
ditional bar  in  each  jaw.  If  the  hemp  is  well  rotted  and  faithfully 
broke,  but  little  remains  for  the  swingling  board.  A  man,  accustomed 
to  the  business,  will  brake  and  dress  from  50  to  75lbs.  a  day. 

The  labor  required  to  prepare  a  crop  of  hemp  for  market,  is  not  in- 
considerable. But  it  will  be  observed,  that  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
labor  comes  at  a  season  when  the  farmer  is  most  busily  occupied  in 
gathering  and  securing  his  other  crops.  The  pulling  comes  on  soon 
after  the  hay  and  grain  are  secured.  The  rotting  does  not  commence  till 
after  Indian  harvest,  and  the  winter  grain  is  sown.  The  dressing  is 
wholly  done  in  cold  weather,  when  the  farmer  has  little  occupation  be- 
sides that  of  taking  care  of  his  stock  and  providing  fuel.  Every  con- 
siderable farmer  who  has  land  suitable  for  hemp,  might  raise  a  few 
acres,  without  greatly  interfering  with  his  ordinary  course  of  husbandry. 

The  average  crop  is  six  or  seven  hundred  pounds  to  the  acre.  I  have 
raised  nine  or  ten — but  this  was  an  unusual  crop.  The  land  was  strong, 
and  in  veryjine  tilth.  The  hemp  grew  to  a  great  height,  and  was  very 
uniform  throughout  the  piece.  The  price  of  hemp  in  market,  has  va- 
ried, of  late  years,  from  |I0  to  1 12,50  a  hundred.  Scarce  any  crop  of 
field  culture  can  be  put  upon  the  land,  which  will  produce  so  great  a 
result. 

TANNING  is  the  process  of  converting  the  skins  of  animals  into 
Leather. 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  when  the  art  of  tanning  was  first  practi- 
sed ;  but  that  it  was  known  at  a  very  early  period,  there  is  little  doubt. 
The  real  change,  however,  which  skins  undergo  by  being  tanned  has 
not  been  accurately  known  till  of  late  years.  It  is  now  indubitably 
ascertained  that  a  mixture  of  gelatin  and  tanmn„  of  which  we  shall 
presently  speak,  although  each  is  separately  soluble  in  water,  becomes 
insolub]e»in  that  fluid,  and  forms  the  substance  so  well  known  as  leath- 
er:  hence,  as  the  chief  constituent  of  all  animal  skins  is  gchitin,  the 
ease  with  which,  by  immersion  in  a  solution  oi"  tannin,  they  are  con- 
verted into  that  useful  substance.  The  processes  of  tanning  are  nev- 
ertheless numerous,  and  somewhat  complicated  and  tedious.  The 
skins  are  in  general,  after  being  freed  from  their  horns,  ears  and  blood, 
and  other  impurities,  placed  in  lime  pits  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period, 
in  order  to  their  hair  and  scarf-skins  being  more  readily  removed  ;  af- 
ter which  they  are  immersed  in  a  pit  containing  water  and  sulphuric 
acid.  This  operation  is  called  raisings  which  disposes  the  skin  more 
readily  to  combine  with  the  tannin.  It  is  next  placed  in  the  tan-pit, 
with  a  layer  of  oak  bark,  ground  fine  between  each  skin  ;  the  pit  is 
then  filled  with  tanning   ooze   prepared   from  oak-bark  and   water. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  191 


TAVNIN. CURRYING. — PARCHMENT. 


where  the  skins  remain  a  month  or  six  weeks,  when  they  are  taken  out, 
a  fresh  quantity  of  bark  and  ooze  is  put  in  as  before,  and  ihe  process  is 
thus  continued  till  the  skins  are  completely  tanned  ;  and  they  will  be- 
come 80  in  a  shorter  or  longer  time,  depending  upon  the  thickness  of 
the  skin  and  the  manner  in  which  the  application  of  the  tannin  has 
been  made.  When  sufficiently  tanned,  they  are  taken  out,  and  after 
undergoing  certain  manipulations,  are  dried  and  weighed.  The  time 
required  for  the  processes  of  tannin^j  varies  exceedingly  ;  the  larger 
skins  require  from  six  to  fifteen  months  to  be  effectually  tanned.  The 
processes  are  also  varied  for  differeni  sliins  ;  but  we  cannot  detail  them. 

TANNIIV,  to  which  we  have  adverted  in  the  preceding  article,  exists 
in  large  quantity  in  various  vegetable  substances  :  it  is  found  particu- 
larly in  abundance  in  the  bark  of  oak,  Spanish  chestnut,  willow,  elm, 
ash,  &c.  In  this  country,  however,  leather  is  tanned  chiefly  by  the  use 
of  the  bark  of  the  oak,  which  is  ground  in  a  mill  by  tanners  for  the 
purpose. 

CURRYING  is  the  last  process  to  which  tanned  skins  are  subjected; 
it  is  applied  to  those  destined  for  the  upper  leather,  legs  of  boots,  seats 
of  saddles,  and  such  purposes  as  do  not  require  either  great  strength 
or  impermeability  by  water,  and  never  to  sole  leather.  Currying  leath- 
er consists  in  shaving  or  scraping  the  flesh  side  of  the  tanned  skm  with 
a  straight  edged  two  handled  knife,  against  a  wooden  bench  or  stock, 
and  thus  reducing  the  tanned  skin  to  a  uniform  and  determined  thick- 
ness, according  to  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  designed.  After  being 
thus  shaved  (if  designed  for  common  shoes  and  boots,)  it  is  rubbed 
with  train  oil  and  rendered  soft  and  flexible,  while  the  shaved  side  of 
the  leather  has  assumed  a  shining  fil)rous  appearance.  In  this  state  the 
flesh  side  is  waxed  or  blackened  with  a  mixture  of  oil  and  lamp-black. 
But  where  the  leather  is  not  oiled  in  dressing,  the  hair  side  of  the  skin, 
if  it  be  required  to  be  black,  after  being  duly  scoured  clean  with  a 
pumice-stone,  is  dyed  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  in  water,  or 
some  other  dye. 

PARCHMENT  is  the  skins  of  sheep  or  goats,  prepared  after  such 
a  manner  as  to  render  them  proper  for  writing  upon,  covering  books, 
&c.  When  parchment  was  first  used  as  a  material  for  the  reception  of 
writing,  is  not  exactly  determined.  It  is  however  tolerably  certain, 
that  it  was  used  long  before  the  Christian  era ;  and  it  is  said  that  the 
name  parchment^  or  chartn  pergamena,  is  derived  from  Pergnmics^  a  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  where  it  was  invented  in  consequence  of  Ptolemy  ha- 
ving forbidden  the  exportation  of  the  pnpynis  from  Egypt.  Before 
the  invention  of  paper,  parchment  necessarily  formed  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce,  as,  for  many  centuries,  most  of  the  books  of  Eu- 
rope were  written  on  it.  Its  use  is  now  confined  chiefly  to  legal  instru- 
ments and  the  covers  of  books. 

The  manufacture  of  parchment  is  begun  by  the  skinner,  and  finished 
by  the  parchment  maker.  The  skin,  havmg  been  stripped  of  its  wool, 
and  passed  the  lime-pit,  is  stretched  on  a  frame,  perforated  lengthwise, 
with  holes  furnished  with  wooden  pins,  which  may  be  turned  at  plea- 
sure, like  those  of  a  violin.  When  sufiiciently  stretched,  the  flesh  is 
pared  off  with  a  keen-edged  instrument ;  the  skin  is  then  moistened 
with  a  white  rag,  and  a  kind  of  white  stone  or  chalk,  reduced  to  fine 


192  FAMILY 


SHAGREEN. MOROCCO. 


dust,  being  strewed  over  it  with  a  large  pumice-stone,  flat  at  bottom, 
similar  to  a  muller  for  grinding  colors,  the  remainder  of  the  flesh  is 
scoured  ofl".  It  is  then  gone  over  ageiin  with  the  iron  instrument,  mois- 
tened as  before,  and  rubbed  with  the  pumice-stone  without  any  chalk 
underneath.  The  flesh-side  being  thus  treated,  the  iron  is  passed  over 
the  wool  or  hair-side  :  the  skin  is  then  stretched  again  tight  on  the 
frame  by  means  of  the  pins,  and  the  flesh  side  is  again  gone  over  with 
the  iron.  More  chalk  is  now*  thrown  on,  and  the  skin  is  swept  over 
with  a  piece  of  Iamb-skin  that  has  the  wool  on  ;  this  smooths  it  still 
further,  and  gives  it  a  white  down  or  nap.  It  is  now  left  to  dry,  and 
when  dried,  taken  ofl"  the  frame,  by  cutting  it  all  round.  The  skin, 
thus  far  prepared  by  the  skinner,  is  taken  out  of  his  hands  by  the 
parchment-maker,  who  first  scrapes  or  pares  it  dry  on  the  summer^  a 
calf-skin  well  stretched  on  a  frame,  perving  as  a  support  to  the  skin, 
which  is  fastened  over  it  with  a  wooden  implement  that  lias  a  notch 
cui  in  it,  with  an  iron  instrument  like  that  above  mentioned,  only  finer 
and  sharper ;  with  this,  worked  with  the  arm  from  the  top  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  skin,  he  takes  away  about  one  halt  of  its  thickness.  The 
skin  being  thus  equally  pared  on  both  sides,  the  pumice  stone  is  passed 
over  each  side,  to  smooth  it.  This  last  process  is  performed  on  a  kind 
of  form  or  bench,  covered  with  a  sack  stuffed  wilh  flocks,  and  leaves 
the  parchment  in  a  condition  for  writing  on.  The  parings  taken  off" 
the  leather  are  used  in  making  glue,  size,  &;c.  As  there  is  a  great 
waste  in  reducing  the  skins  to  a  proper  thinness  in  this  mode,  an  instru- 
ment has  lately  been  invented  for  splitting  each  skin  into  two. 

SHAGREEN,  a  kind  of  very  hard,  grained  leather,  brought  from 
Turkey,  Poland,  Algiers,  &c. ;  it  is  used  as  covers  for  cases,  books,  &c. 
It  is  made  thus  : — The  skin,  having  undergone  the  necessary  prepara- 
tions, is  covered,  while  wet,  with  a  layer  of  small  round  seeds,  which 
are  pressed  down  upon  it  by  weights.  In  this  state  it  is  suffiered  to  dry, 
and  then  the  rising  parts  are  shaved  off",  till  the  surface  is  quite  smooth*^ 
Being  wetted,  the  parts  depressed  by  the  seeds  swell  up,  and  appear 
like  so  many  tubercles,  which  retain  their  figure  after  the  skin  is  again 
dried.  The  best  is  of  a  brownish  color.  It  is  extremely  hard  ;  yet, 
when  steeped  in  water,  becomes  very  soft  and  pliable,  whence  it  becomes 
of  great  use  among  case-makers.  It  takes  any  color  that  is  given  to  it ; 
red,  green,  black,  yellow.  The  skin  of  some  of  the  species  of  shark  or 
dog-fish,  being  very  rough,  was  formerly  sold  as  shagreen,  but  its  pro- 
minences have  not  the  roundness  of  those  of  shagreen,  and  it  has  long 
been  known  by  its  proper  name  o^Jish-fikin.  The  skins  of  which  sha- 
green is  made  are  not  exactly  known  in  this  country. 

MOROCCO  is  the  skin  of  a  goat,  or  some  other  animal  resembling 
it,  called  menon^  common  in  the  Levant ;  dressed  with  sumach  or  galls,, 
and  colored  with  any  color,  much  used  in  upholstery,  book-binding,  for 
ladies'  shoes,  &;c.  But  most  of  the  morocco  to  be  obtained  in  this  coun- 
try is  prepared  here  from  sheep-skins.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
kingdom  of  Morocco,  whence  it  is  supposed  the  manner  of  preparing 
this  leather  was  first  borrowed.  Morocco  is  however  brought  from  the 
Levant,  Barbary,  Spain,  Flanders,  and  Russia;  red,black, yellow, blue, 
&c. ;  the  methods  of  preparing  which  are  too  long  to  be  detailed  here. 
The  process  has  been  latterly  greatly  simplified,  and  the  brilliancy  and 
durability  of  the  Turkey  red  successfully  imitated.     The  abundance 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  1^ 

GLUE. SIZE. HATS. 

and  excellence  of  the  Spanish  goat  skins  enabled  the  Spaniards  to  take 
the  lead  in  this  manufacture  ;  the  Russians  followed  them  :  but  mo- 
rocco of  various  colors  is  now  prepared  in  England  equal  to  any  im- 
ported. 

GLUE,  or  GELATIN,  is  a  viscid,  tenacious  matter,  soluble  in  water, 
and  used  in  the  arts  as  a  cement,  to  bind  or  connect  things  together. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  gliies  ;  as  common  glue,  glove  glue,  parch- 
ment glue.  Common  glue  is  used  by  joiners,  cabinet-makers,  case- 
makers,  hatters,  book-binders,  &c.  The  consumption  of  it  is  very  con- 
siderable. The  best  glue  is  made  in  England,  in  square  pieces,  of  a 
ruddy  brown  color.  Flanders  glue  is  esteemed  next  to  the  English. 
Glue  is  made  of  the  skins  of  all  kinds  of  beasts,  as  oxen,  cows,  calves, 
sheep,  &c.  The  older  the  beast  is,  the  better  the  glue  that  is  made  of 
its  hide.  Indeed,  it  is  rare  that  whole  skins  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
they  being  too  valuable  ;  but  shavings,  parings,  or  scraps  of  skins,  and 
sometimes  the  feet,  sinews,  &c.  of  beasts  are  used.  Glue  made  entirely 
of  skins  is  the  best  ;  and  that  of  sinews,  &:c.  the  worst :  and  hence 
chiefly  arises  the  difference  of  glues. 

To  make  glue  of  parings.  They  first  steep  them  two  or  three  days 
in  water,  then,  washing  them  well,  boil  them  to  the  consistence  of  a 
thick  jelly.  This  done,  they  pass  the  jelly,  while  yet  hot,  through  osier 
baskets  to  separate  it  from  any  impurities ;  and  in  order  to  purify  it 
still  further,  they  let  it  rest  some  time.  When  the  impure  matter  is 
precipitated  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  it  is  dissolved  and  boiled  down 
a  second  time.  It  is  then  poured  into  flat  frames,  or  moulds,  whence 
it  is  taken  out,  when  rather  hard  and  solid,  and  cut  into  square  pieces, 
or  cakes.  Nothing  now  remains  but  to  dry  it  in  the  air,  on  a  sort  of 
coarse  net,  and  afterward  to  string  it,  to  finish  the  drying.  The  glue 
made  of  feet,  sinews,  &c.  is  managed  after  the  same  manner,  with  this 
diflference  only,  that  they  bone  and  scour  the  feet,  and  do  not  lay  them 
to  steep.  The  surest  test  of  the  goodness  of  glue,  besides  its  clearness 
and  hardness,  is,  when  it  dissolves  completely  in  water,  without  leaving 
the  least  sediment.  All  the  glues,  when  pure,  are  very  nutricious  aa 
food. 

SizK  is  less  adhesive  than  glue,  and  is  obtained  from  parchment  sha- 
vings, fish-skins,  and  several  animal  membranes.  It  is  employed  by 
book-binders,  paper-hangers,  &;c. 

Fish  olue  is  a  sort  of  glue  made  of  the  gelatinous  parts  of  fish.  It  is 
of  considerable  use  in  refining  liquors,  in  pastry,  and  various  other  arts. 
It  is  better  known  by  the  name  of  isinglass. 

HATS  are  chiefly  made  of  hair,  wool,  &;c.,  worked,  fulled,  and  fash- 
ioned to  the  required  figure.  Hats  are  said  to  have  been  first  worn  in 
Europe  about  the  year  1400.  They  now  make  a  very  considerable  ar- 
ticle of  commerce.  The  finest,  and  those  most  valued,  are  made  of  the 
fur  of  the  beaver.  They  are  also  made  either  of  the  wool  or  hair  of 
other  animals,  as  the  hare,  rabbit,  camel,  goat.  Jamb,  sheep,  seal,  mole, 
and  of  cotton,  &c. 

The  process  is  much  the  same  in  all ;  and  we  shall  therefore  give 
that  with  beaver.    The  skin  of  this  animal  is  covered  with  two  kinds 

17 


194  FAMILY 


MANUFACTURE    OF    HATS. 


of  hair ;  the  one  long,  stiff,  and  glossy  ;  the  other,  short,  thick,  and  soft, 
which  alone  is  used  in  hats.  When  the  hair  is  cut  off,  the  whole  is 
ci-rded  with  cards,  like  those  used  in  the  woollen  manufacture,  only 
finer.  The  stuff  is  now  laid  on  the  hurdle,  which  is  a  square  table^ 
having  longitudinal  chinks  cut  through  it ;  on  this  hurdle,  with  an  in- 
strument called  a  bow,  much  resembling  that  of  a  violin,  but  larger,  the 
string  of  which  is  worked  with  a  little  bow-stick,  and  thus  made  to  play 
on  the  hair  or  wool,  it  is  mixed  together,  the  dust  and  filth  at  the  same 
time  "passing  through  the  chinks.  This  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
difficult  operations  of  hat-making,  as  upon  the  proper  bowing  and  ad- 
mixture of  the  fur  depends  greatly  the  goodness  of  the  hat.  The  quan- 
tity bowed  at  once  is  called  a  batt^  and  never  exceeds  half  of  that  which 
is  required  to  make  one  hat.  With  this  they  form  gores,  or  two  ca- 
pades,  of  an  oval  shape.  They  are  designedly  made  thicker  in  the 
brim,  near  the  crown,  than  towards  the  circumference,  or  in  the  crown 
itself. 

The  capades  or  batts  being  finished,  they  are  reduced  into  closer  and 
more  consistent  flakes,  by  pressing  them  down  with  a  hardening  skin, 
or  leather.  This  done,  they  are  carried  to  the  basin,  a  sort  of  bench 
with  an  iron  plate  fitted  therein,  having  a  small  fire  underneath  it ;  upon 
which,  laying  one  of  the  hardened  capades,  sprinkled  over  with  water, 
and  a  sort  of  mould  applied  thereon,  the  heat  of  the  fire,  with  the  water 
and  pressing,  embody  the  wool  into  a  slight  hairy  sort  of  stuff  or  felt; 
after  which,  turning  up  the  edges  all  round  over  the  mould,  they  lay  it 
by,  and  thus  proceed  with  the  other.  This  finished,  the  two  are  next 
joined  together,  so  as  to  meet  in  an  angle  at  the  top,  forming  one  coni- 
cal cap.  The  hat  thus  basined,  is  removed  to  a  large  trough,  resem- 
bling a  mill-hopper,  sloping  from  the  edge  to  the  bottom,  which  is  a 
kettle,  filled  with  water  and  grounds  of  beer,  or  water  rendered  sour  by 
sulphuric  acid,  and  kept  hot  for  the  purpose.  On  the  sloping  side, 
called  the  plank,  the  basined  hat,  being  first  dipped  in  the  kettle,  is 
laid.  Here  it  is  worked,  by  rolling  and  unrolling  it  again  and  again, 
first  with  the  hand,  and  then  with  a  little  wooden  roller,  taking  care  to 
dip  it  from  time  to  time ;  till  at  length,  by  thus  felting  or  thickening  it 
for  four  or  five  hours,  it  is  reduced  to  the  extent  or  dimensions  of  the 
hat  intended. 

After  being  thus  wrought,  the  proper  form  is  given  to  it,  by  laying 
the  conical  cap  on  a  wooden  block,  of  the  intended  size  of  the  crown 
of  the  hat,  and  thus  tying  it  round  with  a  pack-thread,  called  a  com- 
mander ;  after  which,  with  a  piece  of  iron,  or  copper,  bent  for  the 
purpose,  and  called  a  stamper,  they  gradually  beat  or  drive  the  com- 
mander all  around,  till  it  has  reached  the  bottom  of  the  block,  and  thus 
the  crown  is  formed ;  what  remains  at  bottom  below  the  string  being 
the  brim.  The  hat  being  now  set  to  dry,  tiiey  proceed  to  singe  it,  by 
holding  it  over  a  flare  of  straw,  or  the  like  ;  then  it  is  pounced,  or  rub- 
bed with  pumice  stone,  to  take  off  the  coarser  nap  ;  then  rubbed  over 
afresh  with  seal-skin,  to  lay  the  nap  still  finer ;  and  lastly  carded  with 
a  fine  card,  to  raise  the  fine  down,  with  which  the  liat  is  afterward  to 
appear.  It  is  then  sent  upon  its  block,  tied  about  with  pack-thread  as 
before,  to  be  dyed. 

The  dyer's  copper  is  usually  very  large,  holding  ten  or  twelve  dozen 
hats.     The  dye  or  tincture,  is  made  of  logwood,  verdigris,  sulphate  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  195 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HATS. BUTTONS. 

iron,  and  alder  bark,  to  which  some  add  galls,  sumach,  &c.  After  the 
hat  has  been  boiled  in  the  coloring  liquor  about  three  quarters  of  an 
hour,  it  is  taken  out  and  set  to  cool,  and  then  returned  to  the  dye ; 
and  this  for  ten  or  twelve  times  successively.  The  hat  being  dyed,  is 
returned  to  the  hatter,  who  proceeds  to  dry  it,  by  hanging  it  up  in  a 
suitable  stove  or  oven.  When  dry,  it  is  stiffened  with  a  solution  of 
glue,  or  gura-senegal.  It  is  next  steamed  on  the  steaming-basin,  a  lit- 
tle fire-place,  raised  three  feet  high,  with  an  iron  plate  laid  over  it, 
exactly  covering  it.  On  this  plate  they  first  spread  cloths,  which  being 
sprinkled  over  with  water,  to  secure  the  hat  from  burning,  the  hat  is 
placed,  brim  downwards,  thereon.  When  moderately  hot,  the  work- 
man strikes  gently  on  the  brim,  with  the  flat  of  his  hand,  to  make  the 
jointings  incorporate  and  bind,  so  as  not  to  appear  ;  turning  it  from  time 
to  time,  and  at  last  setting  it  on  the  crown.  When  steamed  sufficiently 
and  dried,  it  is  ajfain  put  on  the  block,  and  brushed  and  ironed  on  a  ta- 
ble called  the  stall-board.  This  is  done  with  irons  like  those  commonly 
used  in  ironing  linen,  and  heated  like  them  ;  which  being  rubbed  over 
each  part  of  the  hat,  with  the  assistance  of  the  brush,  smoothens  and 
gives  it  a  gloss,  which  is  the  last  operation. 

Hats  are  distinguished  in  trade  either  as  stuff-hats^  those  which  con- 
sist chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  of  beaver  and  other  fine  fur;  plate-hats^ 
which  consist  of  wool  covered  with  a  better  material  on  the  outside 
only ;  or,  cordies^  made  wholly  of  wool,  or  other  coarse  material. 
Silk-hats  are  also  now  worn  ;  they  are  formed  of  a  stout  oil  case  or 
some  such  material,  and  merely  covered  with  silk  ;  tliese  hats  are  wa- 
ter-proof. 

A  BUTTON  is  an  article  of  dress,  serving  to  fasten  clothes  on  the 
body,  and  made  in  various  forms  of  siJk,  mohair,  thread,  metal,  horn, 
bone,  mother  of  pearl,  wood,  &c.  Metal  buttons,  which  are  now  the 
most  common,  are  formed  in  two  ways,  and  are  either  solid  metal,  or 
consist  of  thin  plates  or  caps,  bottomed  with  bone  or  wood.  Metal 
buttons,  properly  so  called,  are  either  white  or  yellow,  gilded  or  plated, 
and  consist  of  solid  metal,  generally  copper,  with  more  or  less  alloy  of 
zinc.  The  tops  of  such  buttons  are  either  cut  out  of  sheet  metal,  or 
cast ;  in  the  latter  case  the  shanks  or  eyes  are  fixed  exactly  in  the  cen- 
tre of  each  mould,  so  as  to  have  their  extremities  immersed  in  the  melted 
metal,  by  which  means  they  are  firmly  fixed  in  the  button  when  cooled. 
The  former  method  is  used  for  yellow  buttons,  the  latter  for  those  of 
white  metal.  The  shanks  or  eyes  of  the  former  kind  are  made  with 
great  expedition ;  by  a  curious  engine,  they  are  attached  to  the  bottom 
of  each  button  by  a  wire  clamp,  like  a  pair  of  sugar-tongs  ;  solder  is 
applied,  and  they  become  fixed  to  the  button  after  exposure  on  a  hot 
iron.  The  button  is  then  burnished  for  plating  or  gilding  ;  the  latter 
is  effected  by  covering  the  surface  with  a  thin  coat  of  mercury,  over 
which  is  laid  an  amalgam  of  mercury  and  gold,  and  the  mercury  evapo- 
rated by  heat.  Five  grains  of  gold  will  thus  cover  144  buttons  one  inch 
in  diameter.  Plating  or  silvering  may  be  performed  nearly  in  the 
same  manner,  or  with  muriate  of  silver. 

Wrought  or  figured  buttons  are  made  of  mohair  or  silk,  and  a  very 
inferior  kind  of  thread.  In  order  to  make  a  button,  the  mohair  must 
be  previously  wound  upon  a  bobbin,  and  the  mould  fixed  upon  a  board, 


196  FAMILY 


by  means  of  a  bodkin  thrust  through  the  hole  in  the  middle  of  it.  This 
being  done,  the  workman  wraps  the  mould  in  three,  four,  or  six  columns, 
according  to  the  button.  The  moulds  of  horse-hair  buttons  are  covered 
with  a  kind  of  stuff,  composed  of  silk  and  hair ;  the  warp  being  bella- 
dine  silk,  and  the  shoot  horse-hair. 

Gold  twist  buttons  are  first  covered  in  the  same  manner  as  common 
buttons.  Then  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  thin  plate  of  gold  or  silver. 
It  is  afterwards  wrought  all  over  with  purl,  a  kind  of  thread  composed 
of  silk  and  gold  wire  twisted  together,  and  gold  gimp. 

Glass  buttons  of  different  colors  are  made  when  the  glass  is  in  a  state 
of  fusion,  the  button  being  nipped  out  of  it  by  a  pair  of  iron  moulds, 
like  those  for  casting  pistol-shot  ;  the  shank  having  been  inserted  in 
the  mould,  so  that  it  may  be  found  imbedded  in  the  glass  when  cool. 

Mother  of  pearl  buttons  are  a  somewhat  ingenious  manufacture.  The 
mode  of  fixing  the  eye  or  shank  is  by  drilling  a  hole  at  the  back,  which 
is  under  cut ;  that  is,  larger  at  the  bottom  than  the  top,  like  a  mortise, 
and  the  shank  being  driven  in  by  a  steady  stroke,  its  extremity  expands 
on  striking  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  and  thus  becomes  firmly  riveted  in- 
to the  button.  Steel  studs  are  thus  often  riveted  into  buttons  of  this 
and  other  kinds.  In  cases  where  stones  and  foil  are  used,  the  shanks 
are  usually  attached  with  isinglass  glue. 

GOLD.  The  method  of  refining  gold,  and  its  application  to  manu- 
factures, are  as  follows.  In  separating  the  gold,  the  mineral  ore  is  first 
broken  with  iron  mallets,  then  ground  in  mills  to  a  fine  powder,  and 
passed  through  several  sieves.  The  powder  is  then  placed  in  troughs, 
with  mercury  and  water.  Afler  this  the  water  and  earth  are  forced  out 
of  the  troughs  by  pouring  on  a  stream  of  hot  water.  This  done,  there 
remains  nothing  but  the  mercury  and  the  ore.  The  mercury  is  after- 
ward separated  by  distillation,  and  the  gold  is  melted  and  cast  into  in- 
gots. 

For  refining  gold^  either  antimony,  oxymuriate  of  mercury,  or  nitro- 
muriatic  acid,  is  used.  Gold  having  the  property  which  no  other  met- 
al has,  except  platina,  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  simple  acids, 
&c.  it  may  be  purified  by  the  above  agents  from  all  metallic  substan- 
ces, and  consequently  refined.  Another  method  of  purifying  gold 
and  silver  consists  in  adding  to  the  alloyed  gold  and  silver  a  certain 
quantity  of  lead,  and  exposing  afterward  this  mixture  to  the  action  of 
the  fire. 

Gold  wire,  as  it  is  called,  is  most  generally  made  of  a  cylindrical  in- 
got of  silver,  superficially  gilt,  and  afterward  drawn  successively 
through  a  great  number  of  the  holes  of  a  wire-drawing  iron,  each  less 
than  the  other,  till  it  is  sometimes  no  thicker  than  a  hair  of  the  head. 
Before  the  wire  is  reduced  to  this  excessive  fineness,  it  is  drawn  through 
above  a  hundred  and  forty  different  holes ;  previously  to  each  time  of 
drawing,  it  is  rubbed  afresh  over  with  new  wax,  both  to  facilitate  its 
passage,  and  prevent  the  silver  appearing  through  it. 

Gold  thread  or  spun  gold,  is  flatted  gold,  Avrapped  or  laid  over  a 
thread  of  silk,  by  twisting  it  with  a  wheel.  To  dispose  the  wire  to  bo 
spun  on  silk,  it  is  passed  between  two  rollers  of  a  small  mill ;  the  gold 
wire  is  thus  made  quite  flat,  without  losing  any  thing  of  its  gilding,  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  197 


GILDING. 


is  rendered   so   exceedingly  thin  and  flexible,  that  it  is  easily  spun  on 
silk  thread,  by  means  of  a  hand-wheel. 

Gold  leaf  is  gold  beaten  with  a  hammer  into  exceedingly  thin  leave  g» 
so  that  it  is  computed  that  an  ounce  may  be  beaten  into  sixteen  hun~ 
dred  leaves,  each  three  inches  square.  That  for  the  gold  wire  is  left 
much  thicker  than  that  for  gilding  picture  frames.  The  gold  is  beaten 
between  pieces  of  skin  on  a  block,  commonly  of  black  marble,  about  a 
foot  square.  The  hammers  are  of  polished  iron.  The  gold  is  first 
formed  from  the  ingot  to  the  thickness  of  a  sheet  of  paper,  then  it  ig 
cut  into  pieces  about  an  inch  square ;  they  are  then  beaten  thinner,  and 
again  cut  into  several  smaller  pieces. 

GILDING  is  the  art  of  covering  a  thing  over  with  gold  either  in  the 
state  of  a  leaf  or  liquid.  The  art  of  gilding  was  not  unknown  to  the 
ancients,  though  it  never  arrived  at  the  perfection  among  them,  to 
which  the  moderns  have  carried  it.  Pliny  assures  us,  that  the  first 
gilding  seen  at  Rome  was  after  the  destruction  of  Carthage,  under  the 
censorship  of  Lucius  Mummius,  when  they  began  to  gild  the  ceilings 
of  their  temples  and  palaces,  the  Capitol  being  the  first  place  on  which 
this  enrichment  was  bestowed.  But  he  adds,  that  luxury  advanced  on 
them  80  hastily,  that  iu  a  little  time  you  might  see  all,  even  private  and 
poor  persons,  gild  the  very  walls,  vaults,  fee.  of  their  houses.  Modern 
gilders  make  use  of  gold  leaves  of  various  thicknesses  ;  but  there  are 
some  so  fine,  that  a  thousand  do  not  weigh  above  four  or  five  drachms. 
The  thickest  are  used  for  gilding  on  iron,  and  other  metals ;  and  the 
thinnest  on  wood. 

A  color  of  gold  is  given  by  painting  and  varnishes,  without  employ- 
ing gold,  but  this  is  a  false  kind  of  gilding.  Thus  a  very  fine  golden 
color  is  given  to  brass  and  silver,  by  applying  upon  these  metals  a  gold 
colored  varnish,  which,  being  transparent,  shows  all  the  brilliancy  of 
the  metals  beneath.  Many  ornaments  of  brass  are  varnished  in  this 
manner,  which  is  called  gold  LAcauERiNG,  to  distinguish  them  from 
those  which  are  really  gilt.  Silver  leaves  thus  varnished  are  put  upon 
leather,  which  is  then  called  gilt  leather.  Among  the  false  gilding  may 
also  be  reckoned  that  which  is  done  with  thin  leaves  of  copper  or  brass, 
called  Dutch  leaf.  In  this  manner  are  made  most  kinds  of  what  is 
coiled  gilt  paper. 

The  gold  intended  for  gilding  ought,  in  general,  to  be  beaten  into 
thin  leaves,  or  otherwise  divided  into  very  fine  parts.  As  metals  can- 
not adhere  well  merely  by  contact  to  any  but  other  metallic  substance?, 
when  gold  is  to  be  applied  to  the  surface  of  some  non-metallic  body, 
this  surface  must  be  previously  covered  with  some  gluey  and  tenacious 
substance,  by  which  the  gold  will  be  made  to  adhere.  Such  substan- 
ces are  in  general  called  sizes,  some  of  which  are  made  of  vegetable 
and  animal  glues,  and  others  of  oily,  gluey,  and  drying  matters.  Upon 
them  the  leaves  of  gold  are  applied,  and  pressed  down  with  a  little  cot- 
ton, or  a  hare's  foot ;  and  when  the  whole  is  dry,  the  work  is  to  bo 
finished,  polished,  or  burnished  with  a  hard  instrument,  called  a  dog's 
toothy  to  give  it  lustre. 

The  method  of  applying  gold  upon  metals  is  entirely  different.  The 
surface  of  the  metal  to  be  gilt  is  first  to  be  cleaned ;  and  then  leaves  are 

17* 


198  FAMILY 


SILVERING. 


to  be  applied  to  it,  which,  by  means  of  rubbing  with  a  polished  blood- 
atone,  or  pumice-stone,  are  made  to  adhere  perfectly  well.  In  this 
manner  silver  leaf  is  fixed  and  burnished  upon  brass  in  the  making  of 
what  is  called  French  platt ;  and  sometimes  also  gold  leaf  is  burnished 
upon  copper  and  iron.  Gold  is  applied  to  metals  in  several  other  man- 
ners. One  of  these  is  by  previously  forming  the  gold  into  a  paste  or 
amalgam  with  mercury,  with  which  the  surface  of  the  metal  to  be  gild- 
ed must  be  covered  ;  then  a  sufficient  heat  is  applied  to  evaporate  the 
mercury  ;  and  the  gold,  which  is  left  on  the  surface  of  the  copper,  is 
lastly,  burnished  with  a  blood-stone. 

Some  metals,  particularly  silver,  may  be  gilt  in  the  following  man- 
ner : — Let  gold  be  dissolved  in  nitro-muriatic  acid.  In  this  solution 
pieces  of  linen  are  dipped,  and  burnt  to  black  ashes.  These  ashes  be- 
ing rubbed  on  the  surface  of  the  silver  by  means  of  a  wet  linen  rag, 
apply  the  particles  of  gold  which  they  contain,  and  which,  by  this  meth- 
od, adhere  very  well.  The  remaining  part  of  the  ashes  is  washed  off; 
and  the  surface  of  the  silver,  which  in  this  state  does  not  seem  to  be 
gilt,  is  burnished  with  a  blood-stone  till  it  acquires  a  fine  color  of  gold. 
This  method  of  gilding  is  very  easy,  and  consumes  a  very  small  quanti- 
ty of  gold.  Most  gilt  ornaments  upon  fans,  snuff-boxes,  and  other  toys 
of  much  show  and  little  value,  are  nothing  but  silver  gilt  in  this  man- 
ner. Gold  may  also  be  applied  to  glass,  porcelain,  and  other  vitrified 
matters.  After  the  gold  leaf  is  laid  on  the  glass,  &;c.,  the  pieces  are  ex- 
posed to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  and  burnished  slightly  to  give  them 
a  lustre.  A  more  substantial  gilding  is  fixed  upon  glass,  enamel,  and 
porcelain,  by  applying  to  these  substances  powder  of  gold  mixed  with 
a  solution  of  gum  arable,  or  with  some  essential  oil,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  borax  ;  after  which  a  sufficient  heat  is  applied  to  soften  the 
glass  and  the  gold,  which  is  then  burnished.  With  this  mixture  any 
figures  may  be  drawn.  The  powders  for  this  purpose  may  be  made, — 
1.  By  grinding  gold  leaf  with  honey,  which  is  afterward  to  be  washed 
away  with  water.  2.  By  distilling  to  dryness  a  solution  of  gold  in 
nitro-muriatic  acid.  3.  By  evaporating  the  mercury  from  an  amalgam 
of  gold,  taking  care  to  stir  well  the  mass  near  the  end  of  the  process. 
4.  By  precipitating  gold  from  its  solution  in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  by  ap- 
plying to  it  a  solution  of  green  vitriol  in  water,  or  copper,  and  perhaps 
other  metallic  substances. 

SILVERING.  Wood,  paper,  k,c.  are  silvered  in  the  same  manner 
as  gilding  is  performed,  using  only  silver  leaf  instead  of  gold.  For 
common  purposes,  copper  or  brass  may  be  plated  by  dissolving  silver 
in  nitric  acid,  neutralizing  the  acid  with  alkali,  and  rubbing  the  polish- 
ed surface  of  the  article  with  this  mixture,  till  it  assumes  a  white  sil- 
ver color,  which  will  continue  for  some  time,  if  not  exposed  to  much 
friction.  Dial  plates  of  clocks,  barometers,  &;c.,  are  plated  with  old 
silver  lace  dissolved  in  nitric  acid,  and  then  precipitated  with  common 
salt ;  this  precipitate  is  mixed  with  carbonate  of  potash  and  whiting, 
until  it  forms  a  dry  mass,  with  which  the  metal  to  be  plated  is  rubbed. 
The  most  permanent  plating,  however,  is  performed  in  the  following 
manner  : — Take  two  thin  plates  of  silver  and  copper,  the  former  in  the 
proportion  of  one  to  twelve  of  the  latter  ;  put  a  little  powdered  borax 
between  them,  and  expose  them  to  a  white  heat,  when  the  silver  will 
be  found  firmly  united  to  the  copper,  after  which,  it  is  passed  between 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  199 


COINING. 


rollers,  till  it  has  acquired  the  proper  thickness  for  the  manufacture  in- 
tended. 

COINING  is  the  art  or  act  of  making  money.  Coining  is  either 
performed  by  the  hammer  or  the  mill.  The  first  method  is  now  little 
used  in  Europe,  although  it  was  the  only  one  known  until  the  year 
1553,  when  a  new  coining-mill  was  invented  by  Anthony  Brucher ; 
and  first  tried  in  the  French  king's  palace  at  Paris,  for  coining  counters. 
In  either  kind  of  coining,  the  pieces  of  metal  are  stamped,  or  struck 
with  a  kind  of  moulds  or  dies,  wherein  is  engraven  the  device  fixed 
upon.  The  first  operations  in  coining  are  mixing  and  melting  the 
metal  :  for  there  are  no  species  of  money  coined  of  pure  gold  or  silver, 
but  always  with  a  certain  quantity  of  alloy  of  copper,  or  other  metals, 
mixed  with  them  ;  the  reasons  are  partly  the  necessity  of  making  those 
metals  harder,  by  some  foreign  admixture,  and  partly  to  defray  the 
expenses  of  coining.  Melting,  if  the  metal  be  gold,  is  performed  in 
earthen  crucibles  ;  if  silver  or  copper,  in  iron  ones.  When  the  gold  or 
silver  is  melted,  it  is  poured  into  moulds  for  casting  into  plates  or 
sheets  ;  the  method  of  doing  this  is  exactly  the  same  with  that  used 
by  the  founders  in  sand. 

Coining  by  the  mill.    The  plates  being  taken  out  of  the  moulds, 
scraped  and  brushed,  are  passed  several  times  through  the  mill,  to  flat- 
ten them,  and  bring  them  to  the  just  thickness  of  the  particular  species 
to  be  coined  ;  with  this  difference,  however,  that  the  plates  of  gold  are 
heated  again  in  a  furnace,  and  quenched  in  water,  before  they  undergo 
the  mill  ;  which  softens,  and  renders  them  more  ductile  ;  whereas  those 
of  silver  pass  the  mill  just  as  they  are,  without  any  heating ;  and  when 
afterward  they  are  heated,  they  are  left  to  cool  of  themselves,  without 
water.    The  plates,  whether   gold,  silver,  or  copper,  thus  reduced  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  their  thickness,  are  cut  into  round  pieces,  nearly 
the  size  of  the  intended  species  ;  these  pieces  are  adjusted,  and  brought, 
by  filing  or  rasping,  to  the  weight  of  the  standard,  whereby  they  are  to 
be  regulated ;  and  what  remains  of  the  plate  between  the   circles  is 
melted  again.     The  pieces  are  adjusted  in  a  fine  balance  ;  and  those 
which  prove  too  light  are  separated  from  those  too  heavy  ;  the  first  to 
be  melted  again,  and  the  second  to  be  filed  down  :  for  the  mill  through 
which  the  plates  are  passed,  can  never  be  so  just,  but  there  will  be 
some  inequality.     They  are  then  carried  to  the  blanching  or  whitening 
house,  ?.  e.  the  place  where  the  gold  pieces  have  their  color  given  them, 
and  the  silver  ones   are  whitened  ;  which  is  done  by  heating  them  in 
the  furnace,  and  afterwards  boiling  them  successively  in  two  copper 
vessels,  with  water,  common   salt,  and  tartar.     After  scouring  them 
well  with  sand,  and  washing  them  with  common  water,  they  are  dried 
over  a  wood  fire  in  a  copper  sieve.     They  formerly  were  next  marked 
with  an  engine  on  the  edges,  to  prevent  the  clipping  and  paring  of  the 
species ;  but  latterly,  the  edges  and  faces  of  the  money  are  struck  at 
once.     This  marking  of  the   edges  is  called  milling.     Some  of  the 
larger  pieces,  as  crowns,  have  legends  impressed  on  the  edge.     A  new 
method  of  coining  has  been  introduced  by  Messrs.  Bolton  and  Watt, 
which  is  now  the  only  mode  used  in  England.     For  this  purpose  build- 
ings are  erected  on  Tower  Hill.     The  machinery  invented  by  these 
able   mechanics  has  been  long  used  in   the  manufacture   of  copper 
money.     A  steam-engine  works  the  screw  presses  for  cutting  out  the 


200  FAMILY 


COINING. PLUMBERY. 


circular  pieces  of  copper,  and  coins  both  the  edges  and  faces  of  the 
money  at  the  same  time,  with  such  superior  excellence  and  cheapness 
of  workmanship,  as  will  prevent  clandestine  imitation.  By  this  ma- 
chinery, four  boys  are  capable  of  striking  30,000,  pieces  of  money 
in  an  hour  ;  and  the  machine  acts  at  the  same  time  as  a  register,  and 
keeps  an  unerring  account  of  the  number  of  pieces  struck.  These 
having  now  all  their  marks  and  impressions,  both  on  the  edges  and  fa- 
ces, become  money  ;  but  have  not  currency  till  they  have  been  weigh- 
ed and  examined. 

For  the  coining  of  Medals  the  process  is  the  same,  in  effect,  with  that 
of  money  ;  the  principal  difference  consists  in  this,  that  money,  having 
but  a  small  relievo,  receives  its  impression  at  a  single  stroke ;  whereas 
for  medals,  the  height  of  their  relievo  makes  it  necessary  that  the  stroke 
be  repeated  several  times.  Medallions,  and  medals  of  high  relievo, 
from  the  difficulty  of  stamping  them  in  the  press,  are  usually  first  cast  or 
moulded  in  sand,  like  other  works  of  tliat  kind,  and  are  only  put  into 
the  press  to  perfect  them. 

PLUMBERY  is  the  art  of  casting,  preparing,  and  workiug  lead ; 
and  using  it  in  building,  &c.  The  lead  used  in  plumbery  is  furnished 
from  the  lead-works  in  large  ingots,  or  blocks,  called  pigs  of  lead,  each 
weighing  generally  about  100  pounds.  Lead  melting  very  easily,  is 
used  for  figures  of  any  kind,  by  running  it  into  moulds  of  brass,  clay, 
plaster,  &c.  But  the  chief  articles  in  plumbery  are  sheets  and  pipes  of 
lead.  These  constitute  the  basis  of  the  plumber's  work  in  building  : 
the  following  is  the  process : — 

For  casting  large  sheets  of  lead.  The  lead  is  melted  in  a  large  caul- 
dron or  furnace ;  near  the  furnace  is  a  table,  or  mould,  whereon  the 
lead  is  to  be  cast.  Around  it  runs  a  frame,  consisting  of  a  ledge  or 
border  of  wood,  four  or  five  inches  high  from  the  table.  The  table  is 
covered  with  fine,  moist,  smooth  sand.  At  the  end  of  the  table  nearest 
to  the  furnace  is  adapted  a  box  equal  in  length  to  the  width  of  the  ta- 
ble ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  a  horizontal  slit  to  let  out  the  melted 
metal ;  the  box  moves  upon  rollers  along  the  edges  of  the  projecting 
rim  of  the  table,  and  is  set  in  motion  by  ropes  and  pulleys  properly  at- 
tached. The  box  is  made  to  contain  as  much  lead  as  will  cast  the 
whole  sheet  at  the  same  time  ;  and  the  slit  in  the  bottom  is  adjusted  so 
as  to  permit  the  proper  quantity  of  lead  to  run  out  during  its  progress 
over  the  table.  The  lead  is  taken  out  of  the  cauldron  with  an  iron  la- 
dle. Over  the  table  is  a  strike  or  rake  of  wood,  which  bears  and  plays 
on  the  edges  of  the  frame  ;  and  so  placed,  as,  that  between  it  and  the 
sand,  is  a  space  proportionable  to  the  intended  thickness  of  the  sheet. 
The  use  of  this  strike  is  to  drive  the  matter,  while  yet  liquid,  to  the 
extremity  of  the  mould,  and  give  the  sheet  an  equal  thickness.  The 
sheets  thus  cast,  there  remains  nothing  but  to  edge  them,  in  order  to 
render  them  smooth  and  straight. 

This  is  called  cast  lead.  Milled  lead  is  not  made  by  the  plumber,  but 
at  the  lead  works  ;  in  the  operation  of  making  it,  a  roller  or  flatting- 
mill  is  used,  whence  its  name.  Milled  lead  is  a  slighter  article  than 
cast  lead.  Sheet  lead  is  of  different  thicknesses,  varying  in  its  weight 
from  5  to  Gibs,  in  each  square  foot. 
For  casting  thin  sheets  of  lead.    The  table  or  mould  here  used  is  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  201 


TIN. FOUNDRY. 


a  length  and  breadth  at  discretion.  Instead  of  sand,  it  is  covered  with 
a  piece  of  woollen  stuff,  nailed  down  at  both  ends  to  keep  it  tight;  and 
over  this  is  laid  a  very  fine  linen  cloth.  These  fine  smooth  sheets  of 
lead  are  sometimes  used  between  the  joints  of  large  stones  in  great 
buildings,  &;c. 

TIN.  The  mineral  ore,  being  taken  from  the  mine,  is  broken  into 
pieces  with  large  iron  mallets  ;  then  brought  to  a  stamping  mill,  where 
it  is  beaten  still  smaller,  and  the  water,  passing  through,  washes  away 
the  earthy  parts,  leaving  the  metallic  ones  behind.  It  is  then  dried  in 
a  furnace  on  iron  plates,  and  ground  fine,  washed  and  dried  again,  and 
in  this  state  is  called  black  tin.  To  convert  it  into  white  tin,  i.  e.  pure 
tin,  they  carry  it  to  a  furnace,  where  it  is  melted,  and  ultimately  cast  in- 
to large  oblong  square  masses,  called  blocks. 

Tin  plate  is  iron  plated  over  with  tin. 

FOUNDRY  is  the  art  of  melting  and  casting  all  sorts  of  metals ; 
particularly  brass,  iron,  bell-metal,  &;c.  The  word  is  also  used  for  a 
place  or  house  furnished  with  furnaces,  or  forges. 

Foundry  of  small  works^  or  casting  in  sand.  The  sand  used  by  the 
founders,  in  casting  brass,  &c.,  is  yellowish,  rather  soft,  and  greasy  ;  but 
after  it  has  been  used  becomes  quite  black,  from  the  charcoal-dust  used 
in  the  moulds.  With  this  sand  a  mould  is  made  of  dimensions  suita- 
ble for  the  things  to  be  cast ;  wood  or  metallic  patterns  are  then  placed 
on  the  mould,  and  pressed  down  into  the  sand,  so  as  to  leave  their  form 
indented.  Along  the  middle  of  the  mould  is  laid  half  a  little  cylinder 
of  brass,  which  is  to  be  the  chief  conduit,  funnel,  or  canal,  for  running 
the  metal ;  being  so  disposed  as  to  touch  the  ledge  at  one  side,  and  only 
reach  the  last  pattern  on  the  other.  From  this  are  placed  several 
smaller  conduits  or  funnels,  reaching  to  each  pattern,  whereby  the 
metal  is  conveyed  through  the  whole  frame.  After  the  same  manner 
they  proceed  to  work  the  counter-part,  or  other  half  of  the  mould, 
with  the  same  patterns,  in  a  frame  exactly  like  the  former  ;  excepting 
that  it  has  pins,  which,  entering  holes  corresponding  thereto  in  the 
other,  make,  when  the  two  are  joined  together,  the  two  cavities  of  the 
pattern  fall  exactly  on  each  other.  When  both  parts  of  the  mould  are 
sufficiently  dried,  they  are  joined  together  by  means  of  pins  ;  and  to 
prevent  their  starting  or  slipping  aside  by  the  force  of  the  metal,  which 
is  poured  in  a  melted  state,  through  a  hole  contrived  as  the  chief  con- 
duit, they  are  locked  in  a  kind  of  press.  The  moulds  thus  secured  in 
the  press  are  ranged  near  the  furnace,  to  be  in  readiness  to  receive  the 
metal  as  it  comes  out  of  the  crucible.  While  the  moulds  are  prepar- 
ing, the  metal  is  fused  in  an  earthen  crucible,  in  a  furnace  adapted  to 
the  crucible,  so  that  the  fire  may  completely  envelope  it.  The  founder 
now  takes  the  crucible  out  of  the  fire  with  a  pair  of  iron  tongs,  and  car- 
ries it  to  the  mould,  into  which  he  pours  the  fluid  metal.  Thus  he 
goes  successively  from  one  to  another,  till  his  crucible  is  empiied. 
When  sufficiently  cool,  the  mould  is  opened,  the  cast  matter  taken  out, 
and  the  sand  and  moulds  applied  again  to  other  castings. 

In  casting  statues,, figures^  busts^  &c.,  there  are  three  things  chiefly  re- 
quired, viz.  the  mould,  wax,  and  core. 

In  casting  bells^  the  metal  is  different ;  there  being,  in  bronze,  or  the 


202  FAMILY 


FOUNDRY. 


metal  of  statues,  from  nine  to  twelve  parts  tin  to  100  of  copper,  where- 
as bell-metal  is  generally  composed  of  three  parts  copper  and  one  tin. 
The  mirrors  for  telescopes  consist  chiefly  of  two  parts  copper  and  one 
tin,  with  smaller  portions  of  brass,  silver,  and  arsenic.  The  dimensions 
of  the  core  and  the  wax  of  bells  are  not  left  to  chance  or  the  caprice 
of  the  workman,  but  must  be  measured  on,  a  kind  of  scale,  which  gives 
the  height,  aperture,  and  thickness  necessary  for  the  several  tones  re- 
quired. It  is  on  the  wax  also  that  the  several  mouldings,  and  other 
ornaments  and  inscriptions  to  be  represented  in  relievo  on  the  outside 
of  the  bell,  are  formed.  The  clapper,  or  tongue,  is  not  properly  a  part 
of  the  bell,  but  furnished  from  other  hands.  In  Europe  it  is  usually 
of  iron,  and  is  suspended  in  the  middle  of  the  bell.  In  China,  it  is 
only  a  huge  wooden  mallet,  struck  by  force  of  arm  against  the  bell : 
whence  they  can  have  but  little  of  that  consonancy,  so  much  admired 
in  some  of  our  rings  of  bells. 

Belb  have  been  cast  in  China  of  an  enormous  weight :  some  at  Pe- 
kin  are  said  to  weigh  120,000  lbs.  each  ;  one  at  Nankin  weighs  50,000 
lbs.  Few  European  bells  can  compete  with  these.  One  at  Erfurt,  in 
Saxony,  weighs  25,400  lbs.  ;  another  at  Rouen,  in  France,  weighs 
35,000  lbs.  ;  the  bells  of  England  sink  into  comparative  insignificance 
after  those.  One  at  Oxford  weighs  17,000  lbs. ;  the  great  bell  of  St. 
Paul's,  London,  weighs  only  11,474  lbs. ;  and  Tom  of  Lincoln,  10,854 
lbs.  But,  if  the  testimony  of  some  authors  may  be  relied  on,  two 
bells  at  Moscow  far  exceed  all  others  in  size  :  one  is  said  to  weigh 
288,000  lbs. ;  and  the  other,  the  enormous  weight  of  432,000  lbs. ;  its 
height  is  said  to  be  19  feet,  its  circumference  at  the  bottom  21  yards, 
and  its  greatest  thickness  23  inches. 

The  casting  of  cannons^  mortars^  and  other  pieces  of  artillery,  is  per- 
formed like  that  of  statues  and  bells,  as  to  what  regards  the  mould, 
furnaces.  Sic.  Cannons  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  brass,  copper,  and 
tin,  or  of  cast  iron,  but  more  commonly  with  the  last.  A  cannon  is  al- 
ways shaped  a  little  conical,  being  thickest  of  metal  at  the  breech, 
where  the  greatest  effort  of  the  gun-powder  is  made,  and  diminishing 
thence  to  the  muzzle  ;  so  that  if  the  mouth  be  two  inches  thick  of 
metal,  the  breech  is  six.  Its  length  is  measured  in  calibres,  i.  e.  in  di- 
ameters of  the  muzzle.  Six  inches  at  the  muzzle  require  twenty  cali- 
bres, or  ten  feet  in  length  ;  there  is  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch  allowed 
as  play  for  the  ball.  The  guns  are  cast  without  any  core,  and  after- 
wards bored  with  a  steel  trepan,  that  is  worked  either  by  horses,  a 
water-mill,  or  steam. 

There  is  a  large  iron  foundry  two  .miles  from  Falkirk,  in  Scotland, 
called  Carron  Works.  Above  100  acres  of  land  have  been  converted 
into  reservoirs  and  pools  for  water,  diverted  from  the  river  by  magnifi- 
cent dams  built  about  two  miles  above  the  works,  which,  after  turning 
eighteen  large  wheels,  falls  into  a  tide  navigation,  that  conveys  their 
castings  to  the  sea.  These  works  are  the  greatest  of  the  kind  in  Eu- 
rope, and  were  established  in  1760.  At  present  the  buildings  are  of 
vast  extent ;  and  the  machinery  is  the  first  in  Britain  both  in  elegance 
and  correctness.  There  are  1600  men  employed,  who  receive  weekly 
650/.  sterling,  which  has  greatly  enrijAed  the  adjoining  country  ;  6500 
tons  of  iron  are  melted  annually  froni  the  mineral,  and  cast  into  can- 
won,  cylinders,  kc.     In  the  founding  of  cannon  these  works  have  lately 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  203 


LETTER    FOUNDRY. 


arrived  at  such  perfection,  that  they  make  above  5000  pieces  a  year ; 
and  their  iron  guns  of  the  new  construction  are  the  lightest  and  neatest 
now  in  use,  not  excepting  brass  guns. 

The  words  Crucible  and  Forge  having  been  repeatedly  used,  it  may 
be  proper  to  describe  them.  A  Crucible  is  a  vessel  commonly  made  of 
earth,  sometimes  of  iron,  plumbago,  platina,  &;c.,  without  any  handle; 
considerably  higher  than  wide  ;  sometimes  triangular,  sometimes  round 
at  top,  which  is  the  widest  part,  and  assuming  a  circular  figure  below  ; 
in  which  chemists,  coiners,  goldsmiths,  and  other  artificers,  melt  gold, 
silver,  &c.  Earthen  crucibles  are  made  of  potter's  clay,  and  hold  from 
one  ounce  to  800  ;  the  iron  ones  are  larger,  some  holding  10,000  ounces. 
Forge  signifies  a  kind  of  small  furnace,  wherein  smiths  and  other  arti- 
ficers heat  their  metals.  The  word/org-e  is  also  used  for  a  large  fur- 
nace, wherein  iron  ore,  taken  out  of  the  mine,  is  melted  down,  though 
this  is  not  so  properly  a  forge  as  a  furnace.  A  forge  is  more  properly 
used  for  another  kind  of  furnace,  wherein  pigs  of  metal  are  heated, 
fused,  beaten  with  large  hammers,  and  thus  rendered  soft,  ductile,  and 
fit  for  use.  Of  these  forges  there  arc  two  kinds,  through  which  the 
iron  successively  passes,  before  it  comes  to  the  smith.  Forge-mills  are 
turned  by  water,  which  serves  to  raise  and  let  fall  one  or  more  huge 
hammers,  to  beat  and  form  the  iron  into  bars,  anchors,  or  other  massive 
works. 

In  LETTER-FOUNDRY,  or  the  casting  of  printing  letters,  two 
things  are  principally  to  be  regarded — the  matter  and  the  matrices. 
The  matter,  or  type-metal  is  composed  of  lead  alloyed  with  a  small 
portion  of  antimony.  Every  letter-founder  preparing  his  own  metal, 
the  proportions  of  lead  and  antimony  are  as  various  as  the  founders 
differ  in  skill  and  experience.  The  excellence  of  type-metal  consists 
in  hardness,  tenacity,  and  stiffness  ;  hard,  that  the  face  of  the  type 
may  not  be  disfigured  with  a  slight  blow,  that  it  may  endure  consider- 
able wear  ;  tenacious,  that  it  may  not  be  too  easily  broken  ;  and  stiff, 
that  the  types  may  not  be  bent  from  their  rectilinear  position. 

The  matrices  of  the  letters  are  pieces  of  copper  or  brass  whereon  the 
impression  of  the  intended  character  has  been  cut,  or  struck  in  a  cavity 
by  means  of  punches.  Each  letter  haa  its  proper  matrice  ;  and  there 
are  particular  ones  for  points,  figures,  rules,  head-pieces,  and  other  or- 
naments of  printing :  excepting  the  quadrats,  which  being  only  of  lead, 
and  not  intended  to  leave  any  impression,  are  cast  without  matrices, 
and  only  in  moulds.  Each  matrice  has  its  punch  made  of  steel,  or 
iron  well  tempered.  The  matrices  being  struck,  and  touched  up,  or 
repaired  where  needful,  are  put  at  the  end  of  an  iron  mould  enclosed 
between  two  thin  pieces  of  board.  Every  thing  belonging  to  the 
mould  being  disposed,  they  begin  to  prepare  the  matter.  The  furnace, 
whereon  the  basin  is  placed  for  the  metal  to  be  melted  in,  is  made  of 
the  same  matter  as  crucibles.  Over  the  furnace  is  placed  the  melting 
basin,  or  copper,  which  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts  by  a  perpendic- 
ular partition.  This  basin  contains  the  melted  type-metal.  One  work- 
man is  employed  at  eacii  furnace.  To  run  the  metal  into  the  mould, 
the  founder  holds  in  his  ladle  just  enough  for  one  letter.  Having  filled 
this  ladle  with  liquid  metal,  he  pours  it  tlirough  a  jet  or  funnel  into  the 
matrice  or  character.  He  then  opens  the  mould,  and  takes  out  the 
character,  and  without  loss  of  time  shuts  it  again,  replaces  the  matrice, 


2(Vt  FAMILY 


PRINTING. 


and  casts  a  new  letter.  It  is  incredible  with  what  expedition  all  this  is 
done  ;  an  expert  workman  being  able  to  cast  3000  letters  in  a  day. 
The  letter  being  cast,  it  is  examined,  to  ascertain  that  it  is  perfect ;  if 
it  be  not,  it  is  thrown  among  the  refuse  of  the  fount.  When  the  let- 
ters are  cast,  they  remain  to  be  justified,  both  as  to  thickness  and  height. 
The  justification  of  the  Iwght  is  guided  by  the  m  of  some  body  of 
characters  already  justified.  All  that  remains  is  to  dress  the  letters, 
and  make  that  sort  of  groove,  which  every  letter  has  in  its  bottom,  in 
order  that  it  may  stand  perpendicular.  This  is  performed  by  turning  a 
long  line  of  them  upside  down,  between  two  cheeks  of  wood,  Avhich, 
pressing  very  tight,  enable  the  workman  to  run  his  plane  along  the 
line  of  letters  so  inverted,  and  thus  to  form  the  groove.  The  letters 
are  now  fit  for  the  printer's  use.  The  perfection  of  letters  thus  cast 
consists  in  their  being  all  square  and  straight  on  every  side,  of  the 
same  height,  evenly  lined,  well  grooved,  &c.  An  inspection  of  the 
letters  tlieraselves  will  assist  the  reader  in  understanding  this  descrip- 
tion, and  afford  a  clearer  idea  than  can  be  otherwise  conceived. 

FOUNT,  or  FONT,  among  printers,  is  a  set  or  quantity  of  charac- 
ters, or  letters  of  each  kind,  cast  by  the  letter-founder  and  sorted.  We 
say  a  founder  has  casta  fount  of  pica,  of  english, pearl,  &c.,  meaning  he 
has  cast  a  set  of  characters  of  these  kinds.  A  complete  fount  includes 
capitals,  small  capitals,  little  letters,  called  lower-case,  double  letters, 
accented  letters,  figures,  points,  characters  for  reference,  spaces,  and 
quadrats.  The  letter  founders  have  a  kind  of  list,  by  which  they  reg- 
ulate their  founts.  Some  letters  being  much  more  used  than  others,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  more  of  them  cast,  than  of  those  which  occur  less 
frequently.  Thus  the  o  and  i,  for  instance,  are  always  in  greater 
quantity  than  the  k  or  z.  In  a  fount,  or  bill,  of  the  size  called  pica, 
weighing  in  all  800  pounds,  the  number  of  the  letter  e  is  12,000  ;  off 
9,000  ;  of  a  8,500  ;  of  t,  n,  o,  and  *,  8000  each  ;  of  c  there  are  3000 ; 
of  6  1600  ;  A;  800  ;  a;  400  ;  z  200.  This  is  for  the  English  language. 
In  other  languages  the  comparative  frequency  must  be  different. 

Sizes.  Different  names  are  given  to  the  various  sizes  of  types,  of 
which  the  following  are  most  employed  in  common  book  printing. 

Pica, — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&z. 
Small  Pica, — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
Long  Primer. — abcdefghijklmDopqrstuvwxyz&. 

Bourgeois. — abc(lefgliijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
Brevier. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 

Minion. — abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz&. 
vVon;?aref/.— abcdefgTiijkliiinopqrstuvwjiyz&;. 

PRINTING  is  the  art  of  making  an  impression  upon  one  body  by 
pressing  it  with  another.  This  art,  in  some  way  or  other,  has  been 
known  in  all  ages.  It  has  been  done  upon  wax,  plaster,  and  iron,  by 
the  ancients  ;  their  seals,  rings,  and  money  prove  it.  It  has  been  done 
with  wooden  blocks  upon  cotton  and  silk  by  the  Indians.  Printing 
therefore  in  this  unhmited  sense  was  common  to  all  nations.  This  art 
is  now  divided  into  four  distinct  branches.  Common  or  letter-press 
printing ;  rolling-press  printing  ;  Calico  printing  ;  and  Stereotype 
printing. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 205 

INTRODUCTION    OF    PRINTING    INTO    BRITAIN.        

Letter-press  yrinting  is  the  most  useful  and  curious  branch  of  the  art. 
To  this  are  chiefly  owin^  our  deliverance  from  ignorance  and  error, 
the  progress  of  learning,  the  revival  of  sciences,  many  of  the  modern 
inventions  and  discoveries,  and  numberless  improvements  in  the  arts, 
which,  without  this  noble  invention,  would  have  been  either  lost  to 
mankind,  or  confined  to  the  knowledge  of  a  few. 

History  of  printing. — The  honor  of  having  given  existence  to  the 
present  method  of  printing  has  been  claimed  by  the  cities  of  Haerlem, 
Mentz,  and  Strasburg  :  and  to  each  of  these  it  may  be  applied  in  a 
qualified  sense,  as  they  severally  made  many  improvements  upon  one 
another,  in  the  art.  But  the  origin,  however,  of  printing,  was  at  Haer- 
lem ;  the  first  book  was  printed  in  the  year  1430;  and  to  Laurence 
Coster,  of  that  city,  is  this  discovery  to  be  ascribed  ;  although  there  is 
no  doubt,  (hat  soon  after  Guttemberg,  as  well  as  J^ust  and  Schoeffer, 
who  invented  melal  types,  the  first  types  being  of  wood^  all  added  ma- 
terially to  the  perfection  of  this  important  discovery.  It  is  said,  indeed, 
that  Guttemberg  invented  moveable  types,  and  that  he  began  his  experi- 
ments at  Strasburg,  and  completed  them  at  Mentz  ;  it  is  also  said  that 
Coster's  method  was  to  cutout  the  letters  upon  a  wooden  block  ;  that 
he  took  for  apprentice  John  Fust  or  Faustus,  and  bound  him  to  secrecy, 
but  that  Fust,  notwithstanding  his  oath,  went  oflf,  not  only  with  the 
knowledge  of  the  art,  but  with  the  types  and  all  the  implements  of  his 
master ;  first  to  Amsterdam,  thence  to  Cologne,  and  afterwards  to 
Mentz.  Here,  assisted  by  Schoeffer,  they  printed  a  number  of  Bibles 
in  imitation  of  manuscript,  and  Fust  carried  them  to  Paris  tor  sale. 
The  Parisians  were  astonished  at  their  exact  similarity,  and  accused 
Fust  of  some  diabolical  art;  hence  the  origin  of  the  story  of  the  Devil 
and  Dr.  Faustus.  Wooden  types  not  being  found  sufficiently  durable, 
and  not  answering  expectation  in  other  respects,  it  caused  the  first  m- 
yeni'ion  of  c\it  7neial  types.  The  honor  of  completing  the  dicovery  is, 
therefore,  due  to  Peter  Schoefter,  who  found  out  the  method  of  form- 
ing the  characters  in  a  matrice,  that  the  letters  might  be  cast  singly,  in- 
stead of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut  matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet ; 
and  when  he  showed  his  master  Fust,  who  appears  to  have  assisted 
Guttemberg  in  his  attempts  to  bring  the  art  to  perfection,  the  letters 
cast  from  these  matrices.  Fust  was  so  pleased  with  the  contrivance,  that 
he  promised  to  Peter  his  only  daughter  in  marriage  ;  a  promise  which 
he  soon  after  performed.  Fust  and  Schoeffer  concealed  this  new  im- 
provement, by  administering  an  oath  of  secrecy  to  all  whom  they  en- 
trusted, till  the  year  1462,  when,  by  the  dispersion  of  their  servants 
into  different  countries  at  the  sacking  of  Mentz  by  the  Archbishop 
Adolphus,  the  invention  was  publicly  divulged. 

Introduction  of  printing  into  Britain. — Printing  was  practised  at 
Rome  in  the  year  1467,  and  the  year  following,  it  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Thomas  Bourchier,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  sent 
W.  Turner,  Master  of  the  Robes,  and  W.  Caxton,  merchant,  to  the 
continent  to  learn  the  art.  While  there  they  met  with  one  Corsellis, 
an  under  workman,  whom  they  induced  to  come  to  England.  This  be- 
ing accomplished,  a  press  was  set  up  at  Oxford,  and  the  first  book 
printed  in  England  in  146B,  by  Corsellis.  Oxford  was  afterwards  found 
inconvenient  to  be  the  sole  printing  place  in  England,  as  being  too  far 

18 


206  FAMILY 


PRINTING    IN    THK    UNITED    STATES. —  PRESS. 

from  London  and  the  sea.  The  king:  therefore  set  up  a  press  at  St. 
Alban's,  and  another  in  the  city  of  "Westminster,  where  several  books 
of  Divinity  and  physic  were  printed.  By  this  means  the  art  grew  fa- 
mous. But  although  Caxton  has  been  heretofore  considered  the  first 
printer  in  England,  and  it  is  now  clear  that  that  honor  must  be  conce- 
ded to  Corsellis,  yet  Caxton  was  the  first  in  England  that  used  fusile 
ii/pes^  and  consequently  the  first  that  brought  the  art  to  comparative 
perfection  ;  whereas  it  is  said  that  Corsellis  printed  with  separate  cut 
types  in  woorf, being  the  only  method  which  he  had  learned  at  Haerlem. 
Caxton's  printing-office  was  in  the  Abbey  of  Westminster  ;  he  pursued 
his  business  with  extraordinary  diligence  till  1494,  in  which  year  he 
died  very  old. 

History  of  printing  in  the  United  States  — The  first  printing  in  New 
England,  was  done  in  1639,  by  one  Day — the  proprietor  of  the  press 
was  a  clergyman,  by  the  name  of  Glover,  who  died  on  his  passage  to 
America.  The  first  thing  printed  was  the  Freeman's  oath,  the  second 
an  Almanack,  and  the  third  an  edition  of  the  Psalms.  No  other  print- 
ing press  was  established  in  America,  until  near  the  close  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  John  Elliot,  the  celebrated  missionary,  having  trans- 
lated the  Bible  into  the  Indian  language,  had  it  printed  at  Cambridge, 
by  means  of  this  press,  in  1664. 

The  first  newspaper  in  North  America,  called  The  Boston  JVeekly 
Keics-Ltttir^  was  established  in  1704.  About  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  ten  other  printing  presses  were  established — four  in  New  En- 
gland ;  two  in  New  York  ;  two  in  Pennsylvania;  one  in  South  Caro- 
lina ;  and  one  in  Maryland.  The  number  of  books  published  at  this 
time  was  also  considerable,  although  they  were  executed  in  a  coarse 
style,  and  were  generally  books  of  devotion  or  for  the  purposes  of  edu-^ 
cation. 

As  to  the  method  of  printing,  we  shall  only  observe,  that  the  types, 
or  letters,  are  distributed  each  kind  by  itself,  in  cases.  The  composi- 
tor, placing  the  copy  of  the  work  before  him,  picks  up  letter  by  letter, 
and  arranges  them  in  order  to  form  words  and  sentences,  till  he  has 
composed  a  page,  and  so  on  for  the  whole  work  ;  the  degree  of  expe- 
dition and  despatch,  with  which  this  is  carried  on,  is  not  easily  to  be 
conceived.  The  instrument  in  which  the  letters  are  set  is  called  a 
composing  stick.  When  full,  the  compositor  empties  it  on  a  thin  board, 
called  a ^ai/ey,  till  he  has  composed  a  page.  When  a  certain  num- 
ber of  pages  are  completed,  they  are  firmly  placed  in  due  order  in  a 
chase,  which  is  a  rectangular  iron  frame.  In  this  condition  the  work 
is  called  a. form;  and  the  next  thing  is  to  work  it  off  at  the priyiling'- 
press.  This  press  is  a  very  complex  machine  ;  its  two  prnicipal  parts 
are  the  body  of  the  press,  which  serves  to  give  the  weight  or  stroke  for 
the  impression,  and  the  carriage  on  which  the  form  is  laid. 

The  wonderful  power  of  the  steam-engine  has  lately  been  applied  to 
work  the  printing-press,  and  two  diflTerent  machines  have  been  invented 
for  the  purpose,  by  means  of  which  three  boys  can  perform  in  one  hour 
the  work  that  in  the  usual  way  would  employ  two  men  eight  hours. 
One  of  the  boys  lays  the  paper  on  the  machine,  which  of  itself  distri- 
butes the  ink  onjthe  forms,  and  prints  first  one  side  of  the  sheet  and  then 
the  other ;    the  second  boy  removes  the  sheets  thus  printed ;    and  the 


^ ENCYCLOPEDIA. ^ 

STEREOTYPE    PRINTING. INK.  —  BOOKS. —  ROLLING-PRESS. 

third  boy  lays  them  evenly  on  the  bank.  In  this  way  a  thousand  sheets 
are  printed  in  an  hour.  The  press  is  of  the  rolling  kind.  Several  of 
the  daily  newspapers^are  now  printed  by  steam,  as  well  indeed  as  many 
valuable  books. 

Stereotype  Printing,  although  on  a  principle  which  was  anterior 
to  printing  by  moveable  types,  was  invented  in  Scotland  by  Mr.  Ged 
and  Mr,  Tilloch  respectively,  carried  to  France,  and  at  a  subsequent 
date  was  introduced  into  England.  It  has  arrived  at  great  perfection 
in  the  United  States,  within  a  few  years. 

The  mode  of  Stereotype  Printing  is  first  to  set  up  a  page  in  the  com- 
mon way,  with  moveable  types  ;  and  when  correct,  a  cast  of  plaster  of 
Paris  is  taken  from  it;  in  this  cast  the  metal  for  the  stereotype  is  pour- 
ed ;  and  so  for  every  page  intended  to  be  stereotyped,  each  page  thus 
forming  a  single  block  or  plate.  When  the  plates  are  prepared,  they 
are  printed  off  like  other  works  ;  if  by  a  rolling  press,  the  plates  are 
bent  to  suit  the  rotundity  of  the  cylinder.  But  it  is  only  for  standard 
books  of  very  extensive  circulation  and  constant  demand,  and  wherein 
no  material  additions,  corrections,  or  alterations,  as  to  plan,  or  size,  are 
wanted,  that  the  stereotype  can  be  used  to  advantage.  Such  works 
are  comparatively  very  ^e\v.  It  is  true,  the  stereotype  plates  can  be, 
and  occasionally  a.-e,  altered  by  punching  out  words  or  letters,  and 
inserting  others ;  but  the  trouble  of  doing  this  is  great,  and,  of  course, 
expensive. 

The  Ink  used  in  printing  is  composed  of  nut  or  lintseed  oil,  boiled 
and  purified  ;  with  this  oil  are  mixed  common  resin,  to  give  it  tenacity, 
and  soap,  to  destroy  the  greasiness  of  the  oil,  and  make  the  ink  easily 
wash  off:  these  ingredients  varying  in  proportions  according  to  the 
experience  of  the  ink-maker,  arc  ground  up  with  a  quantity  of  lamp- 
black. .  For  red  ink,  vermillion  is  used  instead  of  lamp-black. 

Books  are  printed  in  China  from  wooden  blocks,  cut  like  those  used 
in  printing  calico,  paper,  &c.  among  us.  These  blocks  are  made  of  a 
smooth,  firm  wood,  and  of  the  size  of  the  leaf  required  ;  upon  the  face 
side  some  able  penman  draws  out  the  several  letters  with  a  kind  of 
pencil ;  when  finished,  the  block  is  cut  by  the  sculptor,  with  his  sharp 
small  instruments,  which  make  all  the  characters  ap])ear  in  relievo 
on  the  wood.  Their  paper  is  inferior  to  ours  in  color.  It  is  made  of 
the  inner  bark  or  rind  of  a  kind  of  rushes,  beaten  up  with  water  into  a 
pulp  or  paste,  and  formed  in  moulds  much  like  ours.  The  advantage 
of  the  Chinese  printing  consists  in  this,  that  they  are  not  obliged  to 
take  off  the  whole  edition  at  once,  but  print  their  books  as  they  need 
them.  Their  blocks  are  easily  retouched  and  made  to  serve  again,  and 
there  needs  no  corrector  of  the  press.  Its  disadvantages  are,  that  a 
large  room  will  scarcely  hold  all  the  blocks  of  a  moderate  volume  ;  the 
color  of  their  ink  easily  fades ;  and  their  paper  is  too  thin,  apt  to  tear, 
and  subject  to  worms,  whence  it  is  that  we  see  so  few  ancient  books  in 
China. 

Rollimz-press  Printing  is  employed  in  taking  offprints,  or  impressions 
from  copper-plates  engraven  or  etched ;  an  account  of  which  shall 
appear  under  the  article  Engraving. 

VARNISH  is  a  thick,  glossy  liquor,  used  by  painters,  gilders,  and 
otlier  artificers,  to  give  a  gloss  and  lustre  to  their  works,  and  also  to 


208  ■  FAMILY 


JAPA^'NING. — BRICKS. 


defend  them  from  the  weather.  There  are  several  kinds  of  varnish, 
which  are  divided  into  two  classes,  spirit  and  oil  varnishes.  The  finest 
of  the  former  class  is  the  copal  varnish,  made  of  gum-copal  dissolved  in 
spirit  of  wine,  or  essential  oils.  Shell  lac,  and  the  other  gum-resins 
are  next.  The  white  varnish  is  made  of  oil  of  turpentnie,  fine  turpen- 
tine, and  mastic.  The  tra:..  parent  varnish,,  used  for  window-blinds,  is 
made  of  mastic  dissolved  alone,  or  with  the  addition  of  Canada  balsam, 
in  oil  of  turpentine.  Drying  varnish  is  made  of  oil,  turpentine,  and 
sandrac,  melted  together.  The  common  varnish  is  only  yellow  or  black 
resin  dissolved  in  oil  of  turpentine!  The  word  varnish  is  also  used  for 
the  glossy  coat  wherewith  potters'  ware,  China  ware,  &:c.,  are  covered 
to  give  them  a  lustre  ;  but  the  common  term,  slaze,,  is  more  proper,  as 
it  is  in  reality  a  glass.     This  will  be  noticed  under  Pottery. 

JAPANNING  is  the  art  of  varnishing  and  drawing  figures  on  wood, 
in  the  same  manner  as  is  done  by  the  natives  of  Japan.  The  substan- 
ces which  admit  of  being  japanned  are  almost  every  kind  that  are  dry 
and  rigid,  or  not  too  flexible  or  extensible  ;  as  wood,  metals  leather,  and 
prepared  paper.  Wood  and  metals  do  not  require  any  other  prepara- 
tion, bnt  to  have  their  surface  perfectly  even  and  clean  :  but  leather 
should  be  securely  strained,  either  on  frames  or  boards,  as  its  bending 
or  forming  folus  would  otherwise  crack  and  force  off"  the  coats  of  var- 
nish ;  the  paper  should  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  have  a  pre- 
vious strong  coat  of  size;  but  it  is  rarely  made  the  subject  of  japan- 
ning, till  it  is  converted  into  papier  macht>\  that  is,  reduced  to  a  pulp, 
mixed  with  gum  and  size,  and  dried  to  hardness,  or  wrought  by  other 
means  into  such  form,  that  its  original  state,  particularly  with  respect 
to  flexibility,  is  lost. 

Bricks  are  formed  by  means  of  a  wooden  mould,  dried  in  the  open 
air,  and  then  baked  or  burnt,  to  serve  the  purposes  of  building.  The 
first  step  in  the  process  of  brick  making  is  casting  the  clay.  The  next 
step  is  to  tread  or  temper  it.  This  is  commonly  done  by  means  of  ox- 
en who  are  employed  to  tread  it.  The  goodness  of  brick  depends  chief- 
ly upon  tliis  preparation.  The  clay  itself,  before  it  is  wrought,  is  gen- 
erally brittle,  but  by  v/orking  and  incorporating  it  together  with  water, 
the  whole  becomes  a  homogeneous  paste.  Bricks  are  commonly  of  a 
red  color.  Bricks  may  be  made  of  any  clayey  earth  that  is  clear  of 
stones,  but  all  will  not  burn  red.  The  clay  ought  to  be  dug  before 
winter,  but  not  made  into  bricks  before  spring. 

Bricks  are  burnt  either  in  a  kiln  or  clamp.  Those  in  a  kiln  are  burnt 
either  with  wood  or  coal,  as  may  suit  the  particular  convenience  of  the 
spot  for  obtaining  most  readily  one  or  the  other  material ;  and  as  the 
fire  can  be,  in  kilns,  continued  at  the  pleasure  of  the  superintendant, 
the  bricks  can  be  more  equally  and  uniformly  burnt.  About  London, 
however,  bricks  are  chiefly  burnt  in  clftmps,  built  of  the  bricks  them- 
selves, after  the  manner  of  arching  in  kilns,  with  a  vacancy  between 
every  two  bricks  for  the  fire  to  play  through  ;  but  with  this  difference, 
they  span  it  over  by  making  the  bricks  project  one  over  another  on 
both  sides  of  the  place,  for  the  wood  and  coal  to  lie  in  till  they  meet, 
and  are  bounded  by  the  bricks  at  the  top,  which  close  all  up.  The 
place  for  the  fuel  is  carried  up  straight  on  both  sides,  till  about  three 
feet  high;  then  they  almost  fill  it  with  wood,  and  over  that  lay  a  cover- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  209 


TILES. 


ing  of  coal.  They  also  strew  coal  over  the  clamp,  upon  every  row  of 
bricks,  which  are  packed  loosely,  so  that  the  fire  may  more  readily 
communicate  witli  each  row  ;  and  lastly  the_y  kindle  the  wood,  which 
gives  fire  to  the  coal ;  when  all  is  consumed,  they  conclude  the  bricks 
are  sufficiently  burnt. 

TILE  is  aBort  of  thin  laminated  brick,  used  for  the  roofs  of  houses; 
or,  more  properly,  a  fat  clayey  earth,  moulded  into  a  certain  form,  and 
dried  and  burnt  like  bricks.  Tiles  are  made  of  better  clay  than  bricks. 
The  method  of  burning  is  similar  to  brick,  but  tiles  are  always  burnt  in 
kilns.  There  are  various  kinds  of  tiles  for  building  ;  but  hollow  and 
pi  tin  tiles  are  the  chief.  Dutch  tiles,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called 
Flemish  tiles,  are  of  two  kinds,  ancient  and  modern.  The  ancient,  for 
chimney  foot-pieces  ;  they  were  painted  with  ancient  figures  and  mo- 
resque  devices,  but  came  short,  both  as  to  the  design  and  coloring,  of 
the  modern  ones.  The  more  modern  Dutch  tiles  are  commonly  used 
plastered  up  in  the  jambs  of  chimneys,  and  are  much  better  glazed  and 
painted  than  the  former  kind.  But  these  seem  to  be  made  of  the  same 
white  clay  of  which  glazed  earthenware  is  made.  Both  these  are  now 
fallen  into  disuse.  The  blue  slate  used  to  cover  houses  are  sometimes 
called  tiles. 

A  PIPE  is  a  well  knov/n  machine,  used  in  smoking  tobacco,  consist- 
ing of  a  long  slender  tube,  made  of  clay.  Pipes  are  of  various  fashions, 
as  long,  short,  plain,  worked,  white,  varnished,  unvarnished,  arid  of  va- 
rious colors,  &c.  The  Turks  use  pipes  three  or  four  feet  long,  made  of 
rushes,  or  wood  bored  ;  at  the  end  of  which  they  fix  a  kind  of  nut  of 
baked  earth,  which  serves  as  a  bowl,  and  which  they  take  off'  after  smo- 
king. The  clay  witli  which  pipes  are  made  is  brought  to  the  makers 
in  lumps  of  six  or  eight  inches  square.  When  used,  it  is  thrown  into 
a  large  pan,  moistened  with  water,  and  beaten  and  moulded  till  it  is  soft 
and  mellow,  and  exceedingly  well  tempered.  Thence  it  is  removed  to 
the  rolling  board,  where  the  workman  readily  breaks  off  an  exact  quan- 
tity for  a  couple  of  pipes,  rolls  out  both  at  once,  one  in  each  hand,  to  the 
proper  length  and  form,  leaving  a  sufficient  quantity  at  one  end  for  the 
bowl  ;  then  lays  them  on  a  board  by  dozens,  where  they  remain  till 
they  have  acquired  a  greater  degree  of  hardness.  The  tube  is  then 
formed  by  running  a  wire  through  the  clay.  The  pipe,  before  the  wire 
is  withdrawn,  is  closed  in  a  mould  of  polished  iron,  and  now,  by  the 
help  of  another  machine,  the  bowl  instantly  receives  its  form,  and  the 
whole  pipe  is  returned  in  its  exact  figure.  It  is  now  again  left  to 
harden  yet  more,  before  it  undergoes  its  last  smoothing  and  finish, 
which  is  quickly  done  by  a  kind  of  knife,  &;c.  and  thence  it  is  taken  to 
the  kiln. 

The  Kilns  are  of  various  sizes ;  some  hold  twenty  gross,  others  eighty, 
and  even  a  hundred  ;  but  the  more  usual  size  contains  forty  or  fifty 
gross  of  pipes.  Here  they  are  six  or  eight  hours  exposed  to  a  strong 
clear  fire.  This  brings  them  to  their  state  of  whiteness;  and  is  the 
last  operation.     They  are  then  taken  and  packed  up  in  boxes  for  sale. 

POTTERY  is  the  art  of  making  earthen  pots  or  vessels  ;  or  the  man- 
ufacture of  earthenware.     The  clay  used  for  this  purpose,  is  a  soft,  vis- 
cous earth,  of  different  kinds  and  properties,  and  may  be  found  in  va- 
18* 


210  FAMILY 


POTTERY. 


rious  places.  The  better  kinds  of  English  stiiiie  ware  are  composed  of 
pipe  clny  and  pounded  Jlints,  in  the  proportion  of  four  parts  of  flints  to 
eighteen  parts  of  clay.  The  yelfotvish  iv/iite  or  queeyi  3  ware,  so  gene- 
rally in  use,  is  made  of  the  same  materials,  with  larger  proportions  of 
clay.  The  common  red earthenuare  appears  to  be  merely  common  clay, 
similar  to  that  with  which  bricks  are  made.  The  first  is  glazed^  by 
throwing  sea-salt  into  the  furnace  in  which  it  is  baked,  when  the  heat 
is  strong :  the  salt  is  converted  into  vapor,  and  this  being  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  stone-ware,  vitrifies  it,  and  forms  an  excellent  glazing. 
The  qucfiis  ware  is  glazed  by  dipping  the  baked  ware  into  a  mixture  of 
the  consistence  of  cream,  composed  of  white  lead,  ground  flint,  and 
ground  glass,  and  submitting  the  ware  afterwards  to  heat.  The  com- 
position is,  however,  sometimes  varied.  But  the  glaze  for  most  of  our 
common  earthenware  containing  so  large  a  portion  of  lead,  such  ves- 
sels should  never  be  employed  for  acid  liquors  of  any  kind,  as  the  acid 
will  dissolve  the  lead,  and  thus  render  whatever  is  contained  in  the  ves- 
sel poisonous. 

Among  the  instruments  used  in  pottery,  the  wheel  and  Inthe  are  the 
principal  ;  the  first  for  large  works,  the  second,  for  small.  The  potter's 
wheel  consists  principally  in  its  nw/,  which  is  its  beam  or  axis,  the 
pivot  of  which  plays  perpendicularly  ona  free-stone  sole  at  the  bottom. 
From  the  four  corners  of  this  beam  proceed  four  iron  bars,  which,  form- 
ing diagonal  lines  with  the  beam,  descend  and  are  fastened  at  bottom 
to  a  strong  wooden  circle.  On  the  top  of  the  nut  is  laid  a  piece  of  the 
clay  to  be  turned  and  fashioned.  The  wheel,  thus  disposed,  is  encom- 
passed on  all  sides  with  four  diflferent  pieces  of  wood,  sustained  on  a 
wooden  frame.  The  hind  piece,  which  is  that  whereon  the  workman 
sits,  is  made  a  little  inclining  towards  the  wheel.  On  the  fore  pieces 
is  placed  the  prepared  clay  ;  by  the  workman's  side  is  a  trough  of  wa- 
ter, wherewith,  from  time  to  time,  he  wets  his  hands,  to  prevent  the 
clay's  sticking  to  them.  The  potter  having  prepared  Jiis  clay,  and  laid 
a  piece  of  it,  suitable  to  the  work  he  intends,  on  the  top  of  the  beam, 
turns  the  wheel,  till  it  has  got  the  proper  velocity  ;  forming  the  cavity 
of  the  vessel,  and  widening  it  till  it  has  received  its  intended  form. 
When  the  vessel  is  found  to  be  too  thick,  he  pares  off  what  is  redun- 
dant with  an  instrument.  When  the  vessel  is  finished,  he  takes  it  olT 
the  circular  head  by  a  wire  passed  underneath  the  vessel. 

The  potter's  lathe  is  also  a  kind  of  wheel,  but  simpler  and  slighter 
than  the  former.  Its  three  principal  parts  are  an  iron  beam  or  axis, 
placed  perpendicularly  ;  a  small  wooden  wheel,  placed  horizontally  at 
the  top  of  the  beam,  and  serving  to  form  the  vessel  on  ;  and  a  thick 
wooden  wheel  placed  horizontally  at  tho  bottom.  The  potters  work 
with  the  lathe  with  the  same  instruments,  and  after  the  same  manner, 
as  with  the  wheel.  The  lathe  and  wheel  serve  only  to  give  the  fonn 
of  the  body  of  the  vessel ;  the  feet,  handles,  and  other  occasional  orna- 
ments are  made  and  set  by  tho  hand.  If  there  be  any  sculpture  inthe 
work,  it  is  usually  done  in  earthen  or  wooden  moulds,  and  afterwards 
gtuck  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel. 

DELrTWARE  is  a  kind  of  pottery  of  baked  earth,  covered  with 
an  enamel,  or  white  glazing,  which  gives  it  tho  appearance  of  porcelain. 
It  is  sometimes  ornamented  with  paintings  of  figures,  &c.    The  basis 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  211 


rOKCELAIN GLASS — WORKING    OR  BLOWING   ROUND    GLASS. 

of  this  pottery  is  elay,  which  is  mixed  in  such  quantity  as  to  produce 
enough  ductility  to  be  worked,  moulded,  and  turned  easily,  without 
cracking  or  shrinking  too  much  in  drying  or  baking.  The  vessels,  be- 
ing slightly  baked,  are  covered  with  an  enamel  or  glazing.  They  are 
then  painted  with  colors  composed  ofmetallic  oxides,  mixed  and  ground 
with  fusible  glass.  When  dry,  they  are  again  baked,  and  exposed  to  a 
heat  capable  of  fusing  the  enamel,  and  conipleting  the  baking. — The 
furnace  and  colors  used  lor  painting  this  ware  are  the  same  as  for  por- 
celain. For  making  these  enamels  there  arc  many  recipes,  but  all  of 
them  are  composed  of  sand  and  flints,  vitrifiable  salts,  and  oxide  of  lead 
or  tin.  The  sand  must  be  {)erlectly  vitrified,  so  as  to  form  a  gloss  con- 
siderably fusible.  The  kinds  of  clay  chiefly  used  for  delft-ware  are 
blue  and  green  :  to  give  it  a  greater  solidity,  some  red  clay  is  added; 
which  on  account  of  its  ferruginous  matter,  possesses  the  requisite 
bindmg  quality.  Three  pi^rts  blue  clay,  two  red,  and  five  marl,  form 
the  composition  used  in  several  manufactures. 

PORCELAIN,  or  CHINA, as  it  is  commonly  called,  because  former- 
ly brought  chiefly  from  that  country,  is  imported  occasionally  into  Eu- 
rope from  many  other  places  of  the  east,  especially  Japan,  Siam,  Svu^at, 
and  Persia.  But  very  good  porcelain  is  now  made  in  various  parts  of 
England,  as  well  as  at  Dresden,  and  in  France. 

The  Chinese  call  this  manufacture  tse-ki  ;  the  origin  of  the  term por- 
celnin  does  not  appear  to  be  decidedly  known  :  the  French  call  iXpor- 
claine ;  the  Italians  porcellana.  Whether  porcelain  was  known  to  the 
lloroans  is  uncertain,  as  the  Roman  writers  give  us  no  decisive  infor- 
mation concerning  it.  It  is  not  known  who  was  the  inventor  of  this  el- 
egant manufacture  ;  the  Chinese  annals  are  said  to  be  silent  about  it ; 
it  appears,  however,  pretty  certain,  that  porcelain  must  have  been 
known  as  early  as  the  fifth  century. 

It  is  said  that  the  porcelain  of  China  is  made  chiefly,  if  not  entirely, 
at  Kingteching,  which  has  had  the  honor  of  supplying  the  greatest  part 
of  the  world  with  this  commodity,  but  England  now  bids  fair  to  deprive 
China  of  much  of  her  traffic  in  this  elegant  production. 

The  most  perfect  and  beautiful  porcelains  of  Japan  and  China  are 
said  to  be  composed  of  two  distinct  earths;  a  porcelain  is  produced 
which  scarcely  vitrifies  at  the  utmost  furnace  heat  which  art  can  ex- 
cite. It  is  also  very  hard,  beautifully  semi-transparent,  very  white 
when  not  artificially  coloured,  tough  and  cohesive,  so  that  it  may  be 
made  very  thin,  and  bears  sudden  heating  and  coolhig  without  crack- 
ing. 

GLASS  is  a  transparent,  solid,  brittle  body,  produced  by  a  mixture 
of  earthy  or  metallic  with  salin^  substances  melted  together  by  an  in- 
tense heat.  There  are  three  principal  kinds  of  glass,  distinguished  by 
tlie  form  or  manner  of  working  them,  viz.,  round  glass,  as  our  vessels, 
phials,  drinking  glasses,  kc.  :  table  or  window  glass,  of  which  there  are 
divers  kinds;  and  crown-glass  and  plate-glass,  or  looking-glass. 

WORKING  OR  BLOWING  ROUND  GLASS.  The  furnace  in 
which  the  glass  is  melted  is  round,  and  has  several  apertures,  through 
one  of  which  the  fuel  is  introduced;  the  others  serve  to  lade  out  the 
melted  metal,  wnich  is  fused  in  pots  made  of  tobacco-pipe  clay,  or  some 


212  FAMILY 


BOTTLES— PUTTY. 


Other  material  capable  of  resisting  the  heat.  When  the  ingredients 
jire  perfectly  fused  and  sufficiently  hot,  part  of  the  melted  matter  is  ta- 
ken out  at  the  end  of  a  hollow  tube  about  three  feet  long,  which  is  dip- 
ped into  it  and  turned  about  till  a  sufficient  quantity  is  taken  up  ;  the 
workman  th«n  roils  it  gently  upon  a  plate  of  iron  or  marble,  to  unite 
it  more  intimately;  he  then  blows  through  the  tube,  till'  the  melted 
mass  at  the  extremity  swells  into  a  bubble ;  after  which,  he  rolls  it 
again  on  a  smooth  surface  to  polish  it,  and  repeats  the  blowing  till  the 
glass  is  brought  to  the  size  and  form  necessary  for  the  required  vessel ; 
he  shaping  it  with  pincers  or  scissors,  according  to  circumstances. 

Crown  or  Window  Glass  is  formed  in  a  similar  manner,  except  that 
the  liquid  mass  is  blown  into  large  globes,  and  clt:;;  bed  from  the  first 
iron  tube  by  the  assistance  of  a  second  person,  who  fixes  his  iron  tube 
at  the  opposite  side  of  the  globe  ;  and  the  man  who  originally  blew  it, 
then  separates  his  tube  from  it  ;  the  moutli  of  the  globe  is  gradually 
widened  til!  it  ultimately  becomes,  in  the  hand  of  the  workman  a  cir- 
cular planisphere. 

Plate  Glass  for  Loakino;  Glasses  and  some  superior  windows,  is  made 
by  causing  the  melted  glass  to  flow  upon  a  table  made  either  of  pot- 
metal  or  of  copper,  with  iron  ledges  to  confine  the  melted  matter  ;  and 
as  it  cools,  a  metallic  roller  is  passed  over  it,  to  reduce  it  to  an  uniform 
thickness.  After  being  annealed,  that  is  cooled  in  an  oven  or  furnace 
very  gradually,  it  is  ground  and  polished  thus  : — The  glass  is  laid  hor- 
izontally upon  a  flat  stone  table  made  of  a  very  fine  grained  free-stone; 
then  taking  a  smaller  piece  of  rough  glass,  and  fastening  it  to  a  heavy 
wooden  plank,  the  workmen  continue  to  rub  one  glass  backwards  and 
forwards  upon  anotht^r,  till  they  acquire  a  great  degree  of  smoothness. 
While  they  are  thus  employed,  they  pour  in  water  and  sand,  then  a 
finer  sort  of  sand,  and  lastly  powder  of  smalt.  When  the  grinder  has 
done  his  part,  by  bringing  the  glass  to  an  exact  plainness,  it  is  turned 
over  to  the  polisher,  who  with  the  fine  powder  of  Tripoli  stone,  or  em- 
ery, and  a  putty  formed  of  lead  and  tin  calcined  together,  brings  it  to 
a  perfect  evenness  and  lustre. 

Glass  is  colored  blue  by  oxide  of  cobalt  ;  red  by  the  oxide  of  gold  ; 
green  by  oxides  of  copper  or  iron  ;  yellow  by  oxides  of  silver  or  anti- 
mony ;  and  violet  by  oxide  of  manganese. 

BOTTLES.  Glass  bottles  are  better  for  liquors  than  those  of  stone. 
Foul  glass  bottles  are  cleaned  by  rolling  sand  or  small  shot  in  them. 
But  it  frequently  happens,  that  some  of  the  shot  are  left  behind  ;  and 
when  wine  or  beer  is  again  poured  into  the  bottles,  this  mineral  poison 
will  slowly  dissolve,  and  impregnate  those  vinous  liquors  with  its  dele- 
terious qualities.  The  sweetness  which  is  sometimes  perceived  in  red 
port  wine  may  arise  from  this  cause,  when  it  is  neither  designed  nor 
suspected.  It  is  much  better,  therefore,  to  use  nothing  but  sand,  or  the 
dust  of  coal,  and  coarse  brown  paper,  which  are  very  effectual  for  the 
purpose. 

PUTTY  sometimes  denotes  powder  of  calcined  tin,  which  is  used 
in  polishing  and  giving  a  lustre  to  works  in  marble,  glass,  iron  and 
steel.  The  putty  commonly  used  by  glaziers  is  composed  of  lintseed 
oil  and  whiting,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  white  lead.  The 
whiting  is  first  powdered  very  fine,  then  oil  and  white  lead  (should  any 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  213 


■NEEDLES. 


be  deemed  necessary  for  the  purpose  intended)  are  well  wrought  with 
it,  and  incorporated  together.  The  mixture  is  beaten  till  the  whole  is 
thoroughly  blended,  and  becomes  a  tenacious  mass  like  dough. 

A  PIN  is  an  article  well  known.  It  is  not  easy  to  trace  the  invention 
of  this  useful  .implement.  It  is  first  noticed  in  the  English  statute- 
book,  in  the  year  1483,  prohibiting  foreign  manufactures.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIlI.  it  would  seem  pins  were  then  considered  a  new  inven- 
tion, and  probably  brought  from  France,  where  they  were  esteemed  ar- 
ticles of  luxury.  Hence  arose  the  term  pin-money,  an  allowance  made 
by  the  husband  to  the  wife  fur  her  own  spending.  The  art,  however, 
of  making  pins  from  brass  wire,  was  not  known  in  England  before 
1543  ;  before  that  period  they  were  either  made  of  bone,  ivory,  or  box. 

Pins  are  made  in  the  following  manner  : — The  brass  wire,  reduced 
to  its  proper  dimensions  by  drawing,  is  straightened,  and  afterwards 
cut  into  lengths  of  three  or  four  yards,  and  then  into  smaller  ones,  ev- 
ery length  being  sufficient  for  six  pins  ;  each  end  of  these  is  ground  to 
a  point,  upon  gnnd-stones  by  boys,  who  will  point  16, tOO  pins  in  an 
hour.  When  the  wire  is  thus  pointed,  a. pin  is  taken  off  from  each 
end  ;  and  this  is  repeated,  till  it  is  cut  into  six  pieces.  The  heads  are 
next  formed  by  means  of  a  spinning  wheel  ;  one  piece  of  wire  being 
thus  with  astonishing  rapidity  wound  round  another,  and  the  interior 
one  being  drawn  out,  leaves  a  hollow  tube  between  ina  circumvolu- 
tions ;  it  is  then  cut  with  shears,  every  two  circinnvolulions  or  turns  of 
the  wire  forming  one  head  ;  these  are  softened  oy  placing  them  in  a 
furnace  till  red  hot.  When  cold  they  are  distributed  to  children,  who 
sit  with  anvils  and  hammers  before  them,  which  they  work  with  their 
feet  by  means  of  a  lathe,  and  taking  up  one  of  the  lengths,  they  thrust 
the  blunt  end  into  a  qaantity  of  the  heads  which  lie  before  them,  and 
catching  one  at  the  extremity,  they  apply  them  immediately  between 
the  anvil  and  the  hammer,  and  by  a  motion  or  two  of  the  foot,  the  pin 
and  the  head  are  fixed  together  in  a  very  expeditious  manner.  The  pin 
is  now  thrown  into  a  copper  containmg  a  solution  of  tin,  and  the  lees 
of  wine.  Here  it  remains  for  some  time,  when  it  assumes  a  white, 
though  dull  appearance  ;  to  give  it  a  polish,  it  is  put  into  a  tub  with  a 
quantity  of  bran,  which  is  set  in  motion  by  turning  a  shaft  that  runs 
through  its  centre,  and  thus,  by  means  of  friction,  it  becomes  entirely 
bright.  The  pin  being  complete,  the  bran  is  winnowed  from  it,  leaving 
the  pin  fit  to  be  stuck  in  paper  for  immediate  sale.  Pins  are  distin- 
guished in  commerce  by  numbers  ;  the  smallest  are  called  mtnikins  ; 
the  next  short  whUes ;  the  next  larger  ones.  No.  3,  3^,  4,  4^,  and  5,  to 
the  I4th  ;  whence  they  go  by  twos  ;  viz.  16,  18,  and  20,  which  is  the 
largest  size.  Pins  are  sold  in  papers  and  packets  as  thus  numbered, 
and  also  by  the  pound  weight  in  assorted  sizes.  There  are  also  black 
pins,  pins  with  double  heads,  &;c. 

NEEDLES  were  first  made  in  England  by  a  native  of  India,  in 
1545,  but  the  art  was  lost  at  his  death  ;  it  was  liowever  recovered  by 
one  Christopher  Greening,  in  1560.  This  familiar  little  instrument 
makes  a  very  considerable  article  of  commerce  ;  and  the  consumption 
is  almost  incredible.  The  German  and  Hungarian  steel  is  of  most  re- 
pute for  needles.  The  steel  being  placed  in  the  fire,  and  afterwards 
hammered  to  bring  it  to  a  round  form,  is  passed  through  successive 


'ZU  FAMILY 


BLEACHING. 


holes  of  the  wire-drawing  machine,  till  it  is  of  the  proper  size  ;  it  is 
then  cut  into  suitable  lengths  ;  these  pieces  are  flatted  at  one  end  on 
the  anvil,  to  form  the  head  or  eye  ;  they  are  then  put  into  the  fire  to 
soften  them  further,  thence  taken  out,  and  pierced  at  the  extreme  of  - 
the  flat  part  on  the  anvil,  by  a  puncheon  of  well-tempered  steel,  and 
laid  on  a  leaden  block  to  bring  out,  with  another  puncheon,  the  small 
piece  of  steel  remaining  in  the  eye.  The  corners  are  then  filed  off"  the 
square  of  the  heads,  and  a  small  cavity  filed  on  each  side  of  the  flat  of 
the  head  ;  this  done,  the  point  is  formed  with  a  file,  and  the  whole 
filed  oyer  :  they  are  then  made  red  hot  over  a  charcoal  fire,  and  after- 
wards thrown  into  a  basin  of  cold  water  to  harden.  When  hardened, 
they  are  laid  in  a  shovel  on  a  brisk  fire,  to  temper  and  take  off  their 
britlleness.  They  are  then  straightened  one  after  another  with  the 
hammer;  the  next  process  is  the  polishing  :  12  or  15,000  needles  are 
ranged  in  small  heaps  on  a  piece  of  new  buckram  sprinkled  with  em- 
ery dust  ;  they  are  afterwards  sprinkled  with  oil  of  olives  ;  lastly  the 
whole  is  made  up  into  a  roll,  and  laid  on  a  polishing  table,  and  over  it  a 
thick  plank  loaded  with  stones,  which  two  men  work  backwards  and 
forwards,  till  the  needles  are  polished.  When  taken  out,  they  are 
washed  with  hot  water  and  soap,  and  wiped  in  bran.  The  good  are 
now  separated  from  the  bad,  and  the  points  smoothed  on  an  emery 
stone.  This  operation  finishes  them ;  and  nothing  remains  but  to 
make  them  up  in  packets. 

Needles  are  distinguished  into  common  and  Whitechapel,  this  last  by 
having  a  c  marked  upon  each  needle;  sharps^  butweens^  and  blunts; 
darkling  needles,  double  longs,  and  No.  50,  &c.  ;  besides  which  there  is 
the  netting  needle,  the  knitting  needle,  the  glover''s  needle,  with  a  trian- 
gular point,  the  tambour  needle,  surgeon^s  needles,  &c. 

BLEACHING  is  tho  art  of  whitening  linens,  stuffs,  silk,  and  many 
other  substances. 

Although  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  India,  Egypt  and  Syria,  knew 
in  some  sort  a  method  of  carrying  off"  the  coloring  matters  with  which 
cloth  is  stained  ;  and  although  Pliny  mentions  that  the  Gauls  were  ac- 
quainted with  a  lixivium  extracted  from  the  ashes  of  vegetables,  and 
knew  how  to  combine  it  with  oil  to  form  soap,  yet  their  knowledge  of 
bleaching  was  very  imperfect.  Even  in  India,  at  the  present  time,  it  is 
said  that  the  art  of  bleaching  is  no  further  advanced  than  it  was  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus.  Indeed  in  Europe,  till  toward  the  end  of  the  18th 
century,  the  art  of  bleaching  advanced  slowly  ;  but  the  discovery  of 
oxymuriatic  acid^  as  a  material  for  bleaching,  has  given  an  impulse  im- 
known  in  any  other  art. 

Blenching;  Silk.  Raw  Silk  is  put  into  a  thin  linen  bag,  thrown  into 
a  vessel  of  boiling  river  water  in  which  soap  has  been  dissolved,  and 
then  boiled  two  or  three  hours,  the  bag  being  turned  out  several  times  ; 
taken  out,  beaten,  and  washed  in  cold  water,  mixed  with  soap  and  a 
little  indigo.  The  indigo  water  being  slightly  wrung  out,  the  silk  is 
put  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water  ;  after  taking  it  out  of  which,  it  is 
wrung,  and  all  the  water  and  soap  expressed  ;  shaken  out  to  untwist 
and  separate  the  threads  ;  and  hung  up  in  a  kind  of  stove  made  on 
purpose,  where  sulphur  is  burnt,  the  vapor  from  which  gives  the  last 
degree  of  whiteness  to  the  silk. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  215 


BLEACHING. 


Bleaching  of  woollen  stuffs.  There  are  three  ways  of  whitening 
these  ;  the  first,  with  water  and  soap;  the  second  with  vapor  of  sul- 
phur ;  the  third,  with  chalk,  indigo,  and  vapor  of  sulphur.  For  the 
first :  the  stuffs,  being  taken  from  the  fulling  mill,  are  put  into  soaped 
water  rather  hot,  and  worked  afresh  by  force  of  arms  over  a  bench, 
which  finishes  the  whitening  the  fulling  mill  had  begun  ;  and  lastly 
washed  out  in  clear  water  and  dried  ;  this  is  called  the  natural  way  of 
bleaching.  In  the  second  method  they  begin  by  washing  the  stuff  in 
river  water  ;  it  is  then  laid  to  dry  on  poles,  and,  when  half  dry,  spread 
out  in  a  kind  of  stove  well  closed,  wherein  is  burnt  sulphur  ;  the  va- 
por, diffusing  itself,  sticks  by  degrees  over  all  the  stuff,  and  gives  it  a 
fine  whitening ;  this  is  commonly  called  bleaching  by  thejiower.  In  the 
third  method,  after  the  stuffs  have  been  washed,  they  are  thrown  into 
cold  water  impregnated  with  chalk  and  indigo ;  after  they  have  been 
well  agitated  here,  they  are  washed  afresh  in  clear  water,  half  dried  on 
poles,  and  spread  in  a  stove  to  receive  the  vapor  of  the  sulphur,  which 
finishes  the  operation.  This  is  not  esteemed  the  best  method  of  bleach- 
ing, though  agreeable  enough  to  the  sight.  It  may  be  hero  observed, 
that  when  a  stuff  has  once  received  the  steam  of  sulphur,  it  will  scarce- 
ly receive  any  beautiful  dye  but  black  or  blue,  unless  well  washed  in 
alkaline  ley,  and  rinsed  previously  to  being  put  into  the  dye  vat. 

Bleaching  of  Hollands  or  fine  linens.  After  taking  them  from  the 
loom,  while  yet  raw,  they  are  steeped  in  clean  water,  rinsed  out,  and 
cleared  of  their  filth  in  a  tub  filled  with  a  cold  lixivium  or  ley.  When 
taken  out  of  the  ley,  they  are  washed  in  clean  water,  spread  on  a  mea- 
dow and  watered  from  time  to  time.  After  lying  a  certain  time  on  the 
ground,  they  are  boiled  in  a  new  ley  of  potash  or  barilla,  and  again 
washed  in  clean  water,  soaped  with  black  soap,  passed  through  rubbing 
boards,  and  the  soap  washed  out  in  clean  water  ;  they  are  then  steeped 
in  sour  milk,  which  finishes  their  whitening  and  scouring,  gives  a  soft- 
ness,'and  makes  them  cast  a  little  nap  :  when  taken  out  of  the  milk, 
they  are  wasiied  in  clean  water  for  the  last  time.  After  all  this  pro- 
cess, they  give  the  linen  its  first  blue,  by  passing  it  through  water, 
wherein  a  little  starch  and  smalt,  or  powder  blue  has  been  steeped. 
Lastly,  the  proper  stiffness  and  lustre  are  given  with  starch,  pale  malt, 
and  certain  gums,  the  quantity  and  quality  whereof  is  adjusted  accord- 
ing to  occasion.  In  fine  weather,  the  whole  process  of  bleaching  is 
completed  in  a  month's  time ;  in  bad,  it  takes  up  six  weeks  or  more. 

Coarse  linens  are  taken  from  the  loom,  and  laid  in  wooden  frames 
full  of  cold  water,  whereby  means  of  wooden  hammers  worked  by  a 
water-mill,  they  are  beaten  so  as  insensibly  to  wash  and  purge  them- 
selves of  their  filth  ;  then  spread  on  the  ground,  where  the  dew 
whicli  they  receive  for  a  week,  takes  off  more  of  their  impurity  ;  they 
are  then  put  into  a  kind  of  wooden  tubs,  or  pans,  with  a  hot  ley  over 
them,  and  afterwards  boiled  with  potash,  kelp,  or  barilla.  Thus  lixivi- 
ated, they  are  again  purged  in  the  mill,  laid  afresh  on  the  ground, 
and  after  about  a  week  more  passed  through  a  second  ley,  and  all  things 
repeated,  till  such  time  as  they  have  acquired  their  just  degree  of 
whiteness. 

The  process  of  bleaching,  not  only  Imens  and  cottons,  but  rags  for 
paper,  with  oxymuriatic  acid,  or  rather  with  solutions  of  oxymuriate  of 
•potash^  or  oxymuriate  oflime^  has  now  been  generally  adopted ;  and  with 


216  FAMILY 


WOOL.  —  CLOTH. 


the  use  of  these,  linens  can  be  ninde  as  white  in  six  days,  as  formerly 
they  were  in  six  weeks. 

WOOL.  Woollen  cloths  are  extensively  manufactured  in  England, 
France,  Netherlands,  Prussia,  and  in  some  other  places  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe.  Those  of  Silesia,  in  Prussia,  arc  among  thn  most 
perfect  produced;  and  they  annually  amount  to  more  than  jC50,(!00 
in  value.  Ihe  woollen  cloths  of  France  have  long  been  distinguished 
for  fineness  and  durability.  In  Spain  and  most  other  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, this  manufacluie  is  in  an  imperfect  state.  Coarse  cloths  are 
made  in  considerable  quantities  in  the  northern  countries;  but  not 
enough  generally  for  home-consumption.  England  furnishes  the  great 
supply  of  woollen  goods  ;  a  due  portion  of  which,  are  of  superior 
excellence.  The  woollen  manufacture  of  that  country  employs  about 
halfa  million  of  persons,  and  amounts  annually  to  more  than  J^  1 6,(X)0,- 
000  sterling. 

Within  a  few  years  great  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  growth  and 
manufacture  of  wool,  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  parti- 
cularly in  ISew  England,  and  some  of  the  Middle  Slates,  It  is  doubt- 
ed, however,  whether  as  much  capital  is  at  present  invested  in  eptab- 
lishments  of  this  kind,  as  a  few  years  ago  ;  and  in  consequence  of  the 
recent  depressed  state  of  the  price  of  wool,  there  are  probably  fewer 
sheep  by  several  millions.  In  a  speech  delivered  in  the  House  of  Rep 
resentatives  on  the  31st  of  January,  1827,  by  the  Hon.  John  Davis,  of 
Massachusetts,  the  amount  of  wool  worked  up  was  estimated  by  that 
gentleman  at  32,000,000  lbs.  and  that  3,0C0,0('0  yards  of  broad,  and 
32,000,000  narrow  cloths  were  annually  produced,  giving  employment 
directly  or  indirectly  to  100,000  persons.  It  was  stated  also,  that  more 
than  one  hundred  millions  capital  were  vested  in  the  growth  and  man- 
ufacture of  wool.  The  number  of  sheep  were  put  at  that  time  at 
15,000,000. 

CLOTH,  in  commerce,  in  its  general  sense,  includes  all  kinds  of 
clothing  woven  or  manufactured  in  the  loom,  except  silk  ;  whether  the 
threads  be  of  wool,  cotton,  hemp,  or  flax.  Cloth  is,  however,  more 
peculiarly  applied  to  woollen  threads  mterwoven ;  some  of  which  are 
called  the  warp,  and  extend  lengthwise,  from  one  end  of  the  piece  to 
the  other :  the  others  are  called  the  woof,  and  disposed  across  tlie  first, 
or  breadthwise  of  the  piece.  Cloths  are  of  various  (jualities,  fine, 
coarse,  strong,  &c. ;  some  are  of  different  colours  ;  other  are  wrought 
white,  and  afterwards  dyed  in  the  piece.  Their  breadths  and  lengths  are 
various.  The  goodness  of  woollen  cloth  consists  in  the  wool  being  fine 
and  well  dressed  ;  in  its  being  spun  equally,  always  observing,  how- 
ever, that  the  thread  of  the  warp  be  finer  and  better  twisted  than  that  of 
the  woof;  in  its  being  well  cleared  of  the  knots  and  other  imperfec- 
tions, and  well  cleansed  with  fullers'  earth,  and  afterwards  properly 
dyed,  dressed,  and  pressed. 

Cloth  is  distinguished  by  being  either  plain  or  kersey  woven.  The 
first  method  consists  simply  in  the  threads  crossing  each  other  at  right 
angles  ;  in  the  last  ihey  are  crossed  so  as  to  give  an  additional  strength  to 
the  cloth  ;  hence  it  appears  in  diagonal  hnes  or  rows  running  obliquely 
acroRS  the  piece  ;  and,  in  general,  this  style  of  weaving  adds  thickness 
as  well  as  strength  to  the  fabric.  lu  the  cotton  manufacture,  cloth  so 
woven  is  called  twilled. 


ExNCYCLOPEDIA.  ^l"? 


MANUFACTURING    OF   CLOTHS    FOR    DYEING. 

Manufacturing  of  white  cloths  for  dyeing.  The  wool  is  first  scoured 
in  a  liquor  composed  of  three  parts  of  water,  and  one  of  urine  ;  it  is 
then  drained,  washed  in  running  water,  and  hung  out  to  dry  in  the 
shade.  "When  dry,  it  is  beaten  with  rods  on  hurdles  of  wood,  or  on 
ropes,  to  clear  out  the  dust  and  grosser  filth.  After  beating,  it  is  well 
picked,  to  clear  the  rest  of  the  filth  that  had  escaped  the  rods.  It  is 
now  oiled,  and  carded  on  large  iron  cards,  placed  aslope.  The  best  oil 
for  the  purpose  is  olive  oil.  The  wool  is  now  given  out  to  the  spinners, 
who  first  card  it  on  the  knee  with  small  fine  cards,  then  spin  it  by  a 
wheel,  observing  to  make  the  thread  for  the  warp  smaller  than  that  for 
the  woof,  and  much  closer  twisted.  "When  warped,  it  is  stiffened  with 
size  :  that  which  is  made  with  shreds  of  parchments  is  the  best.  When 
dry,  the  weavers  mount  it  in  the  loom.  Formerly  there  were  two  weav- 
ers to  each  loom,  one  on  each  side,  treading  at  the  same  time  alternate- 
ly on  the  same  treadle ;  i.  e.  now  on  the  right  step,  and  now  on  the 
left,  which  raised  and  lowered  the  shreads  of  the  warp  equally ;  be- 
tween which  they  threw,  transversely,  the  shuttle  from  one  to  the  other. 
This,  however,  is  now  performed  by  one  person,  by  means  of  what  is 
called  a  flying  shuttle.  Each  time  that  the  shuttle  is  thrown,  so  that  a 
thread  of  the  woof  is  inserted  within  the  warp,  he  strikes  it  with  the 
frame  wherein  the  comb,  or  reed,  is  fastened,  between  the  teeth  of  which 
the  threads  of  the  warp  are  passed,  repeating  the  stroke  as  often  as  is 
necessary.  The  weaver  having  continued  his  work,  till  the  whole  warp 
is  filled  will  wool,  the  cloth  is  finished.  It  is  then  taken  off  the  loom 
by  unrolling  it  from  the  beam  whereon  it  had  been  rolled  in  proportion  as 
it  was  woven,  and  given  to  be  cleared  of  the  knots,  ends  of  thread, 
straws,  and  other  filth,  which  is  done  with  little  iron  nippers.  In  this 
condition  it  is  carried  to  the  fuUery,  to  be  scoured  with  urine,  or  fullers' 
earth  well  cleaned  and  steeped  in  water,  put  along  with  the  cloth  into 
the  trough,  wherein  it  is  fulled  ;  and  after  undergoing  a  variety  of  other 
manipulations  and  processes  necessary  to  the  perfection  of  the  cloth, 
and  being  also  dyed  of  the  particular  color  desired,  it  is  ready  for  the 
market. 

The  above  is  the  usual  process  of  weaving  woollen  cloth  in  the  small 
way,  as  formerly,  as  well  as  now  sometimes  practised ;  but  the  ingenu- 
ity of  modern  times  and  the  steam  engine  have  very  materially  altered 
many  of  the  processes  above  described.  The  spinning  in  particular  is 
now,  in  our  largo  manufactories,  no  longer  performed  by  the  hand  and 
the  wheel,  but  a  method  is  adopted  by  which  one  person  can  direct  the 
spinning  of  thirty  or  more  threads  at  once,  and  this  so  regularly  and 
expeditiously  as  lo  set  at  nought  the  former  practice.  The  machinery 
of  such  spinning  is  moved  by  steum,  as  indeed  is  even  the  carding  of  th© 
wool,  and  many  other  processes  not  formerly  thought  capable  of  being 
brought  to  machinery  subjection. 

For  the  manufacture  o^  mixed  cloths,  or  those  wherein  the  wools  are 
first  dyed,  then  mixed,  spun,  and  woven,  of  the  colors  intended,  the 
process,  except  in  what  relates  to  the  color,  is  mostly  the  same  with 
that  just  spoken  of.  The  method  of  adjusting  the  mixture  is  by  first 
making  a  felt  of  the  colors  of  the  intended  cloth,  as  a  specimen;  the 
wool  of  each  color  is  weighed,  and  when  the  specimen  is  to  the  man- 
ufacturer's mind,  he  mixes,  for  use  a  quantity  in  the  same  proportion  ; 

19 


218  FAMILY 


BAIZE.  —  BOMBAZET. WORSTED. — FLANNEL. TAPESTRY. 

estimating  each  grain  of  the  specimen  at  twenty  pounds'  weight  of  the 
same  in  the  cloth  to  be  made. 

BAIZE  is  a  kind  of  coarse,  open,  woollen  stuff,  having  a  long  nap; 
Boraetimes  friezed  on  one  side,  and  sometimes  not,  according  to  the  uses 
for  which  it  is  intended  ;  it  is  of  various  colors,  while,  green,  &c.  It 
is  without  wale,  being  wrought  on  a  loom  with  two  treadles  like  flannel. 
The  manufacture  of  baize  is  very  considerable  in  England,  and  in 
Flanders  about  Lisle  and  Tournay,  &c.  Formerly  the  French,  as  well 
as  the  Italians,  were  furnished  with  baize  from  England ;  but  for 
sometime  the  French  workmen  have  undertaken  to  imitate  it,  and  set 
up  manufactures  of  their  own,  and  with  success,  especially  at  Nantes, 
Montpelier,  &c.  The  export  of  baize  is  very  considerable  to  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  Italy.  Its  chief  use  is  for  the  religious,  and  for  linings 
in  the  army  ;  the  looking-glass  makers  also  use  it  behind  their  glasses, 
to  preserve  the  tin  or  quicksilver ;  and  the  case  makers  to  line  their 
cases. 

SERGE  is  kersey  wove,  and  either  white,  colored,  or  figured.  Co- 
lored serges  and  iigured  Duroys  were  very  commonly  worn  by  the  low- 
er orders  in  the  west  of  England  some  years  ago  ;  but  these  manufac- 
tures have  been  superseded  by  bombasets  and  printed  cottons.  White 
serge  is  however  still  in  use,  and  is  a  useful  and  durable  material,  supe- 
rior in  strength  to  flannel  or  baize. 

BOMBAZET,  a  woollen  manufacture  of  various  colors,  now  much 
worn ;  some  of  it  is  got  up  to  look  glossy  and  very  much  like  silk  ;  it  is 
a  valuable  and  useful  manufacture.  It  is  commonly  woven  plain,  some- 
times however  it  is  twilled. 

WORSTED  is  a  kind  of  hard-twisted  and  doubled  or  trebled  wool- 
len thread.  It  is  chiefly  used  either  to  be  knit  or  woven  into  stockings, 
caps,  gloves,  and  the  like.  The  name  worsted  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  town  of  Worstead  in  Norfolk,  noted  for  line  spinning.  They 
who  write  it  woolsted,  do  it  on  a  supposition  of  the  word  being  formed 
from  wool,  the  matter  of  this  thread. 

FLANNEL,  a  kind  of  soft,  slight,  loose  woollen  stufi",  but  very  warm, 
ootnposed  of  a  woof  and  warp,  and  woven  on  a  loom,  with  two  tread- 
les, after  the  manner  of  baize. 

CALAMINCO,  or  Mmco,  a  sort  of  woollen  stuff  manufactured  in 
England  and  Brabant.  It  has  a  fine  gloss,  and  is  checquered  in  the 
warp,  whence  the  checks  appears  only  on  the  right  side.  Some  cala- 
mincoes  are  quite  plain,  and  others  with  broad  stripes,  some  with  narrow 
■tripes,  and  others  watered. 

TAPESTRY  is  a  curious  kind  of  manufacture,  formerly  used  to 
adorn  a  chamber  or  other  apartment,  by  hanging  or  lining  the  walls. 
The  term  is  appropriated  to  a  kind  of  woven  hangings  of  wool  and  silk, 
frequently  raised  and  enriched  with  gold  and  silver,  representing  figures 
of  men,  animals,  landscapes,  &c. 

Two  methods  are  adopted  in  weaving  tapestry :  in  the  high  warp 
the  cloth  is  woven  perpendicularly,  in  the  low  warp  horizontally.  The 
low  warps  in  Flanders  have  been  said  to  exceed  those  of  France.  Tho 
chief  are  at  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  where  they  have  succeeded  in  hu- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  219 


CAMLET. CARPET. DYEING. 


man  figures,  animals,  and  landscapes,  equally  in  the  designing  and  the 
workmanship.  It  would  be  difficult  and  tedious  to  give  a  clear  idea  of 
the  loom,  or  the  manufacture  of  tapestry  ;  it  may  be  observed  however, 
that  it  is  all  wrought  on  the  wrong  side;  so  that  the  workman  cannot 
see  the  right  side  of  his  tapestry  till  the  piece  is  finished,  and  taken  off 
the  loom. 

CAMLET  or  CAMBLET  is  a  stuff  made  of  hair,  silk,  or  wool.  In 
some,  the  woof  is  hair ;  the  warp,  silk  and  wool  twisted  together.  Cam- 
lets arc  manufactured  in  Holland  and  Ftafuiers,  and  in  Ireland  and  En- 
gland. The  true  or  oriental  camlet  is  made  of  the  pure  hair  of  a  sort 
of  goat,  frequently  about  Angora,  in  Natolia,  and  which  makes  the  riches 
of  that  city. 

A  CARPET  is  a  beautiful  figured  cloth,  used  for  covering  the 
floors  of  rooms,  stairs,  &c.,  generally  composed  of  woollen  stuff,  either 
wrought  in  a  loom,  or  with  the  needle.  Formerly  there  were  Persain 
and  Turkish  carpets  made  of  silk,  and  some  are  still  made  of  this  sub- 
stance, and  of  hair;  but  the  principal  part  are  now  made  of  colored 
woollen  yam,  manufactu?ed  into  divers  patterns  and  figures,  often  ap- 
proaching to  those  of  tapestry.  In  Germany,  carpets  are  made  of 
wool,  and  embellished  with  silk  in  needle-work.  But  the  first  and  most 
extensive  manufactures  of  carpeting  exist  in  England,  particularly 
those  at  Axminster,  Wilton,  Kidderminster,  &;c.  There  are  three  prin- 
cipal sorts  of  carpeting;  the  Turkey,  the  Wilton  or  Brussels,  and  the 
Kidderminster,  or  Scotch.  Both  the  first  and  second  have  smooth 
backs,  and  a  nap  on  one  side.  The  Turkey  is  distinguished  by  a  very 
thick  nap  ;  it  is  the  dearest,  the  warmest,  and  the  most  durable.  The 
Brussels,  as  it  is  called,  though  manufactured  in  England,  has  now 
nearly  superseded  the  Wilton.  The  best  of  the  Kidderminster  and 
Scotch  carpets  are  woven  double,  without  any  nap,  so  as  to  be  similar 
in  texture  on  both  sides,  and  similar  in  pattern,  the  colors  only  being 
reversed.  These  are  cheaper  than  the  Brussels  or  Wilton,  and  nearly 
as  durable.  Carpets  are  sometimes  woven  in  one  piece  for  a  room, 
with  a  border ;  but  most  commonly  they  are  woven  in  long  pieces, 
which  are  afterward  sewed  together  to  make  the  breadth  desired.  At 
Axminster  and  in  London,  excellent  carpets  of  the  Wilton  or  Brussels, 
as  well  as  of  the  Turkey  kind,  are  made  of  the  largest  dimensions, 
suited  to  the  full  extent  of  drawing-rooms,  all  in  one  piece.  The  large 
carpets  are  made  on  frames  and  rollers,  somewhat  similar  to  tapestry. 
Carpet  making  has  become  a  very  flourishing,  and  valuable  manufac- 
ture, which  employs  a  great  number  of  industrious  people,  and  being 
almost  wholly  performed  with  the  produce  of  our  own  country,  is  of 
great  importance  as  a  national  concern.  Carpets  having  hair  or  shag 
on  one  side  only  were  called  by  the  ancients  tapttes,  those  with  shag  on 
both  sides,  amphilapetes.  The  use  of  carpets  is  of  great  antiquity,  and 
they  were  no  less  a  luxury  among  the  ancient  Greeks  than  among  the 
moderns.  They  also  give  an  appellation  to  a  kind  of  knights,  who  be- 
ing mercantile  or  professional  men,  not  addicted  to  the  art  of  war,  re- 
ceive the  honor  of  knighthood  from  the  king's  hands,  kneeling  at  court 
on  a  carpet,  and  hence  called  Carpet- Knights. 

DYEING,  the  art  of  staining  cloth  and  other  articles  of  different  co- 
lori,  is  of  great  antiquity,  as  appears  from  the  traces  of  it  in  the  oldest, 


220  FAMILY 


DYEING. 


sacred  as  well  as  profane,  writers.  The  honor  of  the  invention  is 
attributed  to  the  Tyrians  ;  though  what  lessens  the  merit  of  it  is,  that 
it  is  said  to  have  owed  its  origin  to  chance.  The  juices  of  certain 
fruits,  leaves,  &;c.  accidentally  crushed,  are  supposed  to  have  furnished 
the  first  hint.  Pliny  assures  us,  that  even  in  his  time  the  Gauls  made 
use  of  no  other  dyes  :  it  is  added,  that  colored  earth  and  minerals, 
washed  and  soaked  in  rain,  gave  the  next  dyeing  materials.  But  pur- 
ple, an  animal  juice,  found  in  a  shell-fish,  purpura,  seems  from  history, 
to  have  been  prior  to  any  of  them.  This,  indeed,  was  reserved  for  the 
use  of  kings  and  princes;  private  persons  were  forbidden  by  law  to 
w^ear  any  of  it.  The  discovery  of  its  tinging  quality  is  said  to  have 
been  taken  from  a  dog,  which,  having  caught  one  of  the  purple  fishes 
among  the  rocks,  and  eaten  it  up,  stained  his  mouth  and  beard  with  the 
precious  liquor;  this  struck  the  fancy  of  a  Tyrian  nymph  so  strongly, 
that  she  refused  her  lover  Hercules,  any  favors,  till  he  had  brocght  her 
a  mantle  of  the  same  fine  color. 

Of  the  great  variety  of  known  dyes,  few  only  can  be  applied  to  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  fibre,  without  any  other  preparation  than  that  of 
cleansing  the  stuff,  and  immersing  it  in  a  decoction  or  infusion  of  the 
dye.  And  hence  it  is  necessary,  to  render  most  colors  permanent,  that 
the  article  to  be  dyed  should  be  previously  impregnated  with  what  has 
been  termed  a  mordant,  generally  a  salt  having  an  alkaline,  earthy,  or 
metallic  base  :  thug  alum,  sulphate  of  lime,  muriate  of  tin,  sulphate  of 
iron,  tannin,  and  oil,  are  mordant?,  according  to  the  dyes,  and  to  the 
substances  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied.  When  the  dye  imparts  to 
cloth  a  permanent  color,  without  the  intervention  of  a  mordant,  it  is 
called  a  substantive  color ;  when  it  requires  a  mordant  to  impart  a  per- 
manent color,  it  is  called  an  adjective  color.  Indigo  is  a  substantive, 
madder  an  adjective  color ;  cochineal  is  also  an  adjective  color  :  for 
although  the  red  of  the  cochineal  will  stain  the  cloth  while  it  remains 
immersed  in  the  solution  ;  yet,  as  soon  as  it  is  taken  out  and  washed, 
this  temporary  stain  will  immediately  vanish,  and  the  cloth  become  as 
white  as  before.  But  if  the  cloth  be  dipped  in  a  solution  of  some  alka- 
line or  metallic  salt,  and  then  immersed  in  the  solution  of  cochineal  for 
come  time,  it  will  come  out  permanently  colored  ;  nor  will  the  color  ever 
be  discharged,  even  by  waslung  with  soap  and  water. 

The  materials  for  dyeing  different  colors  are  many  and  various* 
Some  ingredients  produce  durable  colors,  which  cannot  be  discharged 
either  by  exposure  to  air  or  washing  with  soap  ;  others,  though  they 
may  be  made  to  stand  the  action  of  soap  pretty  well,  cannot  by  any 
means  be  enabled  to  '•esist  the  action  of  air.  These  are  distin- 
guished by  the  different  names  of  true  a.nd  false,  permanent  a.ndfading^ 
or  substantive  and  adjective  colors  ;  nor  is  there  any  method  yet  discov- 
ered of  giving  the  false  colors  an  equal  degree  of  durability  with  the 
true  ones.  A  solution  of  tin  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  will  give  most  of 
the  fading  colors  a  high  degree  of  beauty,  and  some  share  of  durability, 
though  even  this  is  not  able  to  make  them  equal  to  the  others.  The 
most  permanent  dyes  we  have  are  cochineal  and  lac  for  fine  reds  and 
scarlets  :  indigo  and  woad  for  blue  ;  and,  when  mixed  in  different  pro- 
portions with  cochineal  or  lac,  for  purple  and  violet  colors  :  weld  and 
aorae  other  vegetables  for  yellow  :  and  madder  for  coarse  reds,  purples, 
and  blacks.     The  fading  colors  are  much  more  numerous.     In  this  class 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  221 


DYEING. 


are  included  brazil-wood,  logwood,  peach-wood,  red-wood,  fustic,  tur- 
meric root,  annotto,  archil,  &c. 

With  regard  to  the  mordants  used  in  dyeing,  it  has  been  too  often 
customary  to  mix  a  quantity  of  different  ones,  by  which  the  color  has 
been  generally  spoiled.  This  truth  should,  therefore,  be  constantly  bo- 
fore  us,  that,  in  general,  one  single  mordant  will  answer  for  this  pur- 
pose better  than  a  hundred.  A  mixture  should  only  be  made,  where  it 
is  necessary  to  produce  the  color  desired  ;  and  if  a  dyer  proceed  in  this 
simple  manner,  he  may  not  only  attain  to  great  perfection  in  the  art 
from  his  own  experience,  without  being  taught  by  others,  but  even 
make  considerable  discoveries  ;  as  dyeing  is  at  present  far  from  being 
brought  to  perfection.  The  mordants  chiefly  to  be  used  in  dyeing  are 
fixed  alkalies ;  solutions  of  tin  in  sulphuric  and  muriatic  acids,  and  in 
nitro-muriatic  acid  ;  sugar  of  lead  ;  cream  of  tartar  ;  alum  ;  sulphuric 
acid  ;  and  solution  of  iron  in  the  acetous  acid.  By  means  of  these, 
almost  all  kinds  of  colors  may  be  dyed  at  an  easy  rate,  and  with  very 
little  trouble.  Observe,  the  acids,  and  acid  solutions,  must  be  diluted 
with  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  before  they  are  used. 

General  Rules  for  Dyeing  all  Colors.  Having  well  cleans- 
ed the  substance  to  be  dyed,  and  made  choice  of  the  mordant  proper 
for  fixing  the  color  desired,  dissolve  it  in  water,  and  steep  the  substance 
in  this  solution  for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  take  it  out,  and  without 
wringing  hang  it  up  to  dry,  but  without  heat,  and  for  this  it  will  be 
proper  to  allow  a  pretty  long  time  ;  as  the  more  perfectly  the  mordant 
penetrates  the  cloth,  the  more  durable  will  the  color  be.  Having  then 
prepared  a  colored  solution  or  decoction,  put  the  cloth  into  it.  The 
less  heat  is  applied  during  the  time  the  cloth  remains  in  the  dye,  the 
finer  the  color  will  be  ;  but  the  longer  time  will  be  required  for  comple- 
ting the  operation.  If  time  cannot  be  spared,  so  that  a  strong  heat 
must  be  applied,  it  will  be  necessary  to  roll  the  cloth  during  the  time 
of  dyeing,  or  the  color  will  be  in  danger  of  proving  unequal.  After 
the  dyeing  is  completed,  rinse  the  cloth  in  cold  water,  but  do  not  wring 
it  strongly  ;  and  then  hang  it  up  to  dry.  In  this  way  may  be  dyed  a 
great  variety  of  colors,  on  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  linen,  without  any 
variation  in  the  process.  A  solution  of  tin  in  the  sulphuric  acid  will 
produce  all  degrees  of  red,  from  the  palest  pink  or  rose  color,  to  the 
highest  crimson  and  scarlet  ;  and  this,  on  all  the  before-mentioned 
substances,  without  exception. 

Cotton  arid  Linen  may  be  dyed,  by  means  of  the  before-mentioned 
solution,  of  the  most  beautiful  red,  crimson,  and  scarlet  colors.  The 
same  may  be  done  by  a  solution  of  tin  in  nitro-muriatic  acid  :  but  un- 
less the  nitrous  acid  prevail  greatly  in  the  mixture,  the  colors  produced 
by  this  last  will  incline  more  to  purple  than  the  former.  With  solution 
of  tin  in  muriatic  acid  they  incline  remarkably  to  purple,  and  are  like- 
wise deficient  in  lustre.  The  first  two  solutions  therefore  are  capital 
ingredients  in  dyeing.  Latterly,  cottons  have  been  dyed  a  fine  and 
permanent  Turkey  red  by  means  of  madder,  but  the  manipulations  are 
too  complex  to  detail. 

The  same  preparations  will  also  serve  for  dyeing  all  other  colors,  blue 
and  green  excepted.  Thus,  a  piece  of  cloth  prepared  with  solution  of 
tin  in  sulphuric  acid,  if  boiled  with  the  decoction  of  cochineal,  will 
19* 


222  FAMILY 


DYEING. 


come  out  of  a  scarlet  color  ;  if  with  turmeric,  weld,  fustic,  or  many  of 
the  common  yellow  flowers,  it  will  come  out  different  degrees  of  yel- 
low ;  with  Brazil-wood,  peach-wood,  &;c.  it  will  give  a  fine  purplish 
erimso7i ;  with  log-wood,  a  fine  deep  purple^  Szc. :  and  by  combining 
these  in  different  ways,  an  infinity  of  different  shades  may  be  produced. 

Green  colors  are  to  be  jM-oduced  only  by  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yel- 
low :  no  ingredient  being  yet  discovered,  that  will,  by  itself,  produce  a 
good  green  dye.  It  is  usual  first  to  dye  the  cloth  blue  with  indigo,  and 
then  yellow  with  any  yellow-coloring  ingredient,  by  which  means  a 
grai^  color  is  produced.  Cloth  and  silk  may  be  dyed  green  with  indi- 
go ;  ffbt  they  must  first  be  boiled  in  yellow  dye,  and  then  in  blue. 

Black  colors  are  dyed  by  preparing  the  cloth  with  any  solution  of 
iron,  but  that  in  the  acetous  acid  is  the  best  ;  and  then  boiling  it  in  a 
decoction  of  any  astringent  vegetable.  Those  chiefly  made  use  of  for 
the  purpose  are  galls,  sumach,  logwood,  and  madder.  Of  these  the 
last  is  most  durable  ;  though  galls  will  also  produce  a  pretty  lasting 
color,  if  properly  managed.  Logwood  dyes  a  very  pretty,  but  fading 
black  color.  It  appears,  however,  by  an  experiment  made  by  Mr. 
Clegg,  that  by  a  proper  preparation  of  the  cloth  with  fixed  alkaline 
salts,  black  colors  dyed  with  logwood  might  be  improved,  both  as  to 
Jtauty  and  durability.  The  finest  blacks  are  first  dyed  blue,  with  indi- 
go ;  and  afterwards  black,  with  a  solution  of  iron,  and  some  astringent 
vegetable.  These  are  the  best  methods  of  producing  permanent  colors 
of  all  kinds.  As  it  is  necessary,  however,  often  to  give  another  color 
to  stuffs  which  have  already  been  dyed,  it  is  also  necessary  that  a  dyer 
should  know  how  to  discharge  colors,  as  well  as  to  make  the  cloth  im- 
bibe them. 

Thread  is  dyed  a  bright  blue  with  braziletto  and  indigo.  Bright 
green  is  first  dyed  blue,  then  black,  boiled  with  braziletto  and  verditer, 
and  lastly  welded.  A  dark  grcn  is  given  like  the  former,  only  dark- 
ening more  before  welding.  Lemon  or  pale  yellow  is  given  with  weld, 
and  rocou  or  annotto.  Oran2;e  and  Isnbella^  with  fustic,  weld,  and  an- 
notto.  Red^  both  bright  and  dark,  with  flame-colors,  &c.,  are  given 
with  brazil,  either  alone,  or  with  a  mixture  of  annotto.  Violet^  dry 
rose,  and  amaranth,  are  given  with  brazil,  taken  down  with  indigo. — 
Fillemot  and  olive  color  are  given  with  galls  and  copperas,  taken  down 
with  weld,  annotto,  or  fustic.  Black  is  given  with  galls  and  sulphate 
of  iron,  taken  dovv^n  and  finished  with  braziletto  wood. 

Tanned  Leather,  Skins,  Sec ,  are  dyed  of  a  black  color,  by  rubbing 
them  over  three  or  four  times  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  or  a 
solution  of  iron  in  the  vegetable  acids.  For  leathers  that  have  not 
been  tanned,  some  galls  or  other  astringents  are  added  to  the  solution 
of  iron;  and  in  many  cases,  particularly  for  the  finer  parts  of  leather, 
and  for  renewing  the  blackness,  ivory  black  or  lamp  black  is  used.  A 
blue  color  is  given  by  steeping  the  subject  a  day  in  urine  and  indigo, 
then  boiling  it  with  alum  ;  or  by  tempering  the  indigo  with  rod  wine, 
and  washing  the  skins  therewith.  Red  is  given  by  washing  the  skins 
and  laying  them  in  galls  ;  then  wringing  them  out ;  dipping  them  in  a 
liquor  made  with  privet,  alum,  and  verdigris  in  water;  and  lastly  in  a 
dye  made  of  brazil  wood  boiled  in  ley.  Purple  is  given  by  wetting  the 
skins  with  a  solution  of  roche  alum  in  warm  water,  and,  when  dried, 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  223 


DYEING. — SOAP. 


with  a  decoction  of  logwood  in  cold  water.  Green  is  given  by  smear- 
ing the  skin  with  sap  green  and  alum-water  boiled  ;  to  darken  the  co- 
lor, a  little  indigo  may  be  added.  Dark  green  is  also  given  with  steel 
filings  and  sal  ammoniac  steeped  in  urine  till  soft,  then  smeared  over 
the  skin,  which  is  to  be  dried  in  the  shade.  Sky  color  is  given  with  in- 
digo steeped  in  boiling  water,  and  the  next  morning  warmed  and  smear- 
ed over  the  skin.  Yellow  by  smearing  the  skin  over  with  aloes  and 
linseed  oil,  dissolved  and  strained  ;  or  by  infusing  it  in  weld.  Orange 
color  is  given  by  smearing  with  fustic  berries,  boiled  in  alum  water  ;  or, 
for  a  deep  orange^  with  turmeric. 

Wood^  for  inlaying,  veneering,  &c.,  is  dyed  red  by  boiling  it  in  water 
and  alum ;  then  taking  it  out,  adding  brazil  to  the  liquor,  and  giving 
the  wood  another  boil  in  it.  Black,hy  applying  a  solution  of  logwood, 
boiled  in  vinegar,  hot,  with  a  brush,  and  afterwards  washing  the  wood 
over  with  a  decoction  of  galls  and  sulpbate  of  iron  till  it  be  of  the  hne 
required.  Any  other  color  may  be  given  by  squeezing  out  the  mois- 
ture of  horse-dung  through  a  sieve,  mixing  it  with  roche  alum  and  gum 
arabic,  and  to  the  whole  adding  green,  blue,  or  any  other  color  de- 
signed. After  standing  two  or  three  days,  the  wood,  cut  to  the  thick- 
ness of  half  a  crown,  is  put  into  the  liquor  boiling  hot,  and  suffered  to 
remain  till  it  is  sufficiently  colored.  J^ew  mahogany,  may  be  made  of 
a  dark  color,  by  smearing  it  over  with  a  paste  made  of  quick  lime  and 
water. 

Bone^  Horn^  and  Ivory  are  dyed  Black  by  steeping  brass  in  aquafor- 
tis till  it  is  turned  green ;  with  this,  the  bone,  &;c.  is  to  be  washed 
once  or  twice,  and  then  put  into  a  decoction  of  logwood  and  warm 
water.  Green  is  begun  by  boiling  the  bone,  &c.  in  alum- water  ;  then 
with  verdigris,  sal  ammoniac,  and  vinegar,  keeping  it  hot  therein  till 
sufficiently  green.  Red  is  begun  by  boiling  it  in  alum-water,  and  fin- 
ished by  decoction  in  a  liquor  compounded  of  quicklime  steeped  in 
rain  water,  strained,  to  every  pint  of  which  an  ounce  of  brazil  wood  is 
added  :  tlie  bone,  &;c.  to  be  boiled  till  sufficiently  red. 

SOAP  is  a  kind  of  paste,  sometimes  hard  and  dry,  and  sometimes 
soft,  much  used  in  washing,  and  whitening  linens,  and  for  various  oth- 
purposes,  by  dyers,  perfumers,  hatters,  fullers,  &c. 

Soap  is  a  chemical  compound  produced  by  the  union  of  any  of  the 
fixed  oils  with  alkalies,  earths,  or  metallic  oxides.  The  alkalies,  and 
particularly  soda^  are  necessary  to  the  production  of  good  soap  ;  and 
it  is  also  necessary  that  they  should  be  applied  to  the  oil  or  tallow  in  a 
caustic  state ;  to  this  end  when  an  alkali  is  dissolved  in  water,  lime  is 
added  to  the  solution  to  absorb  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  alkali ;  the  li- 
quor deprived  of  its  carbonic  acid  is  coWed  soap  ley :  it  is  exceedingly 
caustic  and  will  decompose  human  flesh.  This  ley  is  usually  made 
strong  enough  to  float  a  new-laid  Qgg.  With  this  ley,  oil,  or  tallow,  or 
resin^according  to  circumstances,  is  boiled  till  it  unites  into  the  com- 
pound known  as  soap.  The  tallow  for  making  soap  is  reckoned  very 
good  if  thirteen  cwt.  of  it  yield  with  alkali  a  ton  weight  of  soap. 

White  soap  of  the  best  quality  is  made  with  olive  oil  and  soda;  or 
with  tallow  and  soda,  obtained  from  barilla,  or  impure  carbonate  of  so- 
da. 


FAMILY 


SOAP. CANDLES. 


Yellow  soap  is  made  with  tallow  and  yellow  resin  in  the  proportion  of 
ten  parts  tallow  and  three  and  a  half  of  resin,  these  with  the  addition 
of  the  ley,  make  twenty  of  soap.  %(' 

Mottled  soap  obtains  its  speckled  appearance  erther  by  dispersing 
the  ley  through  it  towards  the  end  of  the  operation,  or  by  adding  sul- 
phate of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  or  indigo. 

Windsor  soap  is  the  common  white  soap  scented  with  oil  of  caraway 
seeds  or  other  scent. 

Black  soap  and  other  soft  soaps  are  made  from  fish  oil  and  a  ley  of 
potash  made  in  a  similar  manner  as  soap  ley  above,  or  with  inferior  tal- 
low and  sach  ley. 

Castile  soap  is  sometimes  made  from  common  white  soap  having  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  mixed  with  it  in  cooling,  to  give  the  mar- 
bled appearance.  But  the  best  Castile  soap  is  brought  from  Marseilles, 
although  it  is  also  brought  from  Spain.  It  is  most  probably  composed 
of  olive  oil  and  soda,  and  sulphate  of  iron  to  impart  to  it  the  marbled 
appearance. 

Soap  balls  for  washing  the  hands,  are  made  of  various  colors  by  sim- 
ply cutting  white  soap  into  small  pieces,  rolling  them  in  verraillion,  blue, 
or  other  color,  and  squeezing  them  together  into  balls  :  they  are  scented 
at  the  will  of  the  maker. 

A  cheap  soap  is  sometimes  made  of  woollen  rags,  fee.  and  even  with 
the  horns  of  animals  instead  of  oil ;  but  the  '  smell  is  commonly  very 
disagreabie. 

Soap  as  a  medicine  (the  foreign  Castile  soap  is,  for  this  purpose,  con- 
sidered the  best)  is  generally  regarded  as  purgative,  lithontriptic,  and 
tonic  ;  it  is  also  given  to  counteract  the  effects  of  metallic  and  other 
poisons  ;  but  common  white  soap  is  better  for  such  purpose.  Soap  is 
also  used  externally  for  sprains  and  bruises  ;  it  is  an  ingredient  in  the 
well  known  soap  liniment  or  opodeldoc, 

CANDLES.  There  are  two  sorts  of  tallow  candles ;  dipped  an 
movlded.  The  moulded  are  the  invention  of  the  Sietir  le  Brege,  of  Paris. 
In  making  candles,  the  general  method  is,  after  weighing  and  mixing 
the  tallow  in  due  proportions,  to  cut  it  into  small  pieces,  that  it  may 
more  readily  melt.  When  properly  melted  and  skimmed,  a  certain 
quantity  of  water  is  poured  into  it,  in  order  that  all  remaining  impurities 
may  precipitate  to  the  bottom.  No  water,  however,  must  be  thrown 
into  the  tallow  designed  for  the^r*^  three  dips;  because  the  wick  would 
imbibe  tlie  water,  and  thus  render  the  candles  unfit  for  burning. — The 
tallow,  thus  melted,  is  poured  into  a  tub,  through  a  coarse  sieve  of 
horse-hair,  to  purify  it  still  more,  and  may  be  used  after  having  stood 
three  hours.  It  will  continue  fit  for  use  twenty-four  hours  in  summer, 
and  fifteen  in  winter.  The  wicks  are  made  of  spun  cotton,  several 
threads  of  which  the  tallow-chandlers  wind  into  bottoms  or  clews ; 
whence  they  are  cut  off  with  an  instrument,  into  pieces  a  little  more 
than  twice  the  lenf^th  of  the  candle  ;  and  then  put  on  the  sticks  for  dip- 
ping. To  make  a  tallow  candle  good,  there  must  be  an  equal  quantity 
of  sheep's  and  bullock's  tallow.  Lard  is  always  inadmissible.  The 
wick  ought  to  be  properly  twisted,  neither  too  hard  nor  too  loosely, 
sufficiently  dry  and  pure,  otherwise  the  candle  will  emit  an  irregular 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  225 


CANDLES. WAX. 


inconstant  flame.  Lately  machinery  has  been  invented  by  which  the 
facilities  of  dipping  the  wicks  have  been  increased,  and  tho  labors  of 
the  tallow  chandler  considerably  abridged.  • 

Mould  candles  are  so  called  because  made  in  moulds  of  brass, 
pevvter,  or  lead  ;  but  pewter  is  the  best.  Each  candle  has  its  mould. 
A  number  of  these  moulds,  having  the  wick  fixed  in  the  middle,  are 
placed  in  a  table  or  frame,  full  of  holes,  and  filled  with  melted  tallow. 
After  the  moulds  have  stood  long  enough  to  cool,  the  candles  are  drawn 
out ;  and  they  are  sometimes  rendered  whiter  by  hanging  them  on 
rods,  exposed  to  the  dew  and  the  earliest  rays  of  the  sun  for  several 
days. 

Wax  candles.  The  wicks  of  wax  candles  are  made  of  cotton  or  flax 
slightly  twisted,  and  covered  with  white  or  yellow  wax,  but  chiefly  the 
former,  well  bleached.  Of  these  candles  there  are  several  kinds ;  some 
of  a  conical  figure,  are  used  in  funeral  processions,  &c.  Others  are  of 
a  cylindrical  form,  used  on  common  occasions.  To  make  wax  candles, 
an  iron  circle,  on  which  are  hung  a  dozen  wicks  at  equal  distances,  is 
suspended  over  a  large  basin  full  of  melted  wax.  A  large  ladle-full  of 
this  wax  is  poured  gently  on  the  tops  of  the  wicks,  one  after  another  ; 
and  this  operation  is  continued,  lill  the  candle  arrives  at  its  proper  size. 
The  first  three  ladles  must  be  poured  on  the  top,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth,  lower  down,  at  certain  distances,  to  give  the  candle  its  conical 
form.  The  candles  are  then  taken  down,  and  afterward  rolled  and 
smoothed  upon  a  walnut-tree  table,  with  a  long  square  instrument  of 
box,  smoothed  at  the  bottom.  When  wax  candles  are  made  by  the 
hand,  they  begin  to  soften  the  wax  by  working  it  in  hot  water,  in  a 
narrow  but  deep  cauldron.  A  piece  of  wax  is  then  taken  out,  and 
disposed  by  little  and  little  round  the  wick.  Wax  tapers  are  either 
made  as  the  former,  with  a  ladle,  or  drawn.  The  latter  are  drawn  in 
the  manner  of  wire,  by  means  of  two  large  rollers  of  wood,  torned 
by  a  handle,  which  pass  the  wick  through  melted  wax  contained  in  a 
brass  basin,  and  at  the  same  time  through  the  holes  of  an  instrument. 

Spkrmaceti  candles  are  now  universally  used  in  theatres,  drawing- 
rooms,  &c.  as,  should  any  drops  fall  from  them  on  the  clothes  of  the 
company,  the  spermaceti  more  readily  comes  off,  whereas  wax  adheres 
more  closely,  and  cannot  be  removed  without  disfiguring  the  cloth.  - 

WAX  is  a  yellowish  matter,  of  which  the  bees  form  cells  for  their 
honey.  There  arc  two  or  three  substances,  which  resemble  each  other 
so  closely  as  to  have  received  the  name  of  wax.  The  first,  and  by  far 
the  most  important,  is  bees-wax,  which  is  consumed  in  such  vast  quan- 
tities for  giving  light,  and  is  also  used  for  a  variety  of  other  purposes. 
Anotlier  kind  of  wax  is  the  myrtle  wax,  which  is  extracted  pretty  largely 
in  Louisiana,  and  some  other  parts  of  America,  from  the  myrica  ceri/era^ 
or  candle-berry  myrtle.  The  next  substance,  very  similar  to  wax,  is 
the  pella  of  the  Chinese,  the  product  of  an  insect:  and  the  white  matter 
extracted  from  lac  has  also  a  strong  resemblance  to  wax.  But  although, 
from  the  latest  researches,  wax  is  not  obtained  from  vegetables  exactly 
as  we  find  it  in  the  combs  of  this  animal,  it  being  elaborated  by  some 
peculiar  process  of  the  animal  itself,  and  hence  may  be  considered 
an  amma/ product,  yet  tho  constituents  of  wax,  with  slight  modifica- 
tions, are  found  in  many  vegetables ;    and  hence  wax  may  be  also  con- 


226  FAMILY 


STARCH. PAPER. 


sidered  a  vegetable  production.  The  wax,  however,  obtained  from 
the  candle-berry  myrtle,  is  much  more  like  hard  colored  mutton  suet 
than  bees- wax. 

SEALING  WAX  may  be  made  very  good  of  the  following  materi- 
als ;  Shell  lac,  eight  ounces;  rectified  spirit  of  wine,  two  ounces; 
camphor,  half  an  ounce  ;  Venice  turpentine,  four  ounces;  vermiilion,/ 
two  ounces  and  a  half.  Dissolve  first  the  camphor  in  the  spirits  of  wine, 
next  the  shell  lac,  then  add  the  Venice  turpentine,  and  lastly  the  vermil- 
lion.  A  careful  application  of  heat  is  absolutely  necessary,  or  the  mass 
will  take  fire.  An  inferior  wax  may  be  made  by  adding  yellow  resin, 
and  taking  away  a  portion  of  the  shell  lac.  "Black  wax  may  be  made 
by  merely  substituting  lamp-black  for  vermillion. 

STARCH  is  obtained  from  innumerable  vegetable  substances  ;  but 
the  starch  of  commerce  is  separated  from  wheat  by  steeping  the  graiu 
in  cold  water  till  it  becomes  soft,  then  putting  it  in  coarse  bags,  which 
are  pressed  into  vats"  of  water ;  a  milky  juice  exudes,  and  the  starch 
falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  The  deposited  starch  is  collected,  and 
dried  in  a  moderate  heat;  when  dried,  it  splits  into  the  columns  or 
fragments  in  which  it  is  usually  sold.  A  little  smalt  or  indigo  is  added 
to  it  to  give  it  a  blue  tinge.  Starch  is  used  to  stiffen  linen,  and  for  vari- 
ous other  purposes.  Made  into  a  fine  powder,  it  is  used  3iB  powder  for 
the  hair.  It  is  the  nutritive  part  of  most  grains  or  roots,  and  may  be 
extracted  in  considerable  quantities  from  potatoes,  and  other  roots. 
Vegetables  indeed  are  esteemed  nutritious  in  proportion  to  the  quanti- 
ty of  this  matter  and  gluten  which  they  contain.  Arrow-root,  tapioca, 
and  sago,  are  principally  if  not  entirely,  starch. 

PAPER,  sheets  of  a  thin  matter,  made  of  some  vegetable  substance 
used  principally  for  writing  and  printing.  The  materials,  on  which 
mankind  have,  in  different  ages,  contrived  to  write  their  sentiments, 
have  been  extremely  varied.  In  the  first  ages  they  made  use  of  stones, 
and  tables  of  wood,  wax,  ivory,  &c.  At  a  more  advanced  period,  skins 
were  employed  ;  and  latterly,  paper.  The  different  kinds  of  paper, 
and  materials  employed  in  making  them,  are  reducible  to  the  following : 
Egyptian  paper,  made  of  the  rush  papyrus,  (the  paper  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  was  made  of  this  plant,  and  hence  the  origin  of  the  term 
paper ;)  bark  paper^  made  of  the  inner  rind  of  several  trees ;  cotton 
paper,  vadide  of  cotton  wool;  incombustible  paper,  made  of  asbestos; 
and  European  paper,  made  of  linen  rags.  It  appears  that  paper  made 
from  cotton  was  used  as  early  as  the  ninth  century.  There  are  several 
Greek  MSS.  on  such  paper.  The  most  ancient  MS.  on  cotton  pa- 
per, with  a  date,  in  the  library  of  the  King  of  France,  was  written  in 
1050. 

Linen,  or  European  paper -wslb  first  introduced  towards  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century;  but  by  whom  this  valuable  commodity  was 
invented  is  not  known.  The  method  of  making  paper  of  linen,  cotton, 
or  hempen  rags  is  as  follows  : — the  rags  are  first  placed  in  a  machine 
formed  of  wire,  which  is  made  to  turn  round  with  great  velocity  to 
whirl  out  the  dust ;  they  are  then  sorted  according  to  their  diflferent 
qualities ;  after  which  they  are  put  into  a  trough  perforated  with  holes, 
defended  by  wire  gratings,  through  which  constantly  flows  a  stream  of 
clear  water.    In  this  trough  is  placed  a  cylinder,  set  thick  with  rows  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  227 


PAPER. 


iron  spikes ;  at  the  bottom  of  the  trough  are  fixed  corresponding  spikes. 
The  cylinder  is  made  to  whirl  round  with  great  rapidity,  so  that  the 
cloth  is  torn  to  atoms,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  water  reduced  to  a  thin 
pulp.  By  the  same  process,  all  the  impurities  are  removed,  and  the 
pulp  becomes  perfectly  white.  The  pulp  being  thus  properly  prepared 
is  carried  to  a  vat,  called  the  priming  vat,  and  mixed  with  a  proper 
quantity  of  water.  The  vat  is  rightly  primed  when  the  liquor  has 
such  a  proportion  of  the  pulp,  as  that  the  mould  on  being  dipped  into  it, 
will  just  take  up  enough  to  make  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  thickness  re- 
quired. The  mould  is  a  kind  of  sieve,  exactly  of  the  size  of  the  paper 
to  be  made,  and  about  an  inch  deep,  the  bottom  being  formed  of  fine 
brass  wire,  guarded  underneath  with  sticks,  to  prevent  its  bagging  down, 
and  keep  it  horizontal ;  and  further  to  strengthen  the  bottom,  there  are 
large  wires,  placed  in  parallel  lines,  at  equal  distances,  which  form  those 
lines  often  visible  in  white  paper  when  held  up  to  the  light :  the  mark 
of  the  paper  is  also  made  in  this  bottom,  by  inverweaving  a  large  wire 
in  any  particular  form.  This  mould  the  maker  dips  into  the  liquor,  and 
gives  it  a  shake  as  he  takes  it  out,  to  clear  the  water  from  the  pulp. 
He  then  slides  the  mould  along  a  groove  to  the  coucher,  who  turns  out 
the  sheet  upon  a  felt  or  woollen  cloth,  lays  another  cloth  on  it,  and  re- 
tarns  the  mould  to  the  maker,  who  by  this  time  has  prepared  a  second 
sheet  in  another  mould  ;  and  thus  they  proceed  laying  alternately  & 
sheet  and  a  felt,  till  they  have  made  six  quires  of  paper,  which  is  called 
a  post ;  and  this  they  do  with  such  swiftness,  that  in  many  sorts  of  pa- 
per two  men  make  twenty  posts  or  more  in  a  day.  A  post  of  paper 
being  made,  it  is  placed  under  a  press,  and  all  the  water  squeezed  from 
it ;  after  which  it  is  separated  sheet  by  sheet  from  the  felts,  and  laid 
regularly  one  sheet  upon  another ;  and  having  undergone  a  second 
pressing,  it  is  hung  up  to  dry.  When  sufficiently  dried,  it  is  rubbed 
smooth  with  the  hands,  and  laid  by  to  be  sized.  The  size  is  made  by 
boiling  shreds  and  parings  of  the  tanner,  currier,  or  parchment  maker; 
and  after  mixing  it  with  a  certain  quantity  of  alum,  in  a  large  tub,  they 
dip  as  much  paper  at  once  as  they  can  conveniently  hold,  and  with  a 
quick  motion  give  every  sheet  its  share  of  the  size,  which  must  be  as 
hot  as  the  hand  can  well  bear ;  the  superfluous  size  is  then  pressed  out 
of  the  paper,  which  is  afterwards  hung  up  sheet  by  sheet  to  dry,  and 
being  taken  down,  is  sorted,  and  what  is  only  fit  for  outside  quires  laid 
by  themselves ;  it  is  told  into  quires,  which  are  folded  and  pressed.  The 
broken  sheets  are  commonly  put  together,  and  two  of  the  worst  quires 
are  placed  on  the  outside  of  every  ream  or  bundle  ;  and  being  tied  up 
in  wrappers  made  of  the  settling  of  the  vat,  it  is  fit  for  sale.  Every 
common  quire  of  paper  contains  twenty-four  sheets  ;  that  for  printing, 
twenty-five  sheets.     Each  ream  contains  twenty  quires. 

Paper  is  of  various  kinds,  and  used  for  various  purposes  :  with  regard 
to  color,  it  is  principally  distinguished  into  white,  blue,  and  brown  ;  and 
with  regard  to  its  dimensions,  into  atlas,  elephant,  imperial,  super- royal, 
royal,  medium,  demy,  crown,  post,  foolscap,  pot-paper,  &c.  JVove  pa- 
per is  made  in  moulds,  the  wires  of  which  are  so  fine  that  the  marks  of 
them  are  scarcely  visible.  Blotting  paper  is  made  of  woollen  rags  and 
without  size.  Pasteboard  is  made  in  a  similar  way  to  that  of  paper ; 
when  it  is  wanted  very  thick,  it  is  made  by  pasting  the  sheets  one  upon 
another.    Mill-board^  used  for  covers  of  books,  is  made  at  once  of  very 


228  FAMILY 


PAPER. 


coarse  rags,  or  old  ropes,  &c. ;  of  which  also  brown  paper  is  made. 
BesMes  paper  frohi  these  materials,  it  is  also  occasionally  made  from 
straw  :  a  Mr.  Koop,  in  1820,  obtained  a  patent  in  England  for  straw 
paper.  In  the  Maldive  islands,  the  natives  arc  said  to  write  on  the 
leaves  of  a  tree  called  macarequean^  which  are  a  fathom  and  a  half  long, 
and  a  foot  broad  :  and  in  divers  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  the  leaves  of 
the  mvaa  paradisiacal  or  plantain  tree,  dried  in  the  sun,  served  the 
same  use,  till  of  late  the  French  taught  them  the  use  of  European 
paper. 

The  process  of  paper-making  takes  about  three  weeks.  The  great- 
est modem  improvement  in  paper-making  is  the  bleaching  of  the  rags. 
This  is  done  by  different  methods  ;  one  of  the  best  consists  of  an  air- 
tight chamber  in  which  the  rags  are  placed  ;  a  mixture  of  manganese, 
sea  salt,  and  sulphuric  acid  being  heated  in  proper  retorts  to  a  certain 
extent,  a  gas  is  disengaged,  which  destroys  all  the  color  which  the  rags 
contain. 

The  machinery  for  fabricating  the  paper  from  the  pulp  has  been 
simplified,  so  that  an  immense  saving  of  labor  has  been  thus  obtained. 

Another  improvement  in  the  manufacture  of  paper  has  been  made  in 
the  United  States  by  Messrs.  Gilpin  &  Co.,  who  have  invented  a  ma- 
chine by  which  paper  of  any  length,  in  one  continued  succession  of  fine 
or  coarse  materials  may  be  produced. 

Egyptian  paper  is  that  which  was  principally  used  among  the  an- 
cients ;  made  of  a  rush  called  papyrus,  or  biblus,  growing  chiefly  in 
E^pt  about  the  banks  of  the  jNile  ;  though  it  was  also  found  in  India ; 
and  PUny  describes  ihe  papyrus  or  paper  rush  as  having  a  root  of  the 
thickness  of  a  man's  arm,  and  ten  cubits  long  ;  from  this  arise  a  great 
number  of  triangular  stalks,  six  or  seven  cubits  high,  each  thick  enough 
to  be  cosily  spanned.  Its  leaves  are  long  like  those  of  the  bulrush  ;  its 
flowers  staminous,  ranged  in  clusters  at  the  extremities  of  the  stalks ; 
its  rootB  woody  and  knotted  like  those  of  rushes,  and  iis  taste  and  smell 
near  to  those  of  the  cypress.  The  moderns  have  arranged  the  papyrus 
under  the  genus  cyperus  or  cyper-grass,  and  thus  designate  it ;  cyperus 
papi/nu,  or  paper  rush,  having  a  three-sided  naked  culm,  umbel  longer 
than  the  involucres  :  involucels  three-leaved,  setaceous  ;  spikelets  in 
threes  ;  a  native  of  Ethiopia  and  Egypt.  This  tribe  of  plants  contains 
numerous  species,  many  of  which  have  fragrant  roots. 

MarblM  paper  is  paper  stained  so  as  to  appear  in  variegated  colors, 
like  marble.  The  operation  of  marbling  is  thus  performed  :  gum  is 
first  dissolved  in  a  trough,  into  which  they  plunge  each  sheet  of  paper  ; 
this  done,  and  all  the  colors  ranged  on  the  table,  where  also  the  trough 
is  placed,  they  begin  by  dipping  a  brush  of  hog's  hair  into  any  color, 
commonly  the  blue  first,  and  sprinkle  it  on  the  surface  of  the  liquor. 
The  red  is  next  applied  in  the  Hkc  manner,  but  with  another  pencil  ; 
after  this,  the  yellow,  and  lastly  tho  green.  When  all  the  colors  are 
thus  floating  on  the  liquor,  to  produce  that  agreeable  marbling  which 
we  admire,  the  floating  colors  are  curled  and  otherwise  tastefully 
varied  with  a  pointed  stick  ;  to  these  the  surface  of  the  paper  is  ap- 
plied. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


229 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Ivory  Paper  is  a  paper  lately  invented  by  Mr.  Einslie,  to  be  usefj  in- 
stead of  ivory  for  drawing,  and  miniature  painting,  and  is  said  to  bo 
superior  to  ivory  itself.  It  consists  in  the  preparation  of  a  size  from 
the  cuttings  of  parchment,  uniting,  by  a  similar  size,  several  sheets  of 
drawing  paper,  and  afterwards  covering  it  with  the  size,  having  previ- 
ously mixed  with  it  some  plaster  of  Paris  in  fine  powder.  Plaster  of 
Paris  gives  a  while  ;  but  oxide  of  zinc,  mixed  in  proper  proportions, 
gives  a  tint  nearly  resembling  ivory. 

ARCHITECTURE;  Architecture,  is  the  art  of  building,  or  the 
science  which  teaches  the  method  of  erecting  buildings,  either  for  ha- 
bitation, defence,  or  ornament.  It  is  an  art  of  the  first  necessity,  and 
almost  coeval  with  the  human  species.  Man,  from  seeking  shade  and 
shelter  under  the  trees  of  the  forest,  soon  felt  the  necessity  and  saw  the 
utility  of  bendmg  them  to  more  commodious  forms  than  those  in  which 
he  found  them  disposed  by  nature.-  To  huts  made  of  trees  and  branch- 
es leaning  together  at  top,  and'  forming  a  conical  figure,  plastered 
with  mud,  succeeded  more  convenient,  square,  roofed,  habitations ;  the 
sides  of  these  habitations,  and  the  inner  supports  of  the  cross  beams 
of  the  roofs,  being  trunks  of  trees ;  from  them  were  derived  those 
beautiful,  and  symmetrical  columns,  the  orders  of  Architecture. 

Although  this  art  was  cultivated  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Assy- 
rians, and  Persians,  yet  the  Greeks  justly  claim  the  honor  of  having 
raised  the  first  structures  in  which  elegance  and  symmetry  were  com- 
bined with  comfort  and  convenience  in  the  plan. 

The  established  five  orders  of  architecture,  the  Tuscan,  the  Doric, . 
the  Ionic,  the  Corinthian,  and  the  Composite,  were  brought  to  perfec- 
tion under  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Modern  efforts  have  added  little 
or  nothing  to  the  beauty  and  symmetry  of  these  columns,  and  the  parts 
dependent  on  them  ;  but  much  has  been  done  in  the  internal  improve- 
ment of  mansions  and  houses. 

THE  FIVE  ORDERS  OP  ARCHITECTURE. 


From  the  above  the  reader  will  be  able  to  form  but  an  indistinct  con- 
ception of  the  beauty  of  those  ornamental  columns  which  in  both  an- 
cient and  modern  times  have  excited  the  admiration  of  even  the  un- 
learned, and  the  uncultivated  portion  of  mankind,  which  have  had  an 
opportunity  to  see  them.    A  better  conception  will  be  had  of  the  dif- 

20 


230 


FAMILY 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ferent  orders  of  architecture  from  the  following  cuts,  which  stand  in  the 
■ame  order  as  the  above,  and  represent  the  Tuscan,  Doric,  Ionic,  Co- 
ritithian,  and  Composite : 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


2Si 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Tuscan  Order.  Although  there  are  no  ancient  remains  of  this  or- 
der, it  is  generally  placed  first  on  account  of  its  plainness.  The  Tro- 
jan and  Antonine  columns  at  Rome  are  commonly  called  Tuscan, 
though  they  do  not  exhibit  Tuscan  plainness.  It  is  probable  the  Tus- 
can is  only  a  simplification  of  the  Doric,  of  which  there  are  numerous 
ancient  remains  ;  bat  to  Tuscany  it  evidently  owes  its  name. 

Doric  Order.  The  origin  of  this  order  is  ascribed  to  Dorus,  who 
built  a  temple  to  Juno,  in  the  ancient  city  of  Argos.  This  order  hag 
a  masculine  grandeur,  and  a  superior  air  of  strength  to  either  of  the 
other  Grecian  orders,  viz.  Ionic  and  Corinthian.  It  is  therefore  best 
adapted  to  works  of  great  magnitude  and  of  a  sublime  character.  Of 
this  order  is  the  temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens,  built  ten  years  after  the 
battle  of  Marathon,  and  at  this  day  almost  entire. 

lOiNic  Order.  The  distinguishing  characteristics  of  this  order  are 
lightness  and  elegance.  It  is  likewise  simple  ;  for  simplicity  is  an  es- 
sential requisite  of  true  beauty.  Of  this  order  were  the  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Miletus,  the  temple  of  the  Delphic  Oracle,  and  the  temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Corinthian  Order.  This  is  considered  the  finest  of  all  the  orders. 
It  has  been  styled  the  "  virginal  order,"  from  the  delicacy,  tendernesg 
and  beauty  of  the  whole  composition.  Exceptions  however  have  been 
taken  to  it,  it  being  thought  to  savor  too  much  of  pomp  and  splendor, 
and  to  mark  an  age  of  luxury  and  magnificence.  Thompson  has  well 
characterized  the  three  orders  in  the  following  appropriate  lines  : 

——"First  unadorned, 

"  And  nobly  plain,  the  manly  Doric  rose ; 

"  The  Ionic  then,  with  decent  matron  grace, 

"  Her  airy  pillar  heav'd  ;  luxuriant  last 

"  The  rich  Corinthian  spread  her  wanton  wreath." 
The  most  correct  specimens  of  this  order  that   remain   in  existence 
are  to  be  collected  from  the  Stoa,  the  arch  of  Adrian,  the  monument  of 
Lysicratus  at  Athens,  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  and  the  three  column* 
of  the  Campo  Vaccino  at  Rome,  particularly  the  last. 

Composite  Order.  This  order  is  what  its  name  implies  ;  it  shews 
that  the  Greeks  had  in  the  three  original  orders  exhausted  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  grandeur  and  beauty,  and  that  it  was  not  possible  to  form  a 
fourth,  except  by  combining  the  former. 


232  FAMILY 


ARCHITECTURE. 


Gothic  Architecture.  To  the  above  five  orders  was  afterwards 
added  another,  called  the  Gothic  or  Saracenic,  the  marks  of  which  are 
it* numerous  and  prominent  buttresses,  its  lofty  spires  and  pinnacles, 
its  large  and  ramified  windows,  its  ornamented  niches  and  canopies, 
the  sculptured  saints  and  angels,  the  delicate  lace-work  of  its  fretted 
roofs,  and  an  indiscriminate  profusion  of  ornaments.  But  its  most  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics  are  the  small  clustered  pillars;  and  pointed 
arches,  formed  by  the  segments  of  two  intersecting  circles. 

Of  Gothic  Architecture  the  continent  furnishes  some  fine  specimens? 
but  the  best  examples  it  is  said,  are  to  be  found  in  England.  In  the 
edifices  of  that  country  the  whole  progress  of  this  style  of  architecture 
can  be  traced.  The  period  from  1272  to  1400  marks  the  golden  age  of 
the  Gothic.  From,  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  this  style  began  to  decline. 
This  was  succeeded  by  a  mixture  of  the  Grecian  and  Gothic.  In  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  chaste  architecture  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  was  revived.  The  first  improvements  took  place 
in  Italy,  whence  they  passed  into  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  though 
the  Italians  were  long  accounted  the  first  architects,  England  produced 
Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  hold  the  most  exalted 
station. 

The  banqueting-house  at  Whitehall  :  queen  Katharine's  chapel  at 
St.  James' :  the  piazza  of  Covent  Garden,  and  many  other  public 
buildings  are  monuments  of  the  taste  and  skill  of  Inigo  Jones. 

The  churches,  royal  courts,  stately  halls,  magazines,  palaces,  and 
public  structures  designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  are  proud  trophies 
of  British  talent.  If  the  whole  art  of  building  were  lost,  it  might  be 
again  recovered  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Paul,  and  in  that  grand  historical 
pillar  called  the  JSJonument.  To  these  we  superadd  Greenwich  Hospital^ 
Chelsea  Hospital,  the  Theatre  at  Oxford,  Trinity  College  Library,  and 
Emanuel  College,  Cambridge,  the  churches  of  St.  Stephen  in  WalbrooK 
St.  Mary-k'bon,  andjifty-two  others  in  London  serve  to  immortalize  his 
memory.  While  we  contemplate  these,  and  many  other  public  edifices 
erected  and  repaired  under  his  direction,  we  are  at  a  loss  which  most 
to  admire — the  fertile  ingenuity,  or  the  persevering  industry  of  the  ar- 
tist. 

The  English  architectural  history  of  the  eighteenth  century  differs 
from  that  of  the  preceding  ages  in  two  essential  circumstances. 

1.  The  public  buildings  erected  during  this  period,  are,  in  general, 
not  so  graiid  and  massive,  as  those  of  some  former  periods.  But  while 
they  fall  short  of  splendor  and  magnificence,  they  are  superior  to  most 
ancient  structures  in  simplicity,  convenience,  neatnees,  and  elegance. 

2,  Privnle  dwellings  have  been  made  more  spacious,  convenient,  and 
agreeable  to  a  correct  taste,  than  in  any  preceding  period.  The  liber- 
al use  of  glass  in  modern  buildings,  contributes  greatly  to  their  beauty 
and  comfort,  and  is  a  point  in  which  the  ancients  were  totally  deficient. 
In  descending  to  the  various  minute  details  of  human  dwellings,  espe- 
cially those  which  have  reference  to  elegance  and  enjoyment,  it  is  ob- 
vious the  artists  of  the  eighteenth  century  exceed  all  others. 

Architecture  in  the  United  States.  In  the  Ihiited  States,  we 
are  yet  in  our  infancy,  both  in  respect  to  elegant  and  enduring  speoi- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


mens  of  architecture.  This  might  well  be  imagined,  considering  th« 
recent  settlement  of  the  country,  and  the  creation,  by  means  of  industry 
and  toil,  of  the  capital  which  we  possess.  Still,  architectural  skill  exist* 
among  us,  and  in  respect  to  some  buildings,  it  has  been  judiciously  ap- 
plied. We  shall  give  a  brief  account  of  a  few  of  the  most  important 
public  buildings  to  be  found  among  us. 

CITY  HALL,  NEW- YORK. 


The  foundation  stone  of  this  noble  building,  was  laid  on  the  26th 
Sept.  1803,  and  was  finished  in  1812,  at  an  expense,  exclusive  of  the 
furniture,  of  half  a  million  of  dollars. 

It  is  one  of  the  handsomest  structures  in  the  United  States,  and  per- 
haps, of  its  size,  in  the  world.  It  is  of  a  square  form,  two  stories  in 
height,  besides  a  basement  story.  It  has  a  wing  at  each  end,  projecting 
from  the  front,  and  in  the  centre  the  roof  is  elevated,  to  form  an  attic 
story.  The  whole  length  of  the  building  is  216  feet,  breadth  105, 
height  51.  Including  the  attic  story  it  is  65  feet  in  height.  The  front 
and  both  ends,  above  the  basement  story,  are  built  of  native  white  mar- 
ble, from  Stockbridge,  Mass. ;  the  rest  of  the  building  is  constructed  of 
brown  free  stone.  The  roof  is  covered  with  copper.  Rising  from  the 
middle  of  the  roof  is  a  cupola,  on  which  is  placed  a  colossal  figure  of 
iusTicE,  holding  in  her  right  hand,  which  rests  on  her  forehead,  a  ba- 
lance, and  in  her  left,  a  sword  pointing  to  the  ground.  The  first  story, 
mcluding  the  portico,  is  of  the  Ionic,  the  second  of  the  Corinthian,  the 
attic  of  the  Fancy,  and  the  cupola  of  the  Composite  orders. 


20* 


234 


FAMILY 


ARCHITECTURE. 


CAPITOL  AT  WASHINGTON. 


Tliis  spacious  edifice  is  finely  situated  on  an  eminence,  and  comteanda 
not  only  a  view  of  the  city,  but  a  considerable  extent  of  the  adjacent 
country — the  heights  of  Georgetown,  &c.,  and  the  windings  of  the  Vo 
tomac,  as  far  as  Alexandria.     The  following  are  the  dimensions  of  ti.' 
building : 

Length  of  Front,  352  feet  4  inches. 

Depth  of  wings,  121  do.  6    do. 

East  projection  and  steps,  G5  do. 

"West      do.  do.  83  do. 

covering  1^  acre,  <fe  1820  do. 

Height  of  Wings,  to  top  of  Balustrade,     70  do. 

Height  to  top  of  Centre  dome,  170  do. 

"  It  is  composed  of  white  freestone,  and  the  entire  cost  of  it  is  estima- 
ted at  three  millions  of  dollars.  It  is  surrounded  by  an  elegant  iron 
railing,  enclosing  twenty  acres  of  ground,  planted  with  various  kinds 
of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  north  wing  is  occupied  by  the  Senate  ;  the 
south  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  There  are  also  rooms  for  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  the  National  Library,  and  other 
purposes. 

The  Senate  and  Representative  halls  are  both  finished  in  a  style  of 
great  elegance  and  splendor.  The  lalter  is  of  semicircular  form,  t^ur- 
rounded  by  twenty-one  massy  pillars  or  columns,  and  four  pilasters  of 
the  Potomac  marble,  which  stand  upon  an  elevate4  base  of  freestone. 
The  capitals  of  these  pillars  are  formed  of  Carara  marble,  and  are  very 
beautiful;  and  there  is  supported  by  tliem  a  large  dome,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  placed  an  ornamental  cupola,  which  admits  the  light  into 
the  hall  from  above.  In  front  of  the  Speaker's  Chair,  and  over  the  en- 
trance into  the  Chamber,  stands  an  allegoncnl  figure,  formed  of  Italiai^i 
marble,  representing  Uistorv,  in  the  act  of  ucording  the  proceedings 
of  the  nation.  She  stands  on  a  winged  car,  which  seems  to  roll  over  a  , 
section  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  exhibiting  in  ba^s- relief  the  signs  of  the 
Zodiac.  The  wheel  of  the  car  is  intended  as  the  face  of  a  clock,  which 
is  to  be  placed  behind,  and  the  front  contains  in  bass-relief,  a  figure  of 
Fame,  and  a  profile  bust  of  Washington.     Above  the  Speaker's  Chair 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


235 


ARCHITECTURE. 


is  a  colossal  figure  of  Liberty,  in  plaster,  pointing  to  the  hall  below,  and 
supported  on  the  right  by  an  American  ea^^le^  and  on  the  left  by  the 
Romanfascf.s^  which  are  partially  enveloped  in  the  folds  of  a  serpent. 
Immediately  under  this  figure,  on  the  frieze,  is  carved  in  high  relief, 
another  eagle,  in  the  attitude  of  flying.  This  hall  has  been  pronoun- 
ced by  an  intelligent  English  traveller,  to  be  the  most  beautiful  one  he 
ever  saw." 

It  was  our  design,  to  give  descriptions  similar  to  the  above,  of  seve- 
ral other  principal  buildings  in  the  United  States  ;  but  want  of  room 
obliges  us  to  present' to  our  readers  views  of  these  buildings,  without 
the  contemplated  descriptions. 

PRESIDENT'S  HOUSE,   WASHINGTON. 


PENNSYLVANIA  CAPITOL,   HARRISBURG. 


336 


FAMILY 


ARCHITECTURE. 


BALTIMORE  EXCHANGE,  AND  WASHINGTON  MONUMENT. 


BUNKER  HILL  MONUMENT. 


\ 

"  In  reppect  to  Gothic  style,  observes  Professor  Silliman,  (American 
Journal  of  Science  and  Arts,  Vol.  xviii.  No.  2,  p.  224)  our  country  la- 
bors under  m»ny  disadvantiiges.  Its  expensive  character,  is  in  most 
oases  far  beyond  our  means.  It  flourished  in  Europe,  at  a  time  when 
the  revenues  of  the  cJiurch  were  princely,  and  no  style  demands  such 
large  pecuniary  resources  as  this.  Still  enough  has  already  been  done 
among  us  to  shew  that  it  is  not  an  insurmountable  obstacle  among  us." 
Several  fine  Gothic  structures  are  to  be  found  in  the  United  States,  a 
particular  description  of  which  our  limits  entirely  forbid. 

The  Gothic  arrangement  of  churches  appears  not  quite  compatible 
with  the  nature  of  Protestant  worship.    *'  The  best  form  for  a  Protes- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  237 


ARCHITECTURE. 


tant  church,  remarks  the  writer  before  quoted,  is  a  rectangular  paral- 
lelogram, though  rhave  seen  the  circle,  and  other  simple  forms  employ- 
ed seemingly  without  any  inconvenient  results.  But  any  thing  like  a 
cross,  the  favorite  form  of  the  Gothic,  is  entirely  inadmissible.  There  is 
at  Washington  a  cimrch  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  in  good  taste  as  to 
its  general  architecture  ;  but  in  consequence  of  its  shape,  a  part  of  the 
congregation  cannot  see  the  minister,  and  the  want  ofjitness  in  the  in- 
terior is  exceedingly  unpleasant.  Simplicity  in  the  form  of  our  church- 
es, seems  nearly  essential — a  quality  entirely  at  variance  with  this 
style,  and  without  something  to  conceal  and  draw  attention  from  this 
plainness,  their  interior  will  appear  meagre  and  bare.  Galleries  assist 
in  doing  this,  but  the  edifice  should  be  accommodated  to  them,  and  they 
to  it,  more  than  is  now  usually  done.  The  windows  should  be  so  con- 
structed, that  we  may  feel  that  the  gallery  is  not  concealing  their  beau- 
ty from  our  view ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  gallery  should  not  be 
carried  in  a  straight  horizontal  line  from  pillar  to  pillar,  in  the  manner 
of  a  Grecian  entablature,  but  should  bo  supported  by  low  arches,  of  the 
third  order,  and  should  be  made  to  preserve  the  Gothic  character 
throughout.  The  great  variety  of  arches  and  ornaments  admitted  by 
the  style,  will  easily  allow  the  architect  to  do  this. 

"  In  respect  to  the  management  of  spires,  our  taste,  it  is  said,  is  ex- 
ceedingly defective.  The  spire  itself  is  of  Gothic  origin,  and  may  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  Gothic  style ;  with  us  it  is  applied  to  all 
species  of  churches.  Among  the  Italians  it  is  unknown,  the  tower  alone 
being  employed.  As  we  go  northward  from  Italy,  the  spire  comes  in- 
to use,  and  it  is  often  a  most  striking  and  beautiful  object.  That  of  the 
cathedral  of  Vienna,  is  four  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  in  height,  and 
that  of  Strasburg  four  hundred  and  fifty-six;  the  diminution  in  both 
these,  however,  commences  at  the  base,  as  is  frequently  the  case  in  that 
part  of  the  continent,  and  the  effect  is  less  imposing  than  when  the 
tower  and  spire  are  combined.  England  is  remarkable  for  happy  com- 
binations of  the  two,  though  in  that  nation,  the  tower  without  the 
spire  is  frequently  to  be  seen.  There  are  few  parts  of  architecture  in 
which  our  taste  is  so  bad  as  in  this.  The  steeple  is  almost  uniformly 
thrust  and  made  the  first  and  main  object  of  our  attention,  no  matter 
what  the  cost  may  bo  to  the  body  of  the  edifice.  It  stands  out,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  from  the  facade  or  front,  which  is  thus  broken  uj), 
and  is  incapable  of  receiving  either  majesty  or  beauty  of  expression. 
The  facade  is,  obviously,  every  thing  to  the  exterior  of  a  buildinir.  On 
it  the  architect  labors  most ;  to  it  the  other  parts  are  made  to  conform, 
and  from  it  the  edifice  receives  the  unity  and  singleness  of  character, 
which  constitutes  what  artists  call  a  whole.  The  English  architects  do 
better.  They  make  the  steeple  rise  from  the  front  of  the  edifice,  but 
its  lower  part  is  not  seen  ;  the  facade  is  left  to  take  its  full  power  ; 
the  church  becomes  the  mainsubject  of  our  thoughts,  and  the  steeple  is 
felt  to  be  only  a  necessary  appendage  ;  often  it  is  in  good  taste,  and 
adds  greatly  to  the  character  of  the  edifice. 

"  As  to  the  shape  of  the  steeple,  it  is  thought  that  we  err  in  giving 
too  little  height,  in  proportion  to  the  tower.  The  spire  in  England, 
most  admired  for  its  proportions,  is  one  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  in 
height,  the  diameter  of  its  base  being  nineteen  ;  the  tower  on  which 
it  rests  is  seventy-five  feet  high,  and  twenty-two  feet  square.     It  would 


238  FAMILY 


ARCHITECTURE. 


be  better  to  banish  all  fishes,  arrows,  and  every  thing  of  the  kind,  every 
thing  resembling  a  vane,  from  the  top  of  our  spires.  They  are  no  or- 
nament ;  what  can  they  mean  ?  A  stranger  would  think  us  wonder- 
fully anxious  about  the  wind  :  if  we 'must  have  them  let  them  be  put  in 
some  other  place. 

"It  is  seldom  that  the  erection  of  our  public  buildings  fails  to  be  ac- 
companied with  hurry  and  parsimony.  Our  architecture  has  hitherto 
exerted  itself  among  frail  and  perishable  materials.  The  awkward 
wooden  buildings  it  has  erected  are  fast  passing  away,  and  we  should 
be  glad  that  it  is  so.  But  the  case  is  hereafter  going  to  be  a  different 
one.  We  are  beginning  to  build  entirely  with  bricks  and  stone,  and 
what  is  hereafter  to  be  erected,  will  go  down  to  other  ages  to  tell  of 
our  taste,  and  to  exert  its  influence  on  theirs.  Let  us  bear  constantly 
in  mind,  then,  that  not  one  of  these  edifices  is  built  for  ourselves  alone  ; 
let  us  extend  our  views  through  other  generations,  down  to  the  far  dis- 
tant boundaries  of  time,  and  as  we  contemplate  our  works  binding  these 
ages  to  us,  and  us  to  them,  let  us  indulge  the  feeling  as  our  characters 
swell  out  and  form  themselves  to  this  long  series  of  years,  and  to  this 
constantly  thickening  population.  Let  us  remember,  too,  that  it  will  be 
an  intelligent  and  a  keen-sighted  population.  We  wish  them  to  re- 
spect our  memory ;  let  us  shew  that  we  have  respect  for  them  :  we 
wish  them  to  reverence  our  laws  and  institutions,  for  we  believe  them 
good ;  let  the  objects  we  associate  strongly  with  these  laws  and  institu- 
tions, objects  to  be  seen  every  day  by  them,  and  to  influence  their  opin- 
ion of  us,  let  these  objects  be  such  as  to  heighten  reverence,  at  least  let 
them  be  such  as  not  to  provoke  their  ridicule. 

Domestic  architecture.  "  Dwelling  houses  are  capable  of  such  end- 
less modifications,  and  depend  so  much  on  circumstances  for  their 
character,  that  it  is  extremely  difl^icult  to  reduce  them  to  rule,  or,  at  all 
events,  to  bring  the  subject  within  moderate  bounds.  In  cities,  houses 
must  be  crowded,  and  generally  of  considerable  height;  in  towns  they 
are  of  less  elevation  and  at  greater  intervals ;  while  in  the  country 
they  take  a  still  different  character.  We  will  endeavour,  however,  to 
give  the  subject  a  brief  consideration.  The  architecture  of  dwelling 
houses  should  be  marked  by  two  qualities,  first  and  mainly  by  conve- 
nience, and  secondly  by  cheerfulness.  The  former  we  must  leave  to 
take  care  of  itself.  As  regards  the  latter,  a  choice  of  one  of  the  three 
ancient  orders  will  in  most  cases  be  necessary,  and  on  this  the  charac- 
ter of  the  edifice  will  chiefly  depend.  The  Doric,  it  has  already  been 
remarked,  is  grave  and  majestic;  the  Ionic,  cheerful  and  graceful; — 
the  Corinthian  gay.  If  this  is  true,  the  Ionic  is  the  most  proper  order 
for  a  dwelling.  If  the  facade  is  large  and  imposing,  the  Roman  Doric 
may  some  times  be  used  for  the  sake  of  variety  ;  but  where  the  taste  is 
left  free  to  its  exercise  we  should  always  prefer  the  Grecian  Ionic.  It 
has  a  good  mixture  of  simplicity  and  richness  ;  it  is  pure  and  extreme- 
ly graceful ;  it  is,  in  short,  just  that  to  which  we  would  desire  all  the  in- 
ternal arrangements,  and  even  the  manners  of  a  family  to  correspond. 
The  character  of  a  family  will  generally  be  found  to  have  some  resem- 
blance to  the  house  in  which  they  live.  The  Grecian  Ionic  does  not 
appear  well,  however,  in  small  objects ;  and  where  the  dwelling  is  bro- 
ken into  a  number  of  diminutive  parts,  or  v/here  none  can  be  large; 
the  Composite  or  the  Modern  Ionic  may  be  more  advantageously  em- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  239 


ARCHITECTURE. 


ployed.  These  are  frequently  used  in  small  porticoes  and  the  like ; 
and  to  them  they  are  very  well  suited.  The  Grecian  Doric  may  per- 
haps be  made  to  appear  well  in  a  dwelling  house,  but  the  attempt  may 
be  considered  as  hazardous.  Its  character  of  bold  and  manly  gran- 
deur, coupled  with  simple  majesty,  is  not  at  all  suited  to  such  a  build- 
ing ;  the  Corinthian  errs  as  greatly  on  the  other  side. 

"  We  are  fond  of  variety  in  cities  or  towns.  In  the  former  it  is  more 
difficult  than  in  the  latter,  but  we  often  make  the  case  even  worse  than 
our  necessities  require.  It  is  so  when  we  erect  a  large  block  of  build- 
ings, each  one  corresponding  exactly  with  the  rest.  Why  is  this  ?  Is 
there  not  uniformity  enough  in  the  constant  recurrence  of  streets  of  the 
same  breadth,  and  perhaps  meeting  at  the  same  angle,  in  an  unbroken 
range  of  houses,  each  advanced  to  the  same  line,  and  finished  with  the 
same  proportionate  number  of  windows  and  doors?  But  there  is  an- 
other consideration.  In  a  block  of  this  kind,  the  whole  mass  takes  an 
unity  which  requires  vastness  in  the  other  parts  to  correspond.  We 
look  for  this,  and  find,  with  disappointment,  the  doors,  windows,  and 
porches,  the  same  as  those  of  any  other  houses  ;  the  details  become 
more  minute  from  a  comparison  with  the  vastness  of  the  whole,  and 
the  discrepancy  becomes  more  strongly  forced  on  us,  and  more  pain- 
ful. 

"  Smaller  cities  and  towns  have  a  great  advantage  in  the  interval* 
which  occur  between  the  houses,  and  in  New-England  this  advantage 
is  turned  to  good  account.  The  houses  there  are  frequently  built  at  a 
distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  feet  from  each  other,  a  space  of  several 
yards  being  also  left  between  them  and  the  street.  The  whole  of  this 
is  planted  with  delicate  shade  trees  and  shrubs,  and  as  the  houses 
themselves  are  usually  painted  white,  and  have  small  tasteful  porticoes 
in  front,  the  effect  is  the  most  agreeable  that  can  be  imagined.  Gen- 
tlemen who  have  travelled  extensively  in  Europe,  frequently  inform 
us  that  they  have  never  seen  any  thing  that,  as  a  whole,  would  compare 
in  neatness  and  real  beauty  with  some  of  the  New-England  villages; 
the  houses,  though  as  comfortable  and  durable  as  in  other  places, 
cost,  it  is  believed,  even  less  than  is  usual  for  edifices  of  their  size. — 
Nearly  the  whole  is  effected  by  the  neat  little  yard,  with  its  verdure  in 
contrast  with  the  pure  white  of  the  facade,  and  the  little  portico  over 
the  door.  There  is  another  characteristic  in  these  towns,  which  it  is 
desirable  shoold  become  more  common  in  the  country,  viz.  the  habit 
of  planting  trees  along  the  streets.  We  should  not  have  all  the  streets 
in  a  town  treated  in  this  manner ;  those  for  business  should  be  kept 
clear,  but  in  all  others  trees  should  be  planted  more  or  less  thickly,  as 
taste  or  convenience  will  admit.  They  give  a  town  the  appearance  of 
richness  and  comfort,  which  cannot  be  so  cheaply  procured  in  any 
other  manner.  The  elm  is  our  most  graceful  shade  tree,  and  will  be 
found  most  suitable  when  the  streets  are  wide ;  when  narrow,  the  ma- 
ple is  thought  to  be  the  best. 

"  As  to  country  houses  and  their  premises,  so  much  depends  on  th» 
character  of  the  ground,  and  of  all  objects,  even  to  a  distance  of  miles, 
that  the  subject  swells  entirely  beyond  our  limits.  We  must  be  al- 
lowed, however,  to  remonstrate  against  the  warfare  which  is  every 
where  carried  on  against  our  noble  forest  trees  ;  trees  which  should  bo 


240  FAMILY 


AKCHITECTURE. 


estimated  by  us  far  above  all  price.  The  first  thing  done  in  the  new 
parts  of  our  country,  when  a  spot  is  determined  on  for  a  house,  is  to 
cut  down  all  the  trees  within  many  rods  of  it ;  and  then,  year  by 
year,  the  work  of  destruction  goes  on,  as  if  the  very  sight  of  a  forest 
tree  were  odious.  The  house  stands  alone  in  the  clearing,  its  inmates, 
and  particularly  the  children,  roasted  and  browned  under  the  hot  sum- 
mer's snn;  but  by  and  by,  the  nakedness  and  dreariness  of  the  situa/- 
tion  is  felt,  and  then  are  planted  some  Lorabardy  poplars  "  all  in  a 
row."  Now,  the  trees  which  we  cut  down  with  such  an  unsparing 
hand,  are  the  very  kind  which  English  gardmers  cultivate  with  the 
most  persevering  diligence,  and  are  planted  here  just  as  they  labor 
most  to  plant.  And  we  too  shall  cultivate  them  before  long,  and  shall 
then  think,  with  the  most  bitter  regret,  of  the  sad  destruction  which 
we  and  our  ancestors  have  made.  But  in  vain  ;  for  all  the  art  of  man 
will  not  be  able  to  restore  in  any  length  of  time,  such  glades  and 
thickets,  and  lawns,  as  we  now  possess.  When  about  to  build  in  a 
new  country,  we  should  save,  near  our  house,  an  acre  or  two  of  the 
forest,  and  should  guard  it  with  the  most  watchful  care.  Morning, 
noon,  and  evening,  it  would  be  an  agreeable  retreat ;  its  shade  would 
be  refreshing  in  our  scorching  heats  ;  it  would  connect  us  in  som^ 
measure,  with  ages  long  since  gone,  and  bring  before  us  the  wild,  but 
high-souled  Indian,  his  council,  his  battle  song,  the  war,  the  chase,  the 
feast  and  dance  ;  its  noble  and  manly  form  would  gratify  our  taste  ; 
it  would  raise  our  thoughts  to  Him  who  is  "  a  shadow  from  the  heat,  a 
strength  to  the  needy  in  his  distress."  Let  us  then  spare  our  nobl^ 
forest  trees.  Many  political  considerations  might  be  adduced  to  shew 
the  imprudence  of  our  rude  havoc  among  them,  but  for  these  we  havd 
not  room." 


PART  V. 

AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture,  considered  as  a  science,  explains  the  means  of  making 
the  earth  produce,  in  plenty  and  perfection,  those  vegetables,  which  are 
necessary  to  the  subsistence,  or  convenience  of  man,  and  of  the  animal.<; 
reared  by  him  for  food,  or  labor.  , 

Considered  as  an  art,  every  human  being  has  an  interest  in  it,  since  it 
is  the  foundation  of  all  other  arts — the  basis  of  civilization  and  refine- 
ment— and  essential  to  the  existence  of  some  of  the  nations  which  inhabit 
certain  portions  of  our  globe. 

Besides  the  healthfulness  of  the  pursuit,  agriculture  "  is  intimately 
connected" — to  use  the  language  of  a  distinguished  literary  journal  of 
our  country* — ''with  our  national  character,  because  it  powerfully 
acts  upOn  the  morals  and  constitution  of  our  citizens.  If  it  be  true 
that  the  torch  of  liberty  has  always  burned  with  a  purer  and  brighter 
lustre  on  the  mountains  than  on  the  plains,  it  is  still  more  true,  that  the 
sentiments  of  honor  and  integrity  more  generally  animate  the  rough, 
but  manly  form  of  the  farmer,  than  the  debilitated  body  of  the  artisan. 
There  is  in  that  primitive  and  honorable  occupation,  the  culture  of  the 
earth,  something  which,  while  it  pours  into  the  lap  of  the  State  an  in- 
crease beyond  every  other  employment,  gives  more  than  the  fabled 
stone,  not  only  a  subsistence,  but  a  placid  feeling  of  contentment ;  not 
only  creates  the  appetite  to  enjoy,  but  guaranties  its  continuance,  by  a 
robust  constitution,  fortified  with  the  safe-guards  of  temperance  and 
virtue." 

To  this  we  may  add  a  remark  of  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Wealth  of  Na- 
tions, viz.  that  "  the  capital  employed  in  agriculture  not  only  puts  in, 
motion  a  greater  quantity  of  productive  labor,  than  any  equal  capital 
employed  in  manufactures ;  but,  also  in  proportion  to  the  productive 
labor  which  it  employs,  it  adds  a  much  greater  value  to  the  annual  pro- 
duce of  the  land  and  labor  of  the  country,  while  it  increases  the  real 
wealth  and  revenue  of  its  inhabitants." 

Notwithstanding  these  high  testimonials — and  a  hundred  more  equaUy 
weighty  might  be  adduced — in  favor  of  the  profession  of  agriculture, 
it  has  been,  until  within  a  few  years,  "  a  degraded  and  unpopular  pur- 
suit among  us."  In  Europe,  the  fact  has  been  otherwise.  In  England 
and  on  the  continent,  every  state,  since  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
has  turned  its  assiduous  attention  to  this  most  important  department 
of  domestic  economy,  and  ultimately  borrowed  from  it  the  resources 

*  North  American  Review. 
1 


FAMILY 


AGRICULTURE. 


which  have  carried  them  through  the  prodigious  conflicts  of  the  last 
generation. 

Several  causes  have  contributed  to  lessen  the  apparent  importance 
of  agricultural  skill  in  the  United  States.  But  two  only  can  here  be 
noticed. 

The  first  is  the  peculiar  situation  of  Europe  since  the  peace  of  '83, 
which  has  afforded  opportunities  for  commercial  enterprise,  too  tempt- 
ing to  be  resisted.  "  American  merchants  received  in  the  lapse  of  a 
very  few  years,  the  most  astonishing  accessions  of  wealth :  and  for- 
tunes, ordinarily  the  fruit  of  a  laborious  life,  and  never  the  portion  of 
many,  were  amassed  with  unparalleled  rapidity,  and  by  large  numbers. 
Our  domestic  prosperity  more  than  equalled  the  extension  of  our  trade. 
It  was  then  that  the  counting-houses  of  our  merchants  were  filled  with 
youth  from  the  country,  who  forsook  the  slower  but  surer  emoluments 
of  agriculture,  for  the  mushroom,  but  unsubstantial  fomines  of  com- 
merce ;  nay,  who  preferred  the  meanest  drudgery  behind  the  counter  of 
a  retailer,  to  the  manly  and  invigorating  toil  of  the  cultivator  of  his 
paternal  acres.  Unfortunately  this  spirit  of  migration  was  encouraged 
by  too  great  a  success  in  trade.  Feelings  of  vulgar  pride  contracted 
in  town,  caused  the  manual  labor  of  the  farmer  to  be  regarded  as  de- 
grading. This  unworthy  sentiment  spread  its  baleful  influence ;  and 
when  the  compting-houses  became  overstocked,  and  afforded  no  longer 
a  resource,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  see  a  young  man,  with  no 
qualifications,  but  a  little  bad  Latin,  picked  up  at  a  miserable  village 
school,  forsake  a  large  and  comfortable  farm,  and  apprentice  himself  to 
a  poor  country  attorney." 

The  second  cause  of  the  late  depressed  state  of  agriculture  in  the 
United  States,  especially  in  New-England,  has  been  owing  to  the  con- 
stant emigration  to  the  West.  No  sooner  had  the  farmer  reduced  his 
land  by  successive  crops,  than  he  removed  to  a  country,  which  offered 
him'an  untouched  surface,  needing  for  some  years  no  aid  of  composts  and 
manures. 

But  it  is  occasion  of  gratitude,  that,  at  length,  the  importance  of  a 
regular  and  more  enlightened  and  more  energetic  system  of  farming 
is  beginning  to  be  felt  in  our  country.  Men  of  talents,  wealth,  and  dis- 
tinction, no  longer  think  it  beneath  them  to  enrol  their  names  on  the  list 
o^ -practical  farmers.  By  means  of  agricultural  associations,  and  liberal- 
ly patronized,  and  ably  conducted  papers,  information  on  the  subject, 
considered  both  as  an  art,  and  a  science,  is  rapidly  spreading  abroad — 
a  taste  for  farming  is  diffusing  itself,  and  ere  long,  it  is  believed,  that  this 
species  of  employment  will  be  as  much  prized  and  coveted,  as  once  it 
vras  considered  low  and  despicable. 

To  aid  in  advancing  the  interests  of  this  important  branch  of  national 
industry  will  be  the  object  of  the  pages  which  we  design  to  appropriate 
to  this  subject. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


SECTION  I. 

DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  NEAT  CATTLE  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 


1.  The  Wild  Cattle— of  a  bull  of  which  race  the  above  is  a  por- 
trait,—were  the  original  stock  of  the  kingdom  of  Great  Britain  before 
enclosures  were  known.  They  are  said  to  be  still  found  at  C hartley 
Park,  in  Derbyshire,  and  perhaps,  in  one  or  two  more ;  but  it  is  believed 
that  the  only  pure  breed  is  that  preserved,  in  a  wild  state,  at  ChilUngham 
Castle  in  Northumberland,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Tankerville,  whose 
steward,  Mr.  Bailey,  thus  describes  them : 

"Their  color  is  invariably  white ;  muzzle  black;  the  whole  of  the 
inside  of  the  ear,  and  about  one-third  of  the  outside,  from  the  tip  down- 
wards, red ;  horns  white  with  black  tips,  very  fine  and  bent  upwards . 
Some  of  the  bulls  have  a  thin  upright  mane,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
or  two  inches  long:  the  weight  of  the  oxen  is  from  thirty-five  to  forty- 
five  stone,  of  fourteen  pounds ;  and  that  of  the  cows,  from  twenty -five  to 
thirty-five  stone  the  four  quarters.  The  beef  is  finely  marbled  and  of 
excellent  flavor. 

"  The  mode  of  killing  them  was,  perhaps,  the  only  modern  remains 
of  the  grandeur  of  ancient  hunting.  On  notice  being  given  that  a  wild 
bull  would  be  killed  upon  a  certain  day,  fhe  inhabitants  of  the  neigh- 
borhood came  in  great  numbers,  both  horse  and  foot ;  the  horsemen 
rode  off  the  bull  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  until  he  stood  at  bay,  when  a 
marksman  dismounted  and  shot.  At  some  of  these  huntings,  twenty  or 
thirty  shots  have  been  fired  before  he  was  subdued :  on  such  occasions 
the  bleeding  victim  grew  desperately  furious  from  the  smarting  of  his 
wounds,  aifll  the  shouts  of  savage  joy  that  were  echoing  on  every  side. 
From  the  number  of  accidents  that  happened,  this  dangerous  mode  has 
been  seldom  practised  of  late  years ;  the  park-keeper  generally  shooting 
them  with  a  rifle  gun  at  one  shot. 

"  When  the  cows  calve,  they  hide  their  calves  for  a  week  or  ten  days 
in  some  sequestered  situation  and  go  and  suckle  them  two  or  three 
times  a  day,    If  any  person  come  near  the  calves,  they  clap  their  heads 


FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


close  to  the  ground,  and  lie  like  a  hare  in  a  form,  to  hide  themselves. 
This  is  a  proof  of  their  native  wildness,  and  is  corroborated  by  the  fol- 
lowing circumstance,  that  happened  to  the  writer  of  the  narrative,  who 
found  a  hidden  calf  two  days  old^  very  lean  and  very  weak ;  on  stroking 
its  head,  it  got  up,  pawed  two  or  three  times,  like  an  old  bull,  bellowed 
very  loud,  retired  a  few  steps,  and  bolted  at  his  legs  with  all  its  force  ;  it 
then  began  to  paw  again,  bellowed,  stepped  back,  and  bolted  as  before ; 
but  knowing  its  intention,  and  stepping  aside,  it  missed  him,  fell,  and 
was  so  very  weak  that  it  could  not  rise,  though  it  made  several  efforts ; 
but  it  had  done  enough ;  the  whole  herd  were  alaru>ed,  and  coming  to 
its  rescue,  obliged  him  to  retire ;  for  the  dams  will  allow  no  person  to 
touch  their  calves  without  attacking  them  with  impetuous  ferocity. 

*'  When  any  one  happens  to  be  wounded,  or  grown  weak  or  feeble 
through  age  or  sickness,  the  rest  of  the  herd  set  U2)on  it  and  gore  it  to 
death."' 


II.  The  Devonshire  Breed,  delineated  above,  is  supposed  to  have 
descended  directly  from  the  wild  race.  It  is  found  in  its  purest  state  in 
North  Devon ;  in  the  agricultural  report  of  which  district  its  peculiar 
qualities  are  thus  described  by  the  late  Mr.  Vancouver : — 

"Its  head  is  small,  clean,  and  free  from  flesh  about  the  jaws;  deer- 
like Ught  and  airy  in  its  countenance ;  neck  long  and  thin ;  throat  free 
from  jowl  or  dewlap ;  nose  and  round  its  eyes  of  a  dark  orange  color; 
ears  thin  and  pointed,  tinged  on  their  inside  with  the  same  color  that  \h 
always  found  to  encircle  its  eyes ;  horns  thin,  and  fine  to  their  roots, 
of  a  cream  color,  tipped  with  black,*  growing  with  a  regular  curve  up- 
wards, and  rather  springing  from  each  other ;  light  in  the  withers,  rest- 
ing on  a  shoulder  a  little  retiring  and  spreading,  and  so  rounded  belovr 
as  to  sink  all  appearance  of  its  pinion  in  the  body  of  the  animal ;  open 
bosom,  with  a  deep  chest,  or  keel ;  small  and  tapering  below  the  knee, 

*  The  late  Rev.  Arthur  Young,  formerly  Secretary  to  the  Board  of 
Agriculture,  describes  thorough  bred  Devons  as  of  a  bright  red,  neck 
and  head  small,  eye  prominent,  and  round  it  a  ring  of  bright  yellow ; 
the  nose  round  the  nostril  having  the  same  color  ;  the  horn  clear  and 
transparent,  upright,  tapering,  and  gently  curved,  but  not,  tipped  with 
black. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


fine  at  and  above  the  joint,  and  where  the  arm  begins  to  increase  it  be- 
comes suddenly  lost  in  the  shoulder ;  line  of  the  back  straight  from  the 
withers  to  the  rump,  lying  completely  on  a  level  with  the  pin,  or  buckles, 
which  lie  wide  and  open ;  the  hind  quarters  seated  high  with  flesh, 
leaving  a  fine  hair-ham  tapering  from  the  hock  to  the  fetlock ;  long 
from  rump  to  buckle,  and  from  the  pinion  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end  of 
the  nose  ;  thin  loose  skin,  covered  with  hair  of  a  soft  and  furry  nature, 
inclined  to  curl  whenever  the  animal  is  in  good  condition  and  in  full 
coat,  when  it  also  becomes  mottled  with  darker  shades  of  its  permanent 
color,  which  is  that  of  a  bright  blood  red,  without  white,  or  other  spots, 
particularly  on  the  male  ;  a  white  udder  is  sometimes  passed  over,  but 
seldom  without  objection, 

"  This  description  may  be  considered  as  a  summary  of  the  perfection* 
as  to  the  exterior  appearance  of  the  animal:  what,  under  the  same  head, 
may  be  regarded  as  defects,  appear  first  in  the  sudden  retiring  of  the 
vamp  from  behind  the  buckle  to  a  narrow  point  backwards ;  the 
great  space  between  the  buckle  and  first  rib ;  the  smallness  of  the  angle 
inwards  at  which  the  ribs  appear  to  be  projected  from  the  spine  or  back- 
bone, often  giving  the  appearance  of  ;i  flat-sided  animal,  and  in  its  being 
so  much  tucked  up  in  the  girth  as  to  show  an  awkward  cavity  between 
the  keel  and  naval,  the  line  of  which,  it  is  presumed,  should  always  be 
found  to  hold  a  position  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  that  of  the 
back  from  the  withers  to  the  loin.  The  animal  is,  however,  generally 
well  grown,  and  filled  up  behind  the  shoulder. 


III.  The  Sussex  Breed  differs  but  little  from  the  Devonshire  ;  when 
pure,  the  cattle  are  invariably  dark  red  ;  and  those  which  are  marked 
with  a  mixture  of  either  white  or  black,  although  passing  under  the 
denomination  of  Sussex,  are  always  crossed  with  foreign  blood.  In 
other  respects  they  are  thus  described  by  an  eminent  breeder,  the  accu- 
racy of  whose  judgment  has  been  confirmed  by  many  intelligent  graziers : 

"  A  thin  head,  and  a  clean  jaw ;  the  horns  pointing  forward  a  little,  and 
then  turning  upward,  thin,  tapering,  and  long ;  the  eye  large  and  full ; 
the  throat  clean,  no  dew-lap  ;  long  and  thin  in  the  neck ;  wide  and  deep 
in  the  shoulders ;  no  projection  in  the  pomt  of  the  shoulder,  when  looked 
at  from  behind ;  the  fore-legs  wide ;  round  and  straight  in  the  barrel, 
and  free  from  a  rising  back-bone ;  no  hanging  heaviness  m  the  bellj  j 


FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


wide  across  the  loin  ;  the  space  between  the  hip-bone  and  the  first  rib 
very  small ;  the  hip-bone  not  to  rise  high,  but  to  be  large  and  wide  ;  the 
loin,  and  space  between  the  hips  to  be  flat  and  wide,  but  the  fore  part  of 
the  carcass  round  ;  long  and  straight  in  the  rump,  and  wide  in  the  tip ; 
tlie  tail  to  lay  low,  for  the  flesh  to  swell  above  it ;  the  legs  not  too  long  ; 
neither  thick  nor  thin  on  the  thigh ;  the  leg  thin ;  shut  well  in  the  twist ; 
no  fulness  in  the  outside  of  the  thigh,  but  all  of  it  within ;  a  squareness 
behind,  common  in  all  long-horned  beasts,  greatly  objected  to  ;  the  finer 
and  thinner  in  the  tail  the  better. 

"  Of  these  points,  the  Sussex  beasts  are  apt  to  be  more  deficient  in  the 
shoulder  than  in  any  other  part.  A  well  made  ox  stands  straight,  and 
nearly  perpendicularly,  on  small  clean  legs ;  a  large  bony  leg  is  a  verv 
bad  point,  but  the  legs  moving  freely,  rather  under  the  body  than  as  ii' 
attached  to  the  sides;  the  horns  pushing  a  little  forward,  spreading  mode- 
ratety,  and  turning  up  once.  The  horn  of  the  Devonshire,  which  very 
much  resembles  the  Sussex,  but  smaller  and  lighter,  is  longer,  and  rises 
generally  higher.  The  straitness  of  the  back  line  is  sometimes  broken, 
in  very  fine  beasts,  by  a  lump  between  the  hips." 

On  a  comparison  between  the  Devon  and  Sussex  breeds,  the  former 
has  been  considered  by  competent  judges  as  thinner,  narrower,  and 
sharper  than  the  latter,  on  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  or  blade  bone ;  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  generally  projects  more,  and  they  usually  stand 
narrower  in  the  chest ;  their  chine  is  thinner  and  flatter  in  the  barrel, 
and  they  hang  more  in  the  flank ;  but  they  are  wider  in  the  hips,  and 
cleaner  in  the  neck,  head,  and  horns,  and  smaller  in  the  bone,  than  the 
Sussex  ;  their  hides  are  thinner  and  softer,  and  they  handle  as  mellow. 
The  distinction  between  them  however  is  not  very  striking ;  they  are 
equally  profitable  to  the  grazier,  and  as  working  cattle,  they  both  stand 
unrivalled. 


IV.  The  Hereford  Breed  is  a  variety  of  the  Devon  and  Sussex,  but 
is  larger  and  weightier  than  either ;  being  generally  wider  and  fuller 
over  the  shoulders  or  chine,  and  the  breast,  or  brisket,  as  well  as  in  the 
nfter  part  of  the  rump.  The  prevailing  color  a  reddish  brown,  with 
white  faces ;  the  hair  fine  and  the  skin  thin. 

In  the  true  bred  Hereford  cattle  there  is  no  projecting  bone  in  the  point 
of  tlie  shoulder,  which  in  some  breeds  forms  almost  a  shelf,  against 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


which  the  collar  rests ;  but  on  the  contrary  tapers  off:  they  have  a  great 
breadth  before,  and  are  equally  weighty  in  their  hind  quarters ;  the 
tail  not  set  on  high ;  a  great  distance  from  the  point  of  the  rump  to  the 
hip  bone ;  the  twist  full,  broad,  and  soft ;  the  thigh  of  the  fore  legs  to 
the  pastern  joint  tapering  and  full,  not  thin,  but  thin  below  the  joint ; 
the  horn  pushes  aside  a  little,  and  then  turns  up  thin  and  tapering ; 
remarkably  well  feeling ;  mellow  on  the  rump,  ribs,  and  hip  bone.  The 
quality  of  the  meat  not  hard,  but  fine  as  well  as  fat ;  little  coarse  flesh 
about  them,  the  offal  and  bone  being  small  in  proportion  to  their  weight ; 
whilst  their  disposition  to  fatten  is  equal  or  nearly  so,  to  that  of  any  other 
breed  in  the  island.  They  are,  however,  ill  calculated  for  the  dairy ;  their 
constitutional  disposition  to  accumulate  flesh  being  in  opposition  to  the 
qualities  of  good  milking  cows,  an  observation  which  will  equally  apply 
to  every  breed,  when  similarly  constituted.  A  breed  of  cattle,  equally 
adapted  to  the  shambles,  the  dairy,  and  the  plough,  is  indeed  not  to  be 
met  with ;  and  experience  teaches  that  these  properties  are  inconsistent 
with  each  other.  The  Hereford  cattle  are  by  many  good  judges  con- 
sidered to  approach  the  nearest  to  that  perfect  state  of  any  of  the  large 
breeds ;  they  arrive  early  at  maturity,  and  are  fit  for  labor ;  but  it  is  as 
fatting  stock  that  they  excel,  and  it  is  a  different  variety  of  the  same  breed 
that  is  preferred  for  the  dairy.  There  is,  indeed  a  more  extraordinary 
disproportion  between  the  weight  of  Herefordshire  cows,  and  that  of  the 
oxen  bred  from  them,  than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  of  the  superior 
breeds ;  they  are  comparatively  small,  extremely  delicate  and  light  flesh- 
ed, and  it  is  said  that  they  are  not  unfrequently  the  mothers  of  oxen, 
nearly  three  times  their  own  weight. 

On  comparison  with  the  Devon  and  Sussex,  the  Hereford  breed  will 
probably  not  be  found  equally  active  and  hardy  in  the  yoke  ;  but  it  is 
generally  considered  to  exceed  them  in  the  quality  of  fattening ;  and 
when  compared  with  any  other  breed,  it  may  fairly  rank  at  least  among 
the  very  best  in  the  country. 

V.  The  Short  Horned  Cattle,  under  which  denomination  are  in- 
discriminately included  the  Dutch,  Holderness,  and  Tecsicater  breeds,  are 
supposed  to  have  acquired  the  appellation  of  Dutch,  from  a  cross  with 
some  large  bulls  that  were  imported,  near  a  century  ago,  from  Holland 
into  Yorkshire,  (Eng.)  in  the  east  and  north  ridings  of  which  county  the 
two  latter  had  been  long  established.  It  has,  however,  been  doubted 
whether  any  advantage  was  derived  from  this  intermixture ;  for  the  in- 
crease thus  obtained  in  size  was  thought  to  have  been  counterbalanced, 
by  a  more  than  proportionate  increase  of  offal.  But,  fortunately,  the 
error  was  not  universal ;  for  some  intelligent  breeders  aware,  even  at 
tiiat  day,  of  the  superiority  of  symmetry  to  bulk,  preserved  the  breed,  of 
which  they  were  already  in  possession,  in  its  native  purity ;  and  it  is 
from  some  of  that  stock,  so  maintained,  that  the  present  im])roved  short 
horned  cattle,  now  generally  distinguished  as  the  Durham,  or  Yorkshire 
breed,  are  descended. 

This  breed  \\  as  introduced  about  forty  years  ago,  by  Messieurs  Col- 
ling, of  Darlington,  and  has  rapidly  risen  in  the  public  estimation.  The 
cattle  are  very  large,  and  are  beautifully  mottled  with  red  or  black  upon 
a  white  ground ;  their  backs  level ;  throat  clean ;  neck  fine ;  carcass 
full  and  round ;  quarters  long ;  hips  and  rumps  even  and  wide ;  they 
stand  rather  high  on  their  legs  ;  handle  very  kindly ;  are  light  in  their 
bone,  in  proportion  to  their  size ;   and  have  a  very  fine  coat,  and  thin 


FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


hide.  They  differ  from  the  other  breeds,  not  only  in  the  shortness  of 
their  horns,  but  ae  being  wider  and  thicker  in  their  form,  and  conse- 
quently feeding  to  greater  weight ;  in  affording  the  greatest  quantity  of 
tallow  when  fatted ;  and  in  having  very  thin  hides,  with  much  less  hair 
upon  them  than  any  other  kind  except  the  Alderneys.  They  also  possess 
the  valuable  properties  of  fattening  kindly  at  an  early  age,  and  of  yield- 
ing large  quantities  of  milk ;  but  the  quality  of  the  latter  is  not  so  rich  as 
that  of  some  other  species. 

Of  this  breed,  Mr.  Charles  Coiling,  of  Ketton,  sold  a  bull — Comet — by 
public  auction,  in  the  year  1810,  for  the  extraordinary  sum  of  one  thou- 
sand guineas  ;  and  the  history  of  the  celebrated  Durham  ox,  the  property 
of  the  same  gentleman,  is  too  remarkable  not  to  merit  attention. 

He  was  bred  in  the  year  179G,  and  at  five  years  old  w^as  not  only 
covered  thick  with  fat  upon  all  the  principal  points,  but  his  whole  carcass 
appeared  to  be  loaded  with  it,  and  he  was  then  thought  so  wonderful  an 
animal,  that  he  was  purchased  in  Febniary,  1801,  for  £140,  to  be  ex.- 
Iiibited  as  a  show ;  his  live  weight  being  then  226  stone,  of  14  pounds.. 
In  the  following  May  he  was  again  sold  for  £250,  to  Mr.  John  Day,  whoy 
two  months  aftenvards  refused  for  him  two  thousand  guineas  I  He  wa^ 
exhibited  in  the  principal  parts  of  the  kingdom  until  April,  1807„  when 
he  was  killed,  in  consequence  of  having  accidentally  dislocated  his  hip  ija 
the  previous  February,  and  although  he  must  have  lost  considerably  in 
weight  during  his  illness,  besides  the  disadvantages  of  six  years'  travelling 
in  a  caravan,  yet  his  carcass  weighed  187  stone  12  pounds ;  and  Mx-  Day 
stated  his  live  weight  at  ten  years  old,  to  have  been  270  stone^ 

Uncommon  as  this  animal  then  was,  he  has,  however,  been  smee  ex- 
ceeded in  size  by  a  Yorkshire  ox,  bred  by  Mr.  Dunhill,  of  Newton,  near 
Doncaster,  the  carcass  of  which  weighed,  when  lulled,  264  stone  12 
pounds  ;  and  he  was  supposed  to  have  lost  near  forty  stone  while  being 
exhibited  in  London. 

Still  more  recently,  another  beast  of  unconmion  size,  fed  by  Lord 
Yarborough,  has  been  exhibited  under  the  title  of  "  tho  Lincolnshire  Ox ;" 
but,  though  bred  in  that  county,  from  a  favourite  cow  belonging  to 
Mr.  Goulton,  he  was  got  by  a  descendant  of  Comet,  out  of  Countess,  also 
of  tlie  Durham  breed.  This  extraordinary  animal  measured  five  feet 
six  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulders,  eleven  feet  ten  inches  from  the  no.se 
lo  the  setting  of  the  tail^  eleven  feet  one  inch  in  girth,  and  three  feet  three 
inches  across  the  hips,  shoulders,  and  middle  of  the  back;  the  lowest 
point  of  his  breast  was  only  fourteen  inches  from  the  ground,  and  ho 
stood  one  foot  ten  inches  between  the  fore  legs  ;  the  girth  of  the  fore  leg 
was  nine  inches. 

The  variety  of  this  breed  known  as  the  Yorkshire  Polled  Cattle, 
only  differs  from  those  already  described,  in  being  without  horns ;  they 
are  in  considerable  estimation  among  the  London  cow-keepers,  as  milk- 
ers, and  at  the  same  time  maintain  tiieir  flesh  in  a  state  nearly  fit  for  the 
shambles. 

It  may  not  be  improper  in  this  place  to  give  some  account  of  severaJ 
remarkable  oxen  raised  in  tho  United  States, — the  land  in  which,  it  is  a 
current  opinion  on  the  other  side  of  the  water,  animals  of  every  descript- 
tion  are  wont  to  degenerate. 

The  first  ox  we  notice  has  been  exhibiting  for  several  years  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  He  is  called  "  Man>mouth  Ox  ColumbuB."  He 
was  bred  in  the  town  of  Greenland,  State  of  New  Hampshire.     By  com- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


NEAT  tJATTLE. 


petent  judges  he  is  supposed  to  weigh  aUve  nearly  4,000  pounds.     His 
dimensions  are  as  follows : — 

feet,    inches. 
Length  from  the  nose  to  the  rump,       ^  -  11        00 

Heiiht,       -  -  -  -  -  -        5        10 

Girth  around  the  body.  -  -  -  116 

Shoulder  to  brisket,  -  -  -  -46 

Horns  from  tip  to  tip,  ...  33 

In  tlie  spring  of  1819,  two  oxen  of  extraordinary  weight  and  dimen- 
sions, were  slaughtered  in  Baltimore.  The  one  of  these  was  called 
''  Columbus,"  the  other  "  the  Delaware  ox."  Their  weight  and  dimen- 
sions, ascertained  with  great  care  and  exactness,  follow : 


COLUMBUS. 

DELAWARE  0 

X. 

Weight. 

Weight. 

Alive,       .        .        .        . 

2962 

Alive, 

-      2688 

Head  and  tongue, 

24J 

Head  and  tongue, 

23 

Feet, 

26 

Feet, 

22i 

Liver, 

18 

Liver, 

20i 

Heart, 

10 

Heart, 

lOi 

Lights, 

16 

Lights, 

11 

Rough  tallow, 

218 

Rough  tallow, 

273i 

Hide, 

154* 

Hide, 

101 

Blood, 

94 

Blood, 

65i 

Other  offal  weight, 

222^ 

Other  offal  weight, 

198 

783* 

73U 

Neat  beef, 

2090 

Neat  beef, 

1851 

2873i 

2582t 

Loss  unaccounted  for, 

88i 

Loss  unaccounted  for, 

105i 

2962 


2688 


OX  COLUMBUS. 


10 


FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


Hind  Qjuarter. 

1  Sirloin, 

2  Rump, 

3  Edge  bone, 

4  Buttock, 

5  Mouse  Buttock, 

6  Veiny  Piece, 

7  Thick  Flank, 

8  Thick  Flank, 

9  Leg, 

10  Fore  Rib ;  five  Ribs, 


Fore  Quarter. 

11  Middle  Rib ;  four  Ribs, 

12  Chuck ;  three  Ribs, 

13  Shoulder,  or  Leg  of  Mutton 

piece, 

14  Brisket, 

15  Clod, 

16  Neck,  or  Sticking  piece, 

17  Shin, 

18  Cheek. 


The  above  drawing  represents  the  form  and  attitude  of  the  ox  Co-^ 
lumbus.  The  plain  horizontal  line,  describes  his  length  from  the  root 
of  the  horn  to  the  tip  of  the  rump.  The  plain  perpendicular  line,  his 
height  on  the  shoulders.  The  dotted  lines,  point  out  the  manner  of  cutting 
v.p  beef,  as  practiced  by  victuallers ;  and  the  figures,  in  their  centres, 
refer  to  the  proper  technical  name  of  each  piece.  For  this  diagram 
we  are  indebted  to  the  American  Farmer.  It  is  given  in  this  place  as 
a  pattern,  which  may  be  useful  as  a  guide  to  housekeepers,  in  many  parta 
or  our  land. 


VL  The  Long  Horned  Cattle  are  descended  from  a  breed  which 
had  long  been  established  in  the  Craven  district,  in  Yorkshire,  (Eng. ;) 
flomecows  of  which  race,  and  a  Lancashire  long  horned  bull,  of  the  kind 
delineated  above,  were  brought,  early  in  the  last  century,  by  a  Mr. 
Webster,  to  Canley,  in  Warwickshire,  where  they  produced  a  stock  that 
soon  became  remarkable  for  its  beauty. 

Of  this  Canley  stock,  tlie  late  Mr.  Robert  Bakewell,  of  Dishley,  In 
Ijeicestershire,  procured  some  cows,  which  he  crossed  with  a  Northunv* 
berland  bull,  and  thus  reared  that  celebrated  race  now  so  well  known 
as  the  Disldty  breed.  They  were  long  and  fine  in  the  horn,  had  small 
heads,  cl^an  throats,  straight  broad  backs,  wide  quarters,  and  were  light 
in  their  bellies  and  otFal ;  and,  probably  from  the  etfect  ctf  domestication, 
and  gentle  treatment,  remarkably  docile  ;  they  grew  fat  upon  a  smaller 
proportion  of  food  than  the  parent  stock ;  but  gave  less  milk  than  some- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 11 

NEAT  CATTLE. 

Other  breeds  ;  and  the  chief  improvements  effected  seem  to  have  been, 
in  their  aptitude  to  fatten  early  on  the  most  valuaj>le  points,  and  in  the 
superior  quality  of  the  flesh. 

The  modem  improvements  made  in  the  long  homed  cattle,  since  the 
first  attempts  of  Bakewell,  are  considered  to  consist  chiefly  in  the 
coarser  parts  having  been  reduced,  and  the  more  valuable  enlarged. 
The  present  breed  is  finer  boned  and  finer  in  the  neck,  throat,  and 
breast;  the  back  is  straight,  wide,  and  well  covered  with  flesh;  the  rump 
is  also  wide,  and  particularly  fleshy  on  the  points,  and  about  the  root  of 
the  tail.  Even  when  only  in  store  order,  the  flank  feels  thick  and  fleshy, 
and  in  every  part  the  animal  handles  loose  and  mellow. 

These,  indeed,  were  always  the  distinguishing  points  of  these  cattle ; 
but  they  were  not  thought  attainable  except  they  were  fed  on  the  richest 
pasture.  This,  however,  has  proved  to  be  an  error;  for  not  only  are 
they  now  found  on  land  of  no  extraordinary  quality,  but  it  even  appears 
to  be  generally  admitted,  that  well  bred  cattle  will  do  better  on  ordinary 
food  than  those  of  an  inferior  kind ;  it  was  indeed  asserted  by  Bakewell, 
that  this  breed  kept  themselves  in  good  condition  on  less  food  than  any 
other  of  equal  weight ;  an  opinion  that  seems  to  have  been  fully  justified 
by  the  large  prices  that  have  been  repeatedly  given  for  the  stock.* 

*  At  a  sale  of  Mr.  Fowler's  stock  (of  this  breed)  at  Little  Rollright, 
in  Oxfordshire,  in  1791,  fifteen  head  of  oxen,  five  bulls  and  ten  cows, 
were  sold  for  various  sums,  amounting  to  £2464,  or  upon  an  average, 
at  £163  each.  The  finest  bull,  named  Sultan,  only  two  years  old,  pro- 
duced ttco  hundred  and  ten  guineas ;  and  Washington,  another  of  the  same 
age,  was  sold  for  tico  hundred  and  Jive  guineas ;  while  Brindled  Beauty,  a 
cow,  brought  the  sum  of  two  hundred  and  sixty  guineas ;  but  at  a  subse- 
quent sale  of  stock  belonging  to  Mr.  Paget,  in  1793,  Shakspeare,  a  bull 
bred  by  Mr.  Fowler  from  a  grandson  of  Mr,  Bakewell's  famous  bull, 
Twopenny,  and  a  cow  of  the  Canley  blood,  was  disposed  of  for  four 
hundred  guineas. 

At  a  still  later  period,  Mr.  Princep,  of  Croxhall,  in  Derbyshire,  is  said 
to  have  refused  £2000  for  twenty  long  horned  dairy  cows,  and  1500 
guineas  for  the  use  of  his  best  bull  to  thirty  cows. 

Large  as  these  prices  were,  they  have,  however,  been  exceeded  by 
those  actually  obtained  for  short  horned  cattle.  At  the  sale  already  allu- 
ded to,  of  Mr.  Charles  CoUing's  stock,  at  Ketton,  in  the  county  of  Dur- 
ham, in  1810,  seventeen  cows  and  eleven  bulls  produced  £4918;  being 
an  average  of  £175 10s.  each.  Of  these,  two  cows.  Countess  and  Lilly, 
both  got  by  Comet,  were  sold,  the  one  for  four  hundred,  and  the  other 
(or  four  hundred  and  ten  guineas.  Petrarch,  a  bull,  by  Favorite,  the  sire 
of  Comet,  brought  three  hundred  aud  sixty-five  guineas,  and  Comet  himself 
one  thou,sand. 

Still  more  recently,  however,  in  Febmary,  1827,  at  a  great  sale  Of 
«tock,  the  property  of  Mr.  Rennie,  of  Phantassie,  in  Ea.st  Lothian, 
< which  amounted  to  the  large  sum  of  £13,582),  the  highest  price  ob- 
tained for  a  bull  of  this  breed  was  £115  10s.,  and  for  a  cow  £63;  but. 
as  not  more  than  half  the  stock  on  the  farm  was  supposed  to  have  been 
sold,  it  is  probable  that  some  of  the  best  cattle  were  reserved.  Many 
other  instances  might  however  be  adduced  to  prove — not  that  the  rela- 
tive value  of  the  short-homed  cattle  has  declined — but  that  extravagant 
prices  are  not  now  bo  generally  given  for  superior  stock  as  formerly. 


12  FAMILY 


NEAT    CATTLE. 


VII.  The  Galloway  Breed  derives  its  appellation  from  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  where,  and  also  in  some  parts  of  the  Lowlands  of 
Scotland,  these  cattle  are  chiefly  reared,  and  whence  vast  numbers  are 
annually  sent  to  Norfolk,  and  other  English  counties,  to  be  fattened  for 
the  markets.  In  general,  they  are  black,  or  dark  brindled ;  are  without 
horns,  except  occasionally,  a  small  excrescence  resembling  them,  and 
are  rather  under  the  medium  size,  being  smaller  than  the  Devons,  though 
in  some  other  respects  resembling  them,  yet  considerably  larger  than  the 
north,  or  even  the  west  Highlanders. 

A  true  Galloway  bullock  is  straight  and  broad  in  the  back,  and  nearly 
level  from  the  head  to  the  rump ;  closely  compacted  between  tne  shoul- 
der and  ribs,  and  also  betwixt  the  ribs  and  the  loins ;  broad  at  the  loins,  but 
not  with  hooked  or  projecting  knobs.  He  is  long  in  the  quarters,  but 
not  broad  in  the  twist ;  deep  in  the  chest,  short  in  the  leg,  and  mode- 
rately fine  in  the  bone  ;  clean  in  the  chop,  and  in  the  neck.  His  head  ib 
of  a  moderate  size,  with  large  rough  ears,  and  full  but  not  prominent 
eyes,  and  he  is  clothed  in  a  loose  and  mellow,  though  rather  thick  skin, 
covered  with  long,  soft,  and  glosgy  hair. 

In  roundness  of  barrel,  and  fulness  of  ribs,  the  Galloway  cattle  may 
perhaps  vie  with  even  the  most  improved  breeds.  Their  breadth  over 
the  hook-bones  is  not,  indeed,  to  be  compared  to  that  of  some  of  either 
the  short  or  long  homed,  but  their  loins  bear  a  greater  proportion  in 
width  to  the  hook  bones,  and  they  are  shorter  between  the  hooks  and 
the  ribs,  which  is  in  itself  a  valuable  point,  when  accompanied  with 
length  of  body.  They  are,  however,  rather  coarse  in  the  head  and 
neck,  and  though  short  in  the  leg,  are  generally  fine  in  the  bone. 

Of  this  breed  there  is  a  variety  termed  Suffolk  Duns  ;  they  are  also 
polled,  but  possess  little  of  the  beauty  of  the  original  stock,  and  are 
<;hiefly  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  milk  given  by  the  cowb, 


ExNCYCLOPEDlA.    ' 13 

NEAT    CATTLE. 


VIII.  The  HicfHLAKD  Brekd  of  Horned  Cattle  are  chiefly  reared  in 
the  western  parts  of  Scotland.  Their  horns  are  usually  of  a  middle 
size,  bending  upwards,  and  their  color  is  generally  black,  though  some- 
times brindled,  or  dun.  Their  hides  are  thick,  and  covered  with  long 
hair  of  a  close  pile,  which  nature  seems  to  have  intended  as  a  protection 
against  the  severity  of  the  climate  under  which  they  are  bred,  for  they 
lose  much  of  this  distinction  when  reared  in  this  country.  In  other  re- 
spects they  are  not  unlike  the  Galloway  breed,  many  of  whose  best  qual- 
ities they  possess,  and  more  particularly  their  hardiness  of  constitution, 
it  being  repeatedly  proved  that  they  will  thrive  with  such  food  and  treat- 
ment as  no  tender  cattle  could  endure ;  but,  from  being  mostly  bred  in 
more  exposed  and  mountainous  situations,  they  rarely  attain  equal  size. 

Of  this  breed  there  are  several  distinct  varieties,  of  which  the  princi- 
pal are  the  Kyloes — a  short-horned  breed,  so  named  from  the  district  of 
Kyle,  in  Ayrshire, — which  are  chiefly  esteemed  for  the  superior  quality 
of  the  milk  given  by  the  cow ;  the  Argylcshire,  l)unlops,  Western  Kyloes 
or  Jse  of  Sky,  Norlands,  S\*c. 

IX.  The  Welsh  Breed  are  chiefly  black,  slightly  marked  with  white, 
and  have  thick  horns,  of  a  medium  length,  curvmg  upwards.  They  are 
small,  and  short  in  the  leg,  but  well  proportioned,  and  clean,  though  not 
small  boned,  with  deep  barrelled  bodies,  and  thin,  short  haired  hides. 
They  are  very  quick  feeders,  and  make  excellent  beef;  and  the  cows 
are  generally  good  milkers.  The  best  kinds  of  this  race  of  cattle,  are 
principally  bred  in  the  counties  of  Cardigan  and  Glamorgan,  and  in  the 
s(mthern  and  midland  English  counties,  where  they  are  in  considerable 
demand  for  stocking  inferior  pastures.  There  is,  however,  a  larger 
breed  of  a  brown  color  intermixed  with  white,  and  also  having  white 
iiorns ;  but  they  are  long  in  the  leg,  thin  in  the  thigh,  and  narrow  in  the 
chine.  They  are  neither  so  compact  as  the  black  cattle,  nor  do  they 
fatten  so  kiutUy,  or  make  such  good  beef;  but,  though  not  hi  esteem  with 
the  grazier,  tliey  are  active,  and  well  adapted  for  the  yoke. 

X.  The  Alderney  Breed  are  so  named  from  the  island,  on  the  coast 
of  Normandy,  whence  they  were  first  imported,  although  they  are  also 
bred  in  the  neighbouring  islands  of  Guernsey  and  Jersey.  They  are 
small  sized ;  color  light  red  or  dun,  mottled  with  white ;  horns  short,  and 

2 


14  FAMILY 


NEAT    CATTLE. 


bone  fine.  As  fatting  cattle,  they  have  but  few  good  points;  being 
thin  and  hollow  in  the  neck,  hollow  and  narrow  behind  the  shoulders, 
sharp  and  narrow  on  the  bucks,  light  in  the  brisket,  and  lean  on  the 
chine^  with  short  rumps  and  small  thighs  ;  but  their  flesh  is  fine  grained, 
high  colored,  and  of  excellent  flavor.  They  are  also  very  large  in  the 
belly ;  but  this,  as  well  as  some  of  the  points  already  mentioned,  is 
rather  an  advantage  to  milch  cows,  to  which  purpose  this  stock  is 
usually  applied  in  England;  and  their  udder  is  well  formed. 

The  Alderney  cows  are  very  rich  milkers ;  and  both  on  that  account, 
and  because  of  a  certain  neatness  in  their  aj)pearance,  notwithstanding 
the  defects  in  their  shape,  they  command  high  prices.  They  are, 
therefore,  mostly  in  the  possession  of  gentlemen;  who,  rarely  keeping  a 
regular  breeding  stock,  the  cows  are  consequently  crossed  by  any  neigh- 
boring bull,  and  thus  tlie  pure  breed  is  preserved  in  the  hands  of  but 
very  few  persons. 

Such  are  the  chief  breeds  of  neat  cattle  in  Great  Britain;  and  tlie  de- 
scription, being  taken  from  the  best  aulliorities,  may  be  considered  as 
accurate  as  possible,  in  a  general  view. 

We  shall  next  proceed  to  speak  of  several  varieties  found  in  the  Uni- 
ted States. 

Neat  cattle  were  originally  imported  by  our  ancestors  from  England. 
They  consisted  of  the  Devonshire  breed.  In  this  opinion  the  late 
Timothy  Pickering,  of  Massachusetts,  and  John  Hare  Powell,  two  gen- 
tlemen who,  within  a  few  years,  have  written  largely,  on  the  best  mode 
of  improving  our  stock,  both  unite.  It  was  also  the  remark  of  the  late 
Mr.  Jay,  soon  after  his  return  from  Great  Britain,  in  1795,  that  the  cattle, 
which  he  had  generally  seen  in  New  England,  appeared  to  be  of  the 
Devonshire  breed,  that  he  had  seen  in  Great  Britain. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  the  last  century,  several -cattle  were  im- 
ported, by  Charles  Vaughan,  and  a  Mr.  Stuart ;  but  on  the  New  Eng- 
land stock  at  large,  it  is  not  probable  that  any  effect  was  produced,  by 
these  importations.  Some  traces  of  their  progeny,  it  is  thought,  might 
be  noticed  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Boston ;  perhaps  in  Vermont,  whith- 
er some  of  the  above  stock  were  sent,  and  m  Maine,  where  according 
to  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Powell,  some  of  Mr.  Vaughan's  stock  were 
driven. 

Although  the  original  breed  introduced  into  this  country  by  our  an- 
cestors was  that  of  the  Devon,  it  is  probable  that  some  other  breeds  were 
also  introduced  by  them;  particularly  the  Herefordshire  breed.  On 
this  point,  Mr.  Pickering  observes,  "  Although  I  suppose  the  Devon 
race  of  cattle  to  be  predominant  in  New  England,  I  doubt  not  that  some 
of  otlier  breeds  were  early  introduced  by  our  ancestors ;  some  Hereforda 
unquestionably,  whose  descendants  are  yet  distinguished  by  their  white 
faces."  A  white  face,  or  as  Mr.  Marshall  terms  it,  "  a  bald  face,"  is  es- 
teemed characteristic  of  the  true  Hereford  breed. 

The  importation  of  cattle  from  England  ceased  at  an  early  period, 
after  the  settlement  of  the  country.  The  Editors  of  the  Massachusetta 
Agricultural  Journal,  assume  it  as  probable  that  few  cattle,  if  any,  were 
imported  after  1C50. 

From  that  period  until  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  few, 
if  any  importations  were  made,  and  for  the  reason,  probably,  that  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 15 

NEAT    CATTLE. 

improvements  in  the  breeds  of  English  cattle,  which  had,  for  a  half  cen- 
tury been  going  on  in  Great  Britain,  had  not  attracted  the  notice  of 
our  countrymen,  owing  chiefly  to  the  depressed  state  of  agriculture 
among  us. 

Should  it  be  asked,  what  was  the  general  character  of  the  neat  cattle 
introduced  by  our  ancestors  into  America,  we  reply,  in  the  language 
of  the  Editors  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Journal:  "  It  is  well 
known,  tliat  the  agriculture  of  England,  was  then  in  a  low  state,  com- 
pared with  its  present  condition.  Successions  of  crops  were  nearly  un- 
known ;  root  crops  for  winter  fodder  were,  we  believe,  entirely  so.  The 
prices  of  cattle  were  small,  no  great  encouragement  had  been  given  to 
improve  the  breed.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  cattle  imported 
were  not  of  a  very  improved  race.'' 

"  On  the  other  hand,"  continues  the  above  Journal,  "  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  that  our  climate  and  pastures  are  well  adapted  to  the  preser- 
vation of  cattle,  in  as  good  a  state  as  when  imported,  and  rather  to  im- 
prove them.  This  we  infer  from  the  fact,  that  they  are  so  fine,  rather 
than  from  any  general  reasoning  derived  from  our  climate  and  soil ; 
and  still  less  from  our  treatment  of  them.  If  we  regarded  those  only,  we 
should  say,  that  the  heat  of  our  summers,  and  the  length  and  severity 
of  our  winters,  were  unfavorable  to  an  animal,  impatient  of  great  heat 
and  severe  cold,  and  thriving  much  better  on  green  succulent  food  than  . 
on  dry  meadow  hay. 

"It  may  perhaps,  be  matter  of  surprise,  that  our  homed  cattle  have 
been  preserved  as  perfect  as  they  are,  considering  the  little  attention, 
which  for  more  than  a  century,  was  paid  to  them.  That  the  cattle  of 
England,  at  the  present  time,  are  far  superior  to  our  own,  as  a  body, 
can  scarcely  be  questioned.  Great  attention  has  been  paid,  in  that 
country,  to  the  improvement  of  horned  cattle;  and  strange,  indeed, 
would  it  be,  if  the  efforts  of  more  than  half  a  century  had  been  without 
effect." 

Within  a  few  years,  an  interesting  controversy  was  carried  on,  be- 
tween two  gentlemen  of  great  distinction,  as  enlightened  and  patriotic 
agriculturalists — Col.  Pickering,  and  Col.  Powell,  to  whom  we  have 
already  referred. 

Under  a  conviction  of  the  superiority  of  the  English  breeds  of  cattle, 
especially  the  improved  short  horns,  the  latter  gentleman  had,  at  much 
trouble  and  expense,  introduced  several  of  that  species  into  the  country. 
Others,  also,  with  similar  views,  had  taken  a  similar  course ;  and  seve- 
ral importations  had,  from  time  to  time,  been  made  of  different  foreign 
breeds,  under  the  impression  that  our  native  breeds  of  cattle  might  be 
more  speedily  raised  in  their  qualities,  by  crossing  with  the  above, 
than  to  select  only  the  best  of  our  native  breeds  and  improve  upon 
them. 

The  views  of  Col.  Pickering  were  different.  In  a  communication 
lo  the  Editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer,  on  the  subject  of  improving 
our  native  breed  cattle,  Mr.  Pickering  remarks :  "  Were  but  two  or 
tliree  farmers,  in  every  township  in  the  state,  to  turn  a  zealous  attention 
to  it,  the  object  would  in  a  few  years  be  accomplished — whereas,  half  a 
eentury  or  more  might  elapse,  before  a  general  improvement,  by  foreign 
crosses  would  be  effected.  It  remains,  too,  to  be  ascertained,  whether 
any  other  breeds  really  deserve  the  preference,  in  New-England,  to  our 


16 


FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


native  race,  improved  as  it  may  be,  and  in  so  much  less  time,  than  will 
be  possible,  by  means  of  a  small  number  of  imported  cattle." 

The  controversy  between  these  two  gentlemen,  growing  out  of  their 
difference  of  opinion,  was  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  numerou?* 
tacts  were  collected,  which  had  an  important  relation  to  the  different 
positions,  which  the  respective  gentlemen  had  taken.  It  is  not  the  de- 
sign of  the  editor  of  thi.s  work  to  estimate  the  merits  of  either  view  of 
the  subject,  with  reference  to  a  settlement  of  the  question  involved.  The 
reader  will  find  the  papers,  relating  to  this  controversy,  in  the  tliird  and 
fourth  volun^s  of  the  New  England  Farmer,  and  an  able  review  of  the 
controversy  by  the  enlightened  Editor  of  that  paper,  in  the  latter  vdume, 
uncommonly  interesting  and  instructive. 

It  was  our  design  to  introduce  to  our  readers,  notices  of  several  of 
the  most  celebrated  animals,  which  have  been  imported  into  this  country, 
within  a  few  years,  with  reference  to  an  nuprovement  of  our  breed  of 
neat  cattle.  But,  not  being  able  to  obtain  portraits  of  them,  we  nius' 
content  ourselves,  in  this  edition,  with  a  brief  notice  of  only  the  two 
following :  ^ 


COKE  DEVON  BULL,  IIOUaiAM. 

This  is  a  correct  drawing  of  the  celebrated  bull,  whose  name  we  have 
given  above,  lie  was  purchased  in  the  fall  of  1819,  by  iSamuel  Hurlliut. 
<fc  Co.  when  seven  months  old,  of  WiUiam  Patterson,  Esq.  of  Balfi- 
iiiore.  lie  was  sired  by  Torrence,  fuid  out  of  a  cow,  both  of  which  were 
iinported  by  Messrs.  Patterson  and  Caton,  in  June  1817.  They  were  a 
present  fn^m  the  celebrated  Englisli  Agriculturalist,  the  Hon.  Mr.  Coke, 
Member  of  Parliament,  from  Norfolk.  Much  of  the  fine  Devon  stock, 
in  lhi«  counlf)',  ha«  been  derived  from  the  above  bull. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


17 


NEAT    CATTLE. 


-o  c^.    dFi- 


WYE  COMET. 

The  above  is  a  portrait  of  the  thorough  bred  Improved  Durham  short 
horned  bull,  Wye,  Comet,  from  an  original  painting,  by  Fisher,  in  the*pos- 
iiesf^ion  of  Henry  Watson,  of  Windsor,  Con.,  to  whom  the  Editor  is 
indebted  for  a  full  pedigree  of  the  animal,  but  v^'hich  want  of  room  must 
exclude. 

Wye  Comet  was  begotten  in  England,  but  was  calved  in  the  United 
States,  in  November,  1822.  His  sire  was  Blaizc,  dam,  White  Rose,  by 
Warrior  (bred  by  Charles  Champion  Esq.)  g-d  by  Mr.  Mason's  Cltarles; 
gr.  g-d.  by  Prince;  gr.  gr.  g-d  by  Neswick. 

White  Rose,  the  dam  of  Wye  Comet,  was  imported  by  John  S.  Skin- 
ner of  Baltimore,  in  the  spring  of  1822,  by  whom  she  was  sold  to  the 
Hon.  Edward  Lloyd,  of  Maryland.  Wye  Comet  was  sold  in  1823,  by 
the  latter  gentleman,  to  John  Hare  Powell,  Esq.  of  Philadelphia ;  and  in 
1826,  was  purchased  for  the  sunt  of  $500,  by  Messrs.  Ward  Woodbridge 
and  Henry  Watson,  Esqrs.  of  Connecticut,  to  whose  patriotic  exertions, 
and  pecuniary  sacrifices,  the  county  of  Hartford  is  indebted  for  much  of 
its  fine  stock  of  various  descriptions,  for  which  it  is  becoming  justly 
celebrated. 


ON  BUYING  AND  STOCKING  A  FARM  WITH  CATTLE. 


In  Stocking  a  farm,  the  first  object  should  be*  to  consider  the  amount 
of  stock  which  the  farm  will  keep,  and  keep  in  good  condition;  as  it  is 
not  only  highly  disreputable  to  a  farmer,  but  injurious  to  his  interests, 
to  keep  a  stock  of  meagre,  half  starved  cattle. 

This  point  being  settled,  regard  should  next  be  had  to  the  hind  of  stock 
which  is  desirable  ;  and  this  will  be  determined  by  considering,  whether 
yon  wish  to  rear  cattle  for  the /air,  or  for  supplying  the  market. 

2* 


18  FAMILY 


NEAT  CATTLE. 


These  two  particulars  being  settled,  the  farmer  should  consider  the 
follovving  things : — 

I.  Beauty,  or  symmetry  of  shape;  in  which  the  form  is  so  compact, 
that  every  part  ol'the  animal  bears  an  exact  consistency,  while  the  car- 
cass sliould  be  deep  and  l)road,  and  the  less  valuableparts  (such  as  the 
head,  bones,  &c.)  ought  to  be  as  small  as  possible.  Tne  carcass  should 
be  large,  the  bosom  broad,  and  chest  deep ;  the  ribs  standing  out  from 
the  spine,  both  to  give  strength  of  frame  and  constitution,  and  likewse 
to  admit  of  the  intestines  being  lodged  within  the  ribs;  but  yet  not  so 
much  as  to  be  what  is  called  high  ribbed,  as  the  butchers  coasider  it  aii 
indication  of  deficiency  in  weight  of  meat.  '  Further,  the  shoulders  ought 
not  only  to  be  light  of  bone,  and  rounded  oft"  at  the  lower  point,  but  also 
broad,  to  impart  strength,  and  well  covered  with  Hesh.  The  back  also 
ought  to  be  wide  and  level  throughout;  the  quarters  long,  the  thighs  ta- 
pering and  narrow  at  the  round  bone,  but  well  covered  with  flesh  in  the 
t\\ast ;  and  the  flank  lull  and  large.  The  legs  ought  to  be  straight  below 
the  knee  and  hock,  and  of  a  moderate  length ;  light  boned ;  clean  from 
fleshiness,  yet  having  joints  and  sinews  of  a  moderate  size,  for  the  uni- 
ted purposes  of  strength  and  activity.  In  these  points  all  intelligent 
breeders  concur;  but,  as  beauty  of  shape  too  often  depends  on  the  ca- 
price of  fashion,  it  is  more  requisite  to  regard, 

II.  Utility  of  form,  or  that  nice  proportion  of  the  parts  which  has 
already  been  noticed. 

III.  The  ficsh,  or  texture  of  the  muscular  parts ;  a  quality  which  was 
formerly  noticed  only  by  butchers,  but  the  knowledge  of  which  is  justly 
deemed  essential  by  the  enlightened  breeders  of  the  present  day ;  and 
although  this  quality  necessarily  varies  according  to  the  age  and  size 
of  cattle,  yet  it  may  be  greatly  regulated  by  attention  to  the  food  employ- 
ed for  fattening  them.  As  a  knowledge  of  this  requisite  can  only  be 
acquired  by  practice,  it  is  sufficient  to  slate,  that  the  best  sign  of  good 
flesh  is  that  of  being  marbled,  or  having  the  fat  and  lean  finely  veined, 
or  intermixed,  when  tlie  animals  are  killed;  and,  while  alive,  by  a  firm 
and  mellow  feel. 

IV.  In  rearing  live  stock  of  any  description,  it  should  be  an  invariable 
rule  to  breed  from  small-boned,  straight-backed,  healthy,  clean,  kindly- 
skinned,*  round-bodied,  and  barrel-shaped  animals,  with  clean  liecks 
and  throats,  and  little  or  no  dewlap ;  carefully  rejecting  all  those  which 
may  have  heavy  legs  and  roach  backs,  together  with  mnch  appearance 
of  offal.  And,  as  some  breeds  have  a  tendency  to  generate  great 
quantities  of  fat  on  certain  parts  of  the  body,  while  in  others  it 
is  more  mixed  with  the  flesh  of  every  part  of  the  animal,  this  circum- 
stance will  claim  the  attention  of  the  breeder  as  he  advances  in  business. 

V.  In  the  purcfiasing  of  cattle,  whether  in  a  lean  or  fat  state,  the  farmer 
.should  on  no  account  buy  beasts  out  of  richer  or  better  grounds  than  those 
into  which  he  intends  to  turn  them;  for,  in  this  case,  he  must  inevitably 
sustain  a  very  material  loss,  by  the  cattle  not  thriving,  particularly  if  thev 
be  old.     It  will,  therefore,  be  advisable  to  select  them,  either  from  stock 

*  As  this  word  may  probably  often  appear  in  the  course  of  the  subse- 
quent pages,  it  may  not  be  altogether  irrelevant  to  state,  that  it  implies 
a  skin  which  feels  mellow,  i.  e.  soft,  vet  firm  to  the  touch,  and  which  is 
equally  distant  from  the  hard,  dry  skin,  peculiar  to  some  cattle,  as  it  is 
from  the  loose  and  flabby  feel  of  others. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 19 

STOCKING  A  FARM. 

feeding  in  the  neighborhood,  or  from  such  breeds  as  are  best  adapted  to 
the  nature  and  situation  of  the  soil. 

V^I.  Docility  of  disposition,  without  being  deficient  in  spirit,  is  of  equal 
moment;  for,  independently  of  the  damage  committed  by  cattle  of  wild 
tempers  on  fences,  fields,  &c.,  which  inconvenience  will  thus  be  obvia- 
ted, it  is  an  indisputable  fact,  that  tame  beasts  require  less  food  to  rear, 
support,  and  fatten  them ;  consequently  every  attention  ought  to  be  paid, 
early  to  accustom  them  to  be  docile  and  familiar. 

VII.  Hardiness  of  constitution,  particularly  in  bleak  and  exposed  dis- 
tricts, is  indeed  a  most  important  requisite ;  and  in  every  case  it  is  highly 
essential  to  a  farmers  interest  to  have  a  breed  that  is  liable  neither  to 
disease  nor  to  any  hereditary  distemper.  A  dark  color,  and  in  cattle 
which  are  kept  ortt  all  the  winter  a  rough  and  curled  pile  or  coat  of  hair, 
are,  in  tlie  popidar  estimation,  certain  indications  of  hardiness :  but  it 
must  be  obvious  to  every  thinking  person,  that  this  quahty,  though  in 
some  respects  inherent  in  particular  breeds,  depends,  in  a  great  measure, 
upon  the  method  in  which  cattle  are  treated. 

There  is,  indeed,  a  rather  prevalent  opinion,  that  white  is  a  mark  of 
<legeneracy,  and  that  animals  of  the  most  vivid  hues  possess  the  greatest 
portion  of' health  and  strength;  in  proof  of  which  it  has  been  instanced 
that  among  mankind,  a  healthy  habit  is  visible  in  the  floridness  of  the 
complexion;  as  sickness  is  perceptible  in  the  paleness  of  the  looks,  and 
the  decripitude  of  age  in  the  whiteness  of  the  hair.  It  has  also  been  re- 
marked that  gray  horses  are  commonly  of  a  tender  constitution,  until 
cro.ssed  with  darker  breeds ;  and  that  among  the  feathered  tribe,  the 
common  poultry,  with  high  colored  plumage,  are  in  all  respects  superior 
to  the  white.  But  it  has  been  justly  observed  in  reply,  that  the  powerful 
Polar  bears,  and  man}'  of  the  strongest  birds,  as  the  goose  and  swan,  are 
white :  nor  will  it  escape  observation,  as  more  immediately  touching 
the  preseirt  subject,  that  the  wild  cattle  are  invariably  of  that  color ;  and 
that  the  highest  l)red  Herefords  are  distinguished  by  white  faces.* 

VIII.  Connected  with  hardiness  of  constitution  is  early  maturity,  which 
however,  can  only  be  attained  by  feeding  cattle  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
keep  them  constantly  in  a  growing  state.  By  an  observance  of  this 
principle,  it  has  been  found  that  beasts  and  sheep,  thus  managed,  thrive 
more  in  three  years,  than  they  usually  do  in  five  when  they  have  not  suffi- 
cient food  during  the  winter,  by  which,  in  the  common  mode  of  rearing, 
tlieir  growtli  is  checked. 

IX.  A  kindly  disposition  to  take  fat  on  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the 
carcass,  at  an  early  age,  and  with  little  food,  when  compared  with  the 
quantity  and  quality  consumed  by  similar  animals.     On  this  account 

*  It  is  stated,  in  the  Agricultural  Survey  of  Leicestershire,  England, 
as  the  remark  of  a  scientific  observer  of  the  cattle  usually  bred  in  that 
county,  "that  those  of  a  deep  red,  dark  liver  color,  or  black,  with  tanned 
sides,  are  the  hardiest,  and  have  the  best  constitutions  ;  will  endure  the 
•severest  weather,  perform  the  most  work,  live  to  the  greatest  age,  and 
fatten  on  such  food  as  would  starve  those  of  weaker  colors."  Biit  in 
opposition  to  this  we  have,  in  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  the  assurance 
of  Mr.  Campbell,  a  practical  and  extensive  breeder,  that,  upon  repeated 
comparative  trials,  "  he  has  had  bulls,  oxen,  and  cows,  of  a  white  breed, 
as  healthy  and  hardy  as  any  others." 


30  FAMILY 


STOCKING  A  FARM. 


smaller  cattle  have  been  recommended  as  generally  having  a  more  natu- 
ral disposition  to  fatten,  and  as  requiring,  proportionably  to  the  larger 
animal,  less  food  to  make  them  fat ;  consequently,  the  greater  quantity 
of  meat  for  consumption  can  be  made  per  acre.  "  In  stall-feeding" — tlie 
nature,  method,  and  advantages  of  which  will  be  stated  in  a  subsequent 
chapter, — it  has  been  remarked,  that,  "  whatever  may  be  the  food,  the 
smaller  animal  pays  most  for  that  food ;  in  dry  lands,  the  smaller  animal 
is  always  sufficiently  heavy  for  treading;  in  wet  lands  less  injurious." 
But  this  opinion  is  combatted  by  many  able  judges,  who  still  contend 
that  the  largest  animals  are  the  most  profitable.  They  doubtless  are  so 
on  good  keep ;  but  the  smaller  animals  will  thrive  on  soils  where  heavy 
beast.^  will  decline. 

X.  Working,  or  an  aptitude  for  labor :  a  point  of  infinite  importance 
in  a  country  whose  population  is  so  extensive  a.s  that  of  Britain,  and 
where  the  consumption  of  grain  by  horses  has  so  material  an  influence 
rm  the  comforts  and  existence  of  the  inhabitants.  As,  however,  there  is 
a  difference  of  opinion  on  this  .subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chap- 
ter where  the  question  is  fully  discussed.  But,  wliether  kine  be  purchas- 
ed for  the  plough,  or  for  the  purpose  of  fattening,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
»ee,  in  addition  to  the  essentials  already  stated,  that  they  are  young,  in 
perfect  health,  full-mouthed,  and  not  broken  either  in  tail,  hair,  or  pizzle; 
that  the  hair  stare  not,  and  that  they  are  not  hidebound,  otherwise  they 
will  not  feed  kindly.  The  same  remark  is  applicable  to  cows  intended  for 
the  pail,  the  horns  of  which  should  be  fair  and  smooth,  the  forehead  broad 
and  smooth,  udders  white,  yet  not  fleshy,  but  thin  and  loose  when  empty, 
to  hold  the  greater  quantity  of  milk,  but  large  when  full;  provided  with 
large  dug-veins  to  fill  it,  and  with  four  elastic  ieats,^  in  order  that  the  milk 
may  be  more  easily  drawn  off. 

XI.  Beside  the  rules  above  stated,  there  are  some  particulars  with 
regard  to  the  age  of  neat  or  black  cattle  and  slieop,  wiiich  merit  the 
fanner's  consideration. 

"  Neat  cattle  cast  no  teeth  until  turned  two  years  old,  when  they  get 
two  new  teeth ;  at  three  they  get  two  more ;  and  in  every  succeeding 
year  get  two,  until  five  years  old,  when  they  are  called  fuU-rnoiUhed, 
though  they  are  not  properly  full-mouthed  until  six  years  old,  because 
the  two  corner  teeth,  wnich  are  last  in  renewing,  are  not  perfectly  up 
until  they  are  six."* 

The  horns  of  neat  cattle  also  supply  another  criterion  by  which  the 
judgment  may  be  assisted,  after  the  signs  atforded  by  the  teeth  become 
uncertain.  When  three  years  old,  their  horns  are  smooth  and  hand- 
some ;  aAer  which  period  there  appears  a  circle,  or  wrinkle,  which  is 
annually  increased  as  long  as  the  horn  remains;  so  that,  acoording  to  the 
number  of  these  circles  or  rings,  the  age  of  a  beast  may  be  ascertained 
with  tolerable  precision,  unless  such  wrinkles  are  defaced,  or  artificially 
removed,  by  scraping  or  filing ;  a  fraudulent  practice,  which  is  but  to» 
frequently  adopted,  in  order  to  deceive  the  ignorant  or  inexperienced 
purchaser  with  respect  to  the  real  age  of  the  animal.  There  is  aUo  a  tip 
at  the  extremity  of  the  horn,  which  lalls  off  about  the  third  year. 


*  Culley  on  Live  Stock,  pp.  208, 309. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 21 

OF  THE  BULL. 


OP  THE  BULL. 

A  bull  ought  to  be  the  most  handsome  of  his  kind ;  he  should  be  tall 
and  well  made  ;  his  head  should  be  rather  long,  but  not  coarse,  as  fine- 
ness of  head  indicates  a  disposition  to  fatten ;  and  as  it  is  designed  hy 
nature  to  be  the  chief  instrument  both  of  offence  and  of  defence,  it 
ought  to  present  every  mark  of  strength ;  his  horns  clean,  and  bright ; 
his  large  black  eyes  hvely  and  protuberant ;  his  forehead  broad  and 
close  set,  with  short,  curled  hair ;  his  ears  long  and  thin,  hairy  within 
and  without;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  wide  and  open;  neck  strong  and 
muscular,  not  incumbered  with  a  coarse,  wreathy  skin,  but  firm,  rising 
with  a  gentle  curve  from  the  shoulders,  tapering  to  the  part  where  it  is 
connected  with  the  head ;  dewlaj)  thin,  and  but  little  loose  skin  on  any 
part.  Further,  his  shoulders  should  be  deep,  high,  and  moderately 
broad  at  the  top  ;  the  bosom  open ;  breast  large  and  projecting  well 
before  his  legs  ;  back  straight  and  broad,  even  to  the  setting  on  of  the 
tail,  which  should  not  extend  far  up  the  roof,  but  be  strong  and  deep, 
with  much  lank  hair  on  the  under  part  of  it ;  ribs  broad  and  circular, 
rising  one  above  another,  so  that  the  last  rib  shall  be  rather  the  highest; 
the  fore  thighs  strong  and  muscular,  tapering  gradually  to  the  knees ; 
the  belly  deep,  straight,  and  also  tapering  a  little  to  the  hind  thighs, 
which  should  be  large  and  square  ;  the  roof  wide,  particularly  over  the 
cJiine  and  hips,  or  hooks:  the  legs  straight,  short  jointed,  full  of  sinews, 
clean  and  fine  boned ;  knees  round,  big,  and  straight ;  feet  distant  one 
from  another,  not  broad,  nor  turning  in,  but  easily  spreading;  hoofs 
long  and  hollow;  the  hide  not  hard,  or  stubborn  to  the  touch ;  the  hair 
uniformly  thick,  short,  curled,  and  of  a  soft  texture;  and  the  body  long, 
deep,  and  round,  filling  well  up  to  the  shoulder  and  into  the  groin,  so 
as  to  form  what  has  not  improperly  been  termed  a  round,  or  barrel-like 
carcass. 

The  bull  attains  the  age  of  puberty  generally  at  the  end  of  from  twelve 
mouths  to  two  years ;  but  it  has  been  thought  advisable  to  restrain  him 
from  the  propagation  of  his  species  until  he  has  arrived  at  his  full  growth, 
which  is  about  four  years;  for,  if  this  animal  be  suffered  to  breed  earlier 
than  three  years,  the  stock  is  liable  to  degenerate.  It  must,  however,  be 
admitted,  that  a  contrary  opinion  prevails  among  many  eminent  breeders; 
who  n^aintain  that  tlie  bull  is  in  his  full  vigor  at  eighteen  months  old,  at 
which  age  his  progeny  will  display  the  most  strength. 

The  bull,  as  well  as  the  cow  and  ox,  generally  lives  about  fourteen 
year;i ;  but  the  progress  of  decay  ia  usually  perceptible  after  he  has 
attained  the  age  often  years. 

For  the  prevention  of  accidents  from  mischievous  bulls,  an  ingenious 
and  simple  contrivance  has  been  suggested  by  Henry  James  Nicholls, 
r*sq.  of  Woodhall,  near  Wisbeach,  on  whom  the  Society  for  the  En- 
couragement of  Arts,  Agriculture,  &c.  in  1815  conferred  a  premium  of 
ten  guineas  for  his  invention.  Of  its  form  and  appHcation,  tlie  following 
engravings  will  convey  a  correct  idea. 


22 


FAMILY 


OF  THE  BULL. 


Fig.  1. 


Fig.  I.  Repr'esents  a  front  view  of  the  apparatu3,  as  affixed  to  the  head 
of  the  animal.  It  consists  of  a  straight  piece  of  wood  or  iron  (the  latter  Is 
the  preferable  material)  stretching  from  horn  to  horn,  perforated  at  each 
end  so  as  to  pass  over  the  tips,  and  fastened  on  them  by  the  usual  metal 
nuts.  On  the  centre  of  this  is  rivetted  a  curved  bar  of  iron,  bending  up- 
wards, which  moves  easily  on  the  rivet,  and  has  holes  at  each  end  con- 
taining tlie  upper  round  hrdt  of  a  chain.  These  chains  again  unite  in  a 
strong  iron  rmg,  which  opens  by  a  hinge  and  screw,  and  passes  through 
the  bull's  nose.  The  effect  of  this  contrivance  is  as  follows: — any  per- 
son seeing  a  vicious  animal  approach  may  easily  avoid  him ;  but  if  the 
beast  should  make  a  push  forward,  the  curved  iron  bar  wUl  prevent  any 
bad  consequences  ;  and  if  he  move  in  the  smallest  degree  to  the  ri^ht  or  to 
tfie  left,  the  bar  communicating  by  the  chain  with  the  ring  upon  hi«  nose, 
will  bring  him  immediately  to  check. 

Fig.  2. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 23 

OF  THE  COW. 

This  lateral  operation  is  delineated  in  Fig.  2.  An  additional  advantage 
resulting  from  the  use  of  this  invention  is,  that  a  beast  may,  with  the 
smallest  power,  be  led  in  any  direction. 


COW. 

A  perfect  breeding  c4no  ought  to  have  a  fine  head,  with  a  broad,  smooth 
forehead;  black  eyes;  clean  horns;  a  smooth,  elastic  skin ;  a  large  deep 
body ;  strong  muscular  thighs ;  a  large  white  udder,  with  long  and 
tapering  teats;  together  with  every  other  token  requisite  in  a  bull,  allow- 
ing for  the  difference  in  sex.  Further,  such  animals  ought  particularly 
to  be  young.  Milch  kine  are  not  good  for  breeding  after  they  are  twelve 
years  old:  indeed,  it  is  said  the  first  calf  which  a  cow  brings  is  the  best 
for  faising. 

The  criteria  of  a  beautiful  coto,  according  to  Wilkinson,  may  be  thus 
expressed : 

"  She's  long  in  her  face,  she's  fine  in  her  horn, 

She'll  quickly  get  fat,  without  cake  or  corn. 

She's  clear  in  her  jaws,  and  full  in  her  chine. 

She's  heavy  in  flank,  and  wide  in  her  loin. 

"  She's  broad  in  her  ribs,  and  \ong  in  her  rump, 

A  straight  and  flat  back,  with  never  a  hump ; 

She's  wide  in  her  hips,  and  calm  in  her  eyes, 

She's  fine  in  her  shoulders,  and  thin  in  her  thighs — 

"  She's  light  in  ner  neck,  and  small  in  her  tail. 

She's  wide  in  her  breast,  and  good  at  the  pail ; 

She's  fine  in  her  bone,  and  silky  of  skin, 

She's  a  Grazier's  without,  and  a  Butcher's  within." 
CuUey's  marks  of  a  good  cow  are  these :  wide  horns  a  thin  head  and 
neck,  dewlap  large,  full  breast,  broad  back,  large  and  deep  belly ;  the 
udder  capacious,  but  not  too  fleshy  ;  the  milky  veins  prominent,  and  the 
bag  tending  far  behind ;  teats  long  and  large  ;  buttocks  broad  and  fleshy  ; 
tail  long  and  pliable  ;  legs  proportionable  to  the  size  of  the  carcass,  and 
the  joints  shut.  To  these  outward  xnarks  may  be  added  a  gentle  dispo- 
sition, a  temper  free  from  any  vicious  tricks,  and  perfectly  manageable 
on  every  occasion.  On  the  other  hand,  a  cow  with  a  thick  head,  and  a 
short  neck ;  prominent  back  bone,  slender  cheek,  belly  tucked  up,  small 
udder,  or  a  flehsy  bag,  short  teats,  and  thin  biitlocks,  is  to  be  avoided  as 
totally  unfit  for  the  purposes  either  for  the  dairyman,  the  suckler,  ot  the 
grazier. 

Cows  are  purchased  either  with  a  view  of  being  fattened  for  sale,  for 
breeding,  or  for  the  purposes  of  the  dairy.  In  the  first  case,  attention 
nmst  be  paid  to  the  kindliness  of  the  .skin  and  disposition  to  fatten.  With 
regard  to  those  which  are  intended  for  breeding,  care  should  be  taken  to 
select  the  best  of  that  particular  stock  intended  to  be  raised ;  and  for  the 
dairy,  those  which  yield  the  most  and  the  richest  milk. 

The  cow  is  supposed,  by  some  eminent  naturalists,  to  arrive  at  pu- 
berty at  the  end  of  eighteen  months,  though  instances  have  occurred 
where  these  animals  have  produced  calves  before  that  time.  It  is,  in- 
deed, said  by  some  breeders,  in  the  northern  part  of  England,  that  young 


24  FAMILY 


OF  THE  COW. 


COWS  may  be  sent  to  the  bull  as  early  even  as  one  year  old ;  but  there  is  then 
much  danger  in  calving ;  and  although  the  practice  would  certainly  be 
an  essential  improvement,  where  the  dairy  cpnstitutes  a  primary  object, 
provided  their  growth  would  not  thus  become  stinted,  it  is  yet  generally 
considered  as  injurious.  It  is,  therefore,  advisable  not  to  permit  cows  to 
Uike  tlie  bull  earlier  than  two  years,  though  many  breeders  defer  it  an- 
other year;  and,  in  conformity  to  the  latter  opinion,  the  late  eminent 
Mr.  Bakewell  deferred  sending  his  cows  to  bull  till  they  were  three  years 
old ;  but  they  often  missed  calf,  which  accident  Sir  John  Sinclair  attri- 
butes to  this  circumstance :  but  the  most  proper  period  must  in  some 
measure  depend  on  the  breed,  on  the  time  at  which  the  heifer  was  herself 
dropped,  and  on  her  condition  ;  as  some  which  have  been  well  kept  will 
be  more  forward  at  two,  than  others,  which  have  been  stinted,  at  three 
years  of  age.  Incase,  however,  a  cow  produces  a  calf  before  she  enters 
upon  her  third  year,  the  animal  should  be  removed  from  her;  and  it  will 
be  proper  to  milk  her  for  the  three  following  days,  to  preser\'e  the  udder 
from  becoming  sore,  but  afterwards  to  forbear  milking. 

The  period  of  time  during  which  cows  are  allowed  to  ntn  dry  previ- 
ously to  calving,  is  by  no  means  settled.  By  some  grazier.s,  they  are 
recommended  to  be  laid  dry  when  they  are  five  or  six  months  gone 
with  calf;  but  repeated  and  successful  experiments  prove  that  six  weeks, 
or  two  months,  are  sufficient  for  this  purpose.  Indeed,  cows  kept  in 
good  condition,  are  some  times  drawn  untU  within  a  fortnight  of  calving. 
Gov.  Lincoln,  of  Massachusetts,  says  of  a  heifer  of  the  Denton  blood — 
"  a  heifer  of  three  years,  with  her  second  calf,  has  not  been  dry  since 
she  dropped  her  first,  having  given  four  quarts  on  the  morning  of  her 
second  calving."  This  practice,  however,  is  not  to  be  recommended, 
for  if  the  cow  springs  before  she  is  dry,  serious  injury,  it  is  said,  nlay  en- 
sue. Some  cows,  it  is  well  known,  are  in  the  habit  of  drjing  up  quite 
unseasonably.  To  prevent  this,  such  cows  should  be  milked  by  a  skilful 
hand  expeditiously  and  entirely  clean ;  and  even  then  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  evil  admits  of  an  entire  remed)^,  if  a  habit  of  drying  up 
early  have  been  formed.  To  prevent  the  evil  in  respect  to  a  cow,  a  wri- 
ter in  the  New-England  Farmer,  (Vol.  VII.  p.  162,)  recommends  to 
begin  young.  "  I  have  found,"  says  he,  "  that  young  cows,  the  first  year 
they  give  milk,  may  be  made,  with  careful  milking  and  good  keeping, 
to  give  milk  almost  any  length  of  time  required,  say  from  the  first  of 
]\Iay  to  the  first  of  February  following  ;  and  will  give  milk  late  alwayw 
after,  with  careful  milking.  But,  if  they  are  left  to  dry  up  of  their  milk 
early  in  the  fall,  they  will  be  sure  to  dry  up  their  milk  each  succeeding 
year,  if  they  have  a  calf  near  the  same  season  of  the  year ;  and  nothing 
but  extraordinary  keeping  will  prevent  it,  and  that  but  for  a  short  time." 
No  animal  on  the  farmer's  premises  pays  better  for  good  keeping  than 
the  cow.  They  need  to  be  kept  in  good  condition  the  icholc  time,  for  if 
they  are  suffered  to  become  very  lean,  and  that  in  the  winter  season,  it 
is  impossible  tliat  they  should  be  brought  to  atford  a  large  quantity  of 
milk,  until  they  have  had  the  advantage  of  the  following  summer. 
When  cows  are  lean  at  the  period  of  calving,  no  management  is  ever 
capable  of  bringing  them  to  afford  for  that  season  any  thing  near  the 
proportion  of  milk  they  would  have  done,  had  they  been  in  proper 
condition. 

If  in  any  one  point  the  New  England  farmers  seem  to  fail  more  than 
in  another  it  is  in  not  feeding  cows  sufficiently  early  in  the  fall.     They 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 25 

OF  THE  COW. 

are  left  to  pick  a  scanty  and  frost-bitten  food,  on  the  coming  on  of  the 
chilly  and  rainy  season ;  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  cows,  which  at 
an  early  period  of  the  fall  were  in  good  condition,  poor  and  ill-condition- 
ed by  the  setting  in  of  winter.  The  solids  of  the  beast  are  dissipated  ; 
her  milk  reduced,  and  her  value  to  the  ovvjier  greatly  diminished.  These 
remarks,  it  may  be  observed,  will  apply  with  nearly  equal  truth  to  the 
whole  stock  of  many  of  the  farmers  in  New  England. 

Many  excellent  heifers  for  milk  are  nearly  ruined  by  bad  milkers.  If 
they  are  ticklish,  as  the  farmers  express  it,  they  should  be  treated  with 
great  gentleness.  If  the  udder  be  hard  and  painful,  as  it  sometimes  is, 
let  it  be  tenderly  fomented  with  lukewarm  water,  and  gently  rubbed,  in 
order  to  bring  the  creature  into  good  temper. 

It  will,  however,  sometimes  happen,  if  a  cow  (especially  a  young  one) 
is  managed  with  ever  so  much  care,  she  will  kick,  and  exhibit  other 
symptoms  of  a  vicious  disposition.  In  such  cases,  the  editor  of  the  New 
England  Farmer  recommends  the  following  mode  of  managing  a  cow, 
suggested  by  one  of  his  correspondents.  (See  New  England  Farmer, 
vol.lll.  p.  10.) 
.  *'  I  have  seen,"  observes  the  above  correspondent,  "  very  promising 
heifers  spoiled,  when  first  beginning  to  milk  them,  by  banging  and  hal- 
looing at  them  because  of  their  kicking.  I  have  also  seen  cows  give  a 
good  mess  of  milk,  and  when  they  had  done,  kick  it  over.  I  can  always 
tell  when  a  heifer  is  inclined  to  kick,  before  her  calf  is  gone.  If  she  is, 
I  take  a  strong  strap,  buckle  it  tight  round  her  hind  legs,  below  the 
gambril  joints,  including  her  tail  if  it  is  long  enough.  This  method  will 
cause  much  uneasiness  at  first.  If  the  cow  falls  down,  no  matter  for 
that,  let  her  lie  a  minute  or  two.  Then  unbuckle  the  strap,  let  her  get 
up,  and  then  fit  it  on  again.  Perhaps  she  may  throw  herself  down  again, 
but  she  will  be  very  careful  how  she  throws  herself  down  the  third  time. 
After  she  stands  still  put  the  calf  to  her,  and  let  her  stand  in  this  manner 
till  the  calf  has  done  sucking.  Let  this  be  done  a  few  times,  and  it  will 
generally  break  the  cow  of  kicking,  also  of  starting  and  running  when 
part  milked,  as  some  cows  will.  I  put  on  the  strap  before  the  calf  is 
gone,  because  if  let  alone  till  afterwards,  the  cow  is  apt  to  hold  up  her 
•milk,  when  the  strap  is  first  put  on. 

If  the  teats  of  a  cow  are  sore,  they  should  be  washed  with  sugar  of 
lead  and  water.  The  proportion  recommended,  is  two  drachms  of  sugar 
of  lead  to  a  quart  of  water.  If  tumours  appear,  a  warm  mash  of  bran, 
with  a  little  lard  is  said  to  be  a  good  application.  The  following  hni- 
nient  is  said  to  be  efficacious.  Linseed  oil,  4i  oz.,  Liquor  of  Ammonia, 
joz." 

Another  method  (see  New  England  Farmer,  Vol.  II.  p.  13*2)  is,  after 
tying  the  cow  in  the  stanchels,  to  make  one  end  of  a  rope  fast  round  her 
horns,  and  put  the  other  end  over  the  girt  which  is  about  two  feet  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  stanchels,  and  about  the  same  distance  in  front, 
draw  it  pretty  tight  and  fasten  it  to  a  stud.  This  so  eifectually  secures 
her  that  she  may  be  milked  with  the  most  perfect  ease  and  safety  ;  and 
after  practising  this  method  two  or  three  times,  she  will  give  no  more 
trouble. 

It  is  said  that  several  trials  on  different  cows  have  proved  this  method 
not  only  vastly  superior  to  all  others,  but  an  effectual  remedy ;  and  it  is 
so  easy  and  simple  that  a  female  or  boy  can  secure  a  cow  without  any 


26  FAMILY 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


difficulty.  Another  advantage  this  method  has  over  any  other,  is,  that 
by  keeping  the  cow's  back  hollow,  it  is  believed,  she  cannot  hold  up 
her  milk. 

It  is  desirable  sometimes  to  dry  cows  more  expeditiously  than  can  be 
well  done  in  the  common  way ;  especially  when  they  have  a  plenty  of 
fresh  food.  The  following  method  is  recommended  in  Monk's  Agricul- 
tural Dictionary.  Take  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum ;  boil  it  in  two 
quarts  of  milk  until  it  turns  to  whey :  then  take  a  large  handful  of  sage, 
and  boil  it  in  the  whey,  till  you  reduce  it  to  one  quart ;  rub  her  udder 
with  a  little  of  it,  and  give  her  the  rest  by  way  of  drink ;  milk  her  clean 
before  you  give  it  to  her  ;  and  as  you  see  need  repeat  it.  Draw  a  little 
milk  from  her  every  second  or  third  day,  lest  her  udder  be  overcharged. 

The  period  of  gestation,  or  time  during  which  the  cow  goes  with  calf, 
is  various :  with  a  bull  calf,  she  usually  goes  about  forty-one  weeks,  with 
a  difference  of  a  few  days  either  way ;  a  cow  calf  comes  in  less  time. 
Between  nine  and  ten  months,  therefore,  may  be  assigned  for  the  period 
of  gestation;  at  the  end  of  which  time  she  produces  one  calf ;  though 
instances  sometimes  occur  when  two,  or  even  three,  are  brought  forth. 
It  may  not,  however,  be  useless  to  remark,  that  some  cows  are  naturally 
barren,  which  is  said  to  be  the  case  when  a  male  and  female  calf  are  pro- 
duced at  the  same  time.  The  male  animal  is  perfect  in  all  respects ;  but 
the  female,  which  is  denominated  a  free  martin,  is  incapable  of  propaga- 
ting her  species  ;  it  does  not  vary  very  materially  in  point  of  form  or  size 
from  other  neat  cattle,  though  its  flesh  is  erroneously  supposed  to  be 
greatly  superior  with  regard  to  flavor  and  fineness  of  the  gram. 

Some  very  interesting  experiments  respecting  the  periods  of  gestation 
in  different  animals,  were  made  a  few  years  ago,  by  M.  Teissier,  of  the 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of  Arts  at  Paris,  from  which  it  appears, 
that  out  of  575  cows, 

21  calved  between  the  240th  and  270th  day  ;   mean  term  259i 

544  ....  270th  .  .  299th  ....  282 

10  ....  299th  .  .  32lst  ....  303 

Thus,  between  the  shortest  and  longest  gestation  there  was  a  difference 

of  eighty-one  days,  which  is  more  than  one  fourth  of  the  mean  duration. 


ON  THE  TREATMENT  AND  REARING  OF  CALVES. 

The  importance  of  forwzjrding  calves  to  maturity,  with  the  greatest 

f)ossible  advantage,  to  the  full  developement  of  their  natural  qualities, 
las  called  forth  the  ingenuity  of  the  most  careful  observers,  and  best 
breeders.  The  most  approved  plan,  and  certainly,  the  best  general  plan, 
is  to  adhere,  as  closely  as  possible,  to  nature. 

On  the  birth  of  the  cajf,  the  .cow  generally  shows  an  inclination  to  clean 
its  skin  by  licking  it.  To  facilitate  this  object,  it  is  a  frequent  practice 
to  throw  a  handful  of  common  salt  over  the  calf,  or  to  rub  a  little  brandy 
i>nit. 

Some  practice  taking  the  calf  from  the  dam  immediately,  and  in  an 
hour  after  birth,  to  give  it  a  pint  of  luke-warra  gruel,  in  lieu  of  the 
beestings,  or  first  miJk  of  the  cow.  This  practice  appears,  however,  ob- 
jectionable, since  it  is  obvious,  that  nature  has  provided  the  beestings  as 
the  proper  aliment  of  the  newly  bom  animal. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 27 

REARING  OF  CALVES. 

The  mode  of  rearing  calves,  both  in  England  and  the  United  States,  is 
various.  The  usual  method  in  Yorkshire,  and  most  parts  of  Scotland, 
says  Loudon,  is  tl»t  of  giving  them  milk  to  drink,  there  being  few  in- 
stances where  they  are  allowed  to  suck.  For  the  first  two  or  three  weeks, 
they  mostly  get  milk  warm  from  the  cow ;  but  for  the  next  two  or  three 
weeks,  half  the  new  milk  is  withdrawn,  and  skimmed  milk  substituted  in 
its  stead ;  and  at  the  end  of  that  period,  the  new  milk  is  wholly  with- 
drawn :  they  are  then  fed  on  skimmed  milk  alone,  or  sometimes  mixed 
with  water;  till  they  are  able  to  support  themselves  by  eating  grass,  or 
other  food  of  that  sort. 

In  Cheshire,  the  practice  is  to  allow  the  calves  to  suck,  for  the  first  three 
weeks.  They  are  then  fed  on  warm  new  whey,  or  scalded  whey  and 
buttermilk,  mixed ;  with  the  green  whey,  water  is  frequently  mixed, 
and  either  oatmeal,  or  wheat  and  bean  flour  added.  A  quart  of  meal  or 
flour,  is  thought  sufficient  to  mix  with  forty  or  fifty  quarts  of  liquid. 
Oat  meal  gruel,  and  buttermilk,  witli  an  addition  of  skimmed  milk,  are 
also  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Some  one  of  these  prepared  kinds  of 
food,  is  given  night  and  morning,  for  a  few  weeks  after  the  calves  are 
put  on  that  diet,  but  afterwards  only  once  a  day,  till  they  are  three  months 
old  or  more. 

The  calves  in  Gloucestershire  are  not  allowed  to  suck  above  two  or 
three  days  ;  they  are  then  fed  on  skimmed  milk,  which  is  previously 
heated  over  the  fire.  When  they  arrive  at  such  an  age  as  to  be  able  to 
eat  a  little,  they  are  allowed  split  beans,  or  oats ;  and  cut  hay,  and  water, 
all  mixed  with  the  milk. 

In  Sussex,  it  is  common  to  allow  the  calves  to  suck  for  ten  or  twelve 
weeks,  or  to  wean  them  at  the  end  of  three  or  four,  and  give  them  a  liberal 
allowance  of  skimmed  milk,  for  six  or  eight  weeks  longer. 

In  Middlesex,  the  methods  pursued  for  rearing  calves,  are  either  by  giv- 
ing them  apail-full,  containing  about  a  gallon,  warm  from  the  teat  of  the 
cow,  mornmg  and  evening,  for  eight  or  ten  weeks,  or  which  is  certainly 
the  most  agreeable  to  nature,  and  therefore  to  be  preferred  to  any  other 
that  can  be  adopted,  to  allow  the  calf  to  suck  its  dam,  as  is  sometimes 
done  in  the  county  of  Sussex,  and  generally  in  Wigtonshire. 

According  to  Marshall,  the  best  method  is  this :  The  calves  suck  a 
week  or  fortnight,  according  to  their  strength,  (a  good  rule ;)  new  milk  in 
the  pail,  a  few  meals;  next,  new  uiilk  and  skim  milk-mixed,  a  few  meals 
more ;  then,  skim-milk  alone,  or  porridge  made  with  milk,  water,  ground 
oats,  <fcc.  and  sometimes  oil-cake,  until  cheese  making  commences ; 
after  which,  whey,  porridge,  or  sweet  whey,  in  the  field  ;  beuig  careful 
to  house  them  in  the  night,  until  warm  weather  be  confirmed.  This 
method  of  suckling  is  not,  however,  free  from  objection ;  and  in  the  ordi- 
nary practice  of  rearing  calves,  it  is  held  to  be  a  preferable  plan,  to  begin 
at  once  to  learn  them  to  drink  from  a  pail.  The  calf  that  is  fed  from  the 
teat  must  depend  upon  the  milk  of  its  dam,  however  scanty  or  irregular 
it  n)ay  be  ;  whereas,  when  fed  from  a  dish,  the  quantity  can  be  regulated 
according  to  its  age,  and  various  substitutes  may  be  resorted  to,  by  which 
a  great  part  of  the  milk  is  saved  for  other  purposes,  or  a  greater  number 
of  calves  reared  on  the  same  quantity.  Yet  it  would  seem  to  be  a  good 
practice  to  allow  calves  to  suck  for  a  few  days  at  first,  if  there  was  no 
inconvenience  to  be  apprehended  both  to  themselves  and  their  dams, 
from  their  separation  afterwards. 


28  FAMILY 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


When  fed  from  the  pail,  the  average  allowance  to  a  calf  is  about  two 
English  wine  gallons  of  milk  daily  for  twelve  or  thirteen  weeks ;  at  first, 
fresh  milk  as  it  is  drawn  from  the  cow,  and  afterwards  skim-milk.  But 
after  it  is  three  or  four  weeks  old,  a  great  variety  of  substitutes  for  milk 
are  used  in  different  places,  of  which  Unseed  oil-cake,  meal,  and  turnips, 
are  the  most  common. 

When  calves  are  reared  with  skim-milk,  it  should  be  boiled,  and  suf- 
lered  to  stand  until  it  cools  to  the  temperature  of  that  first  given  by  the 
cow,  or  a  trifling  degree  more  warm,  and  in  that  state  given  to  the  calf. 
Milk  is  frequently  given  to  calves  warm  only ;  but  that  method  will  not 
succeed  so  well  as  boiling  it.  If  the  milk  be  given  over  cold,  it  will  caixse 
the  calf  to  skit  or  purge.  When  this  is  the  case  put  two  or  three  spoon- 
fuls of  rennet  in  the  milk,  and  it  will  soon  stop  the  looseness.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  the  calf  is  bound,  bacon  broth  is  a  very  good  and  safe  thing  to 
put  into  the  milk.  One  gallon  cf  milk  per  day  will  kee;i  a  calf  well,  till 
it  be  thirteen  wrecks  old.  A  calf  may  then  be  supported  without  milk,  by 
giving  it  hay  and  a  little  wheat  bran,  once  a  day,  with  about  a  pint  of  oats. 
The  oats  will  be  found  of  great  service  as  soon  as  the  calf  is  capable  of 
eating  them.  The  bran  and  oats  should  be  given  about  mid-day  \  the 
milk  in  portions,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  four  in  the  after- 
noon. But  whatever  hours  are  chosen  to  set  apart  for  feeding  the  calf, 
it  is  best  to  adhere  to  the  particular  times,  as  regularity  is  of  more  conse- 
quence than  many  people  think.  If  the  calf  goes  but  an  hour  or  two 
beyond  liis  usual  time  of  feeding,  he  will  find  himself  uneasy,  and  pine  for 
food.  It  is  always  to  be  understood  that  calves  reared  in  tliis  manner,  are 
to  be  enticed  to  eat  hay  as  early  as  possible ;  and  the  best  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  give  them  the  sweetest  hay  that  can  be  got,  and  but  little  at  a 
time.  Turnips  or  j)otatoes,  are  very  good  food,  as  soon  as  they  can  eat 
them,  and  they  are  best  cut  small  and  mixed  with  the  hay,  oats,  bran,, 
and  such  articles.  It  may  be  observed,  tliat  it  is  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  give  milk  to  calves  after  they  are  one  month  old  ;  and  to  wean 
them  gradually,  two  quarts  of  milk,  with  the  addition  of  linseed  boiled  in 
water,  to  m;Uce  a  gruel,  and  given  together,  will  answer  the  purpose, 
until  by  diminishing  the  milk  gradually,  the  calf  will  soon  do  entirely 
without.  Hay  tea  will  answer  the  purpose,  with  ine  hke  addition  of  two 
quarts  of  milk;  but  is  not  so  nutritious  as  linseed.  It  is  a  good  method 
of  making  this,  to  put  such  a  proportion  of  hay  as  will  be  necessary  into  a 
tub,  then  pour  on  a  sufficient  quantity  of  boiling  water,  covering  up  the 
vessel,  and  letting  the  water  remain  long  enough  to  extract  the  virtues  of 
the  hay.  When  bacon  or  pork  is  boiled,  it  is  a  good  way  to  preserve  the 
liquor  or  broth,  and  mix  it  with  the  milk  for  the  calves. 

Another  mode  of  rearing  calves,  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  is  to  take  one  gallon  of  skim-milk,  and  to  about 
a  pint  of  it  add  half  an  ounce  of  common  treacle,  stirring  it  until  it  is  well 
mixed,  then  to  take  one  ounce  of  linseed  oil  cake,  finely  pulverize,  and 
with  the  hand  let  it  fall  gradually,  in  very  small  quantities,  into  the  milk, 
stirring  it  in  the  moan  time,  with  a  spoon  or  ladle,  until  it  be  thoroughly 
incorporated;  then  let  the  mixture  be  put  into  the  other  part  of  the  milk, 
and  the  whole  be  made  nearly  as  warm  as  new  milk,  when  it  is  first  taken 
from  the  cow ;  and  in  that  state  it  is  fit  for  use. 

The  quantity  of  oil-cake  powder  may  from  time  to  time  be  iiicreased, 
as  occasion  may  require,  and  as  the  calf  becomes  inured  to  the  flavor 
of  it.    Crook's  method  is  to  make  a  jelly  of  one  quart  of  linseed  boiled 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 29 

REARING  OF  CALVES. 

ten  minutes,  in  six  quarts  of  water,  which  jelly  is  afterwards  mixed 
with  a  small  quantity  of  the  best  hay-tea;  on  this  he  rears  many  calves 
without  milk. 

On  this  important  subject,  many  individuals  of  careful  observation, 
and  great  practical  skill,  in  the  United  States,  have  written  copiously. 
Our  limits  will  permit  us  to  notice  the  methods  recommended  by  only 
a  few. 

The  following  is  the  method  of  Mr.  William  Budd,  which  obtained  the 
gold  medal  of  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Massachusetts : 

"  Take  the  calves,  when  three  days  old,  from  the  cows,  and  put  them 
into  a  stable  by  themselves ;  feed  them  with  gruel,  composed  of  one- 
third  barley,  two-thirds  oats,  ground  together  very  fine,  sifting  the  mix- 
ture. Each  calf  is  to  receive  a  quart  of  gruel  morning  and  evening,  and 
to  be  made  in  the  following  manner :  to  one  quart  of  the  flour  add  twelve 
of  water,  boil  the  mixture  half  an  hour,  let  it  stand  until  milk-warm.  In 
ten  days,  tie  up  a  bundle  of  soft  hay  in  the  middle  of  the  stable,  which 
they  will  eat  by  degrees.  A  little  of  the  flour  put  into  a  small  trough, 
for  them  occasionally  to  lick,  is  of  service.  Feed  them  thus  till  they  are 
two  months  old  increasing  the  quantity.  Three  bushels  of  the  above 
mixture  wiU  raise  six  calves." 

Mr.  Clift,  of  the  New- York  Agricultural  Society,  takes  the  calf  from 
the  cow  at  two  or  three  days  old  ;  he  then  milks  the  cow,  and  while  the 
milk  is  warm,  teaches  the  animal  to  drink  by  holding  his  head  down 
into  the  pail;  if  the  calf  will  not  drink,  he  puts  his  hand  into  the  milk, 
and  a  finger  into  the  mouth,  till  the  beast  learns  to  drink  without  the 
finger.*  After  he  has  been  fed  with  new  milk  for  a  fortnight,  the 
cream  is  taken  off"  the  milk,  with  which  an  equal  or  larger  portion  of 
thin  flax-seed  jelly  is  mixed,  and  the  whole  is  given  milk-warm.  Thus, 
as  the  spring  is  the  most  favorable  season  for  making  butter,  he  is  ena- 
bled, during  the  six  or  seven  weeks  the  animals  are  kept  previously  to 
weaning,  to  make  as  much  butter  as  they  are  worth ;  a  practice  which 
merits  the  attention  of  our  farmers,  to  whom  it  will  afford  a  very  essen- 
tial saving. 

The  next  method  which  we  notice,  is  that  practiced  by  the  religious 
society  denominated  Shakers,  at  Canterbury,  N.  H.,  and  which  appears 
to  be  highly  judicious. 

We  let  calves  that  come  in  the  fore  part  of  March  suck  about  a  week 
or  ten  days,  then  take  them  from  the  cow,  giving  them  a  moderate  allow- 
ance of  new  milk  to  drink,  till  they  have  learnt  to  drink  it  freely  ;  then 
put  in  some  skimmed  milk:  and  we  feed  them  wholly  on  skimmed 
milk,  taking  care  to  give  it  at  about  the  temperature  of  milk  directly 
taken  from  the  cow,  by  heating  a  part  of  it,  and  mixing  it  with  the  rest. 
Care  should  be  taken  not  to  scald  the  milk  when  heated ;  also  not  to 
give  them  any  sour  milk,  for  this  will  make  them  scour.    The  trough 

*  It  is  sometimes  found  difficult  to  teach  a  calf  to  drink  or  even  to  suck 
the  milk  by  means  of  the  fingers.  This  generally  arises  from  ignorance, 
as  to  the  proper  maimer  of  using  the  fingers.  These— the  first  and 
second  fingers  of  the  right  hand  will  be  sufficient — should  be  so  pressed 
upon  the  calf's  tongue  as  to  form  a  curve  of  the  tongue,  in  which  case  the 
calf  will  invariably  draw ;  at  least,  the  Editor  has  never  experienced  any 
difficulty  since  he  has  practiced  in  the  above  way. 
c2 


30  FAMILY 


REARING  OF  CALVES. 


or  vessel  in  which  they  driiik  this  milk,  should  be  kept  dean,  and  not 
surtered  to  get  sour. 

We  let  the  milk  stand  about  twelve  hours  before  it  is  skimmed ;  giving 
a  calf  at  first  about  four  quarts  night  and  morning ;  increasing  the  mess 
as  7ieed  reqiyres.  till  he  is  six  weeks  old,  from  which  time  till  ten  weeks 
old,  he  will  require  perhaps  about  twelve  quarts  per  day. 

When  about  ten  weeks  old,  we  begin  to  diminish  the  quantity  of 
milk  for  about  the  space  of  two  or  three  weeks,  at  which  time  we  wean 
them.  During  the  whole  process,  from  two  to  fourteen  weeks  old, 
calves  should  be  well  supplied  with  good  hay,  salt,  and  provender  ;  such 
as  oats,  wheat-bran,  and  oil-cake  ground  fine  ;  they  should  also  be  sup- 
plied with  scurf  or  dirt,  (though  scurf  is  the  best,)  which  is  a  preventive 
against  scouring. 

The  particular  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  above  method  of 
treatment  are  the  following  : 

1.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  to  let  them  suck  in  the  ordinary  way; 
whereas  it  makes  a  great  saving  of  cream  for  butter,  and  that  without 
injuring  the  calves,  if  they  are  properly  attended  to. 

2.  It  prevents  calves  from  moaning  or  pining  so  much  while  weaning, 
as  they  would  otherwise  do,  when  taken  from  tlie  cows. 

3.  It  not  only  prevents  the  cows  being  injured  in  consequence  of  the 
calves  biting  the  teals ;  but  also  prevents  their  holding  back  their  milk 
from  the  milker,  which  often  serves  to  diminish  the  milk  afterwards. 
The  only  disadvantage  to  be  found  in  the  above  method  of  treatment 
is  that  it  requires  some  more  labor  to  feed  them,  where  they  thrive  equal- 
ly well  in  every  respect,  as  tliose  do  which  are  permitted  to  snck  in  the 
ordinary  way." 

A  writer  in  the  American  Farmer,  Vol.  V.,  page  172,  observes,  that 
the  most  proper  way  of  rearing  calves  is,  to  wean  them  at  about  eight 
days  old,  to  keep  them  constantly  in  the  stable,  and  teach  them  to  drink 
out  of  a  bucket,  which  is  easily  accomplished  by  putting  new  milk  into  a 
basin  and  .letting  them  suck  your  fingers  with  the  hand  innnersed  in  the 
milk,  and  in  a  few  days  withdrawing  the  fingers  gradually  from  the 
mouth,  afterwards  giving  as  much  new  milk,  as  they  can  drink,  for  five 
or  six  weeks,  when  they  will  begin  to  eat  a  little  grass  or  clover,  which 
can  be  pulled  and  given  in  small  quantities  twice  a  day,  and  when  they 
eat  freely  you  may  mix  a  little  water  with  the  milk;  or  at  eight  or  ten 
weeks  old,  give  sweet  skimmed  milk,  slightly  warmed,  which  soon  after 
dilute  with  water  and  add  a  Uttle  meal;  should  milk  be  wanted  for  other 
purposes  give  flax-seed  tea,  which  commence  by  mixing  with  milk  slight- 
ly warmed  ;  indeed,  by  keeping  calves  ijonstantly  in  the  house,  you  may 
induce  them  to  eat  almost  any  kind  of  nutricious  food;  they  also  become 
perfectly  docile,  have  fine  round  bodies,  with  clean  smooth  hair,  and  a 
sprightly  look;  but  if  turned  out  into  the  field,  they  are  tormented  by 
fUes  and  heat,  never  in  good  condition  the  first  year,  but  remarkable  for 
pot  bellies,  rough  hair,  heavy  look,  and  ugly  flat  sides  ;  indeed  the  con- 
trast in  appearance  is  so  great,  that  I  thirdt  laziness  alone  would  induce 
any  one  to  turn  their  calves  into  a  field  the  first  summer.  If  change  of 
food  produces  either  costiveness  or  looseness,  give  about  half  a  pint  of 
spermaceti  oil,  to  be  repeated  if  found  necessary;  it  will  prove  a  cure, 
and  can  easily  be  given  out  of  a  black  bottle ;  it  is  also  good  for  cows, 
that  are  drooping  or  unwell,  adding  of  course  to  the  above  quantity. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  31 

r  ...  ■ .  -  — 

OF  STEERS  AND  DRAUGHT  OXEN. 

Calves  intended  for  the  butcher,  the  same  writer  adds,  ought  always 
to  be  tied  up  in  a  stable,  and  if  kept  in  darkness,  so  much  the  better,  as 
they  will  be  less  disturbed  by  flies,  and  will  sleep  more,  than  if  constant- 
ly in  the  light ;  the  mother  ought  to  be  turned  in  twice  or  thriqe  a  day, 
and  the  calf  permitted  to  suck  as  much  as  it  wants,  never  taking  any 
milk  from  the  mother  until  it  is  satisfied.  If  every  farmer  would  thus 
manage,  we  should  see  less  poor  veal  than  is  now  exhibited  «i  our 
market. 

In  noticing  the  above  methods  of  treating  and  managing  calves,  men- 
tion has  been  made  oi  Jiax- seed  jelly,  and  clover  tea.  To  make  the  former, 
S.  W.  Pomeroy,  of  Massachusetts,  recommends  "  to  lake  one  part  of 
flax-seed  and  five  or  six  parts  of  water;  let  it  soak  from  12  to  48  hours 
— according  to  the  temperature  of  the  weather ;  then  boil  for  a  quarter 
of  an  hour,  stirring  it  to  prevent  burning — keep  it  in  a  cool  place,  and 
not  more  than  will  sulfice  for  a  week  should  be  made  at  a  time  in  warm 
weather. 

For  clover  tea,  cut  the  best  cured  clover  hay,  about  as  fine  as  com- 
mon stravv-chaif,  press  it  into  a  kettle  and  fill  it  up  with  water — cover 
and  boil  half  an  hour — if  soaked  six  or  twelve  hours,  less  boiling  will 
answer.  Express  as  much  of  the  juice  as  possible  and  the  residuum 
will  be  eaten  greedily  by  store  swine,  if  mixed  with  their  swill.  Unless 
the  clover  was  cured  with  salt  (a  method  I  always  practice)  some  should 
be  put  into  the  kettle,  which  may  sometimes  require  to  be  filled  up  with 
water. 

In  the  rearing  of  calves,  mvich  certainly  depends  on  regularity  in 
feeding  them.  The  common  practice  is,  to  supply  them  with  food  twice 
in  tlie  day,  in  the  morning  and  at  evening,  when  they  generally  receive 
aa  large  a  quantity  as  their  craving  appetites  can  take.  Hence  the  di- 
gestive organs  are  necessarily  impaired,  and  disease  is  perhaps  engender- 
ed. These  evils  may  be  avoided  by  feeding  tlirice  in  a  day,  at  equi-distant 
intervals,  and  allowing  sufficient  room  for  exercise,  when  the  calves  are 
not  intended  to  be  fattened. 


OF  STEERS  AND  DRAUGHT  OXEN. 


A  good  OX  for  the  plough  should  be  neither  too  fat  nor  too  lean,  as  in 
the  former  case  he  will  be  too  lazy  ;  and  in  the  latter  he  will  be  too  weak 
and  unfit  for  labor.  His  body  ought  to  be  full,  joints  short,  legs  small, 
eyes  full,  his  coat  smooth  and  fine,  (which  latter  circumstance  is  a  certain 
indication  of  good  health,)  and  every  part  symmetrical  or  well  put 
together,  so  that  his  strength  may  be  easily  seen. 

Those  calves  which  are  designed  for  draught  may  be  easily  accustom- 
ed to  the  yoke,  with  proper  care.  At  even  an  early  age,  a  light  yoke  may 
be  frequently  put  upon  them ;  in  which  they  may  be  suffered  to  stand, 
or  wander  in  the  field,  for  an  hour  or  two  each  day.  But  it  is  doubted 
whether  in  any  case  they  should  be  put  to  hauling  burdens,  even  the 
lightest,  lest  they  should  be  strained.  Some  of  the  most  docile  and  use- 
ful oxen  we  have  ever  seen,  were  trained  in  this  way. 

Calves  thus  managed,  may  doubtless  be  put  to  labor,  at  an  earlier 
period  than  others.    Much  labor  should  not  be  required  of  steers,  until 


32  FAMILY 


OF  STEERS  AND  DRAUGHT  OXEN. 

they  are  three  years  of  age ;  and  even  at  this  period,  if  over  worked  they 
seldom  recover  from  it.  Oxen  whose  work  is  so  proportioned  to  their 
strength  and  keeping,  as  not  to  affect  their  growth,  will  continue  to  in- 
crease in  size  till  about  their  seventh  year.  Many  oxen,  however,  cease 
growing  sometime  before  they  have  attained  to  this  age  ;  but  it  is  gene- 
rally owing  to  poor  keeping  and  being  overworked. 

It  is  often  objected  to  oxen,  that  they  fire  too  slow  for  profit.  For  some 
kinds  of  work  they  doubtless  are  so.  But  the  slow  pace  at  which  oxen 
move  generally  is  entirely  unnecessary.  With  a  proper  load,  they  might 
doubtless  be  made  to  travel  with  double  their  usual  expedition,  and  with 
equal  ease  to  themselves. 

It  is  also  desirable  that  oxen  should  be  accustomed  to  work  equally 
well  on  either  side.  To  this  they  may  be  easily  trained,  especially  when 
young. 

The  strength  of  an  ox,  when  properly  trained,  tind  managed,  is  very 
great ;  and  he  has  patience  to  endure  fatigue.  The  only  method  by 
which  success  can  be  attained,  says  The  Complete  Grazier,  is,  by  patience, 
nrildness,  and  even  by  caresses  ;  for  compulsion  and  ill  treatment  will 
irritate  and  disgust  him.  Hence,  great  assistance  will  be  derived  from 
gently  stroking  the  animal  along  the  back,  by  patting  him,  and  encourag- 
ing him  with  the  voice,  and  occasionally  feeding  him  with  such  aliments 
as  are  most  grateful  to  his  palate.  It  will  also  be  proper  to  tie  his  horns 
frequently,  and  after  a  few  days  to  put  a  yoke  upon  his  neck,  when  he 
should  be  fastened  to  a  plough  with  a  tame  old  ox,  of  equal  size ;  next, 
the  oxen  should  be  employed  in  some  light  work,  which  they  may  be 
suffered  to  perform  easily  and  slowly ;  thus  they  will  draw  eq^uall^,  and 
the  young  steer  will  be  gradually  inured  to  work.  After  workmg  m  this 
manner,  he  should  be  yoked  with  an  ox  of  greater  spirit  and  agility,  in 
order  that  the  steer  may  learn  to  quicken  his  pace  ;  and,  by  thus  frequent- 
ly changing  his  companions,  as  occasion  may  allow,  he  will,  in  the  course 
of  the  first  month  or  six  weeks  of  his  labor,  be  capable  of  drawing  witk 
the  briskest  of  thestogk. 

Afler  a  steer  is  thus  properly  broken,  it  will  be  advisable,  for  the 
future,  to  match  such  as  are  intended  to  draw  in  the  same  team,  or  yoke ; 
attention  being  paid  to  their  size,  strength,  and  spirit  or  temper;  otlier- 
wise,  by  being  unequally  matched,  they  will  not  only  spoil  their  work, 
and  be  greatly  disqualified  for  draught,  but  tlie  slower  or  weaker  animal 
of  the  two  being  urged  beyond  its  natural  powers,  will  inevitably  receive 
material  injury. 

Another  circumstance  of  essential  importance  in  breaking-in  young 
oxen  is,  that  when  first  put  to  work,  whether  at  the  plough  or  in  teams 
for  draught,  they  be  not  fatigued,  or  over-heated.  Till  they  are 
thoroughly,  trained  therefore,  it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  them  in 
labor  only  at  short  intervals ;  to  indulge  them  with  rest  during  the  noon- 
day heats  of  summer,  and  to  feed  them  with  good  hay,  which,  m  this  case 
is  preferable  to  grass.  In  fact  while  oxen  are  worked,  they  must  be 
kept  in  good  condition  and  spirits,  by  moderate,  but  wholesome  suste- 
nance. Further,  on  their  return  home  from  labor,  it  will  greatly  con- 
tribute to  preserve  their  health,  if  their  feet  be  well  washed  previously  to 
leading  them  into  their  stalls;  otherwise  diseases  might  be  generated  by 
the  filth  adhering  to  them  ;  while  their  hoofs  becoming  soft  and  tender, 
would  necessarily  disable  them  from  working  on  hard  or  stony  soils. 
The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  ought  also  to  be  carefully  guarded  against, 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


33 


METHOD  OF  ACCUSTOMING  ANIMALS  TO  DRAW. 

as  disorders  not  unfreqaently  arise  from  excess  of  either  temperature ; 
and  they  are  pecuHarly  exposed  to  fevers  and  the  flux,  if  chased  or 
hurried,  especially  in  the  hot  weather. 

Steers  are  sometimes  refractory.  In  such  cases  it  will  be  advisable  to 
keep  them  till  they  are  hungry ;  and  when  they  have  fasted  long  enough, 
tliey  should  be  made  to  feed  out  of  the  hand.  On  returning  to  labor,  they 
should  be  tied  with  a  rope;  and  if  at  any  time  they  become  refractory,  the 
gentle  measures  above  described  should  be  adopted,  in  order  to  bring 
theui  to  work  readily  and  quietly. 

The  following  easy  method,  of  accustoming  animals  to  draw>  is  given 
by  the  Editor  of  the  American  Farmer  from  the  French.  (  See  American 
Fanner,  Vol.  VII.  p.  76.) 


AN  EASY  METHOD  OF  ACCUSTOMING  ANIMALS  TO  DRAW. 

*'  The  readiest  way  to  make  animals  submit  to  the  yoke  or  harness, 
is  to  habituate  them  gradually  to  the  draft  in  the  very  act  of  satisfying 
the  cravings  of  hunger.  For  this  purpose  aitach  them  to  the  manger, 
by  means  of  a  cord  which  runs  tlu-ough  a  ring — and  at  the  extremity  of 
which  a  weight  is  attached  as  represented  in  the  above  figure,  so  that  the 
aniuial  may  at  pleasure  approach  or  recede  from  the  manger.  A  collar 
is  put  on  the  animal,  with  two  cords  fixed  to  a  bar  or  swingle  tree,  to 
which  another  cord  is  attached  at  B,  which  passes  through  the  pulley  at 
C,  and  to  which  is  su.-pended  a  weight,  to  be  increased  at  pleasure — 
things  being  thus  arranged,  forage  is  put  in  the  rack.  The  animal  when 
pressed  by  hunger  approaches  his  food ;  in  doing  which  he  raises  the 
weight,  and  keeps  it  suspended  as  long  as  he  continues  to  eat — and  thus 
contracts  the  habit  of  drawing  in  a  lew  days.  He  is  free  to  relax  his 
exertions,  for  whenever  he  recedes,  the  weight  reposes  on  the  ground. 

In  working  oxen  to  advantage,  much  depends  on  the  mode  of  har- 
nessing them,  and  upon  what  has  been  termed  the  principle  of  draught. 
This  principle  depends  on  the  joint  power  of  the  neck  and  base  of  the 
horn.  In  Portugal,  these  animals  are  harnessed  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  a  long  leather  strap  is  wrap})ed  round  the  yoke,  whence  it  passes 
round  the  lower  part  of  tlie  horns,  and  is  again  fastened  to  the  yoke. 


34 


FAMILY 


REPRESENTATION  OF  YOKING  OXEN  IN  FRANCE. 

By  this  contrivance,  the  heads  of  the  oxen  become  more  steady,  while 
performing  their  work,  and  these  useful  animals  are  rendered  more 
tractable. 

In  France,  and  on  the  Peninsula,  oxen  are  worked  by  tht  head,  and  are 
yoked  in  a  manner  which  is  better  expressed  by  the  aid  of  figures  than  by 
description. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  YOKING  OXEN  IN  FRANCE. 

Figure  1  represents  a  view  of  the  hinder  part  of  the  head  and  neck  of 
these  animals;  in  the  yoke  as  they  appear  to  a  spectator ;  and  figure  2  ex- 
hibits a  front  view  of  the  upper  parts  of  their  heads,  in  order  to  convey  a 
more  accurate  idea  of  the  mode  in  which  the  French  oxen  are  fastened 
to  the  bow. 

The  question,  "  whether  it  is  most  advantageous  to  yoke  oxen  by  the 
head  or  by  the  collar?"  has  occasioned  much  discussion,  and  is  even 
yet  undetermined.  The  prejudice  throughout  Great  Britain  is,  generally 
speaking,  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  collar ;  but  throughout  Spain  and 
Portugal,  where  oxen  are  the  only  animals  employed  in  agricultural 
labor,  whether  of  road  or  field  draught,  they  are  invariably  yoked  by  the 
head.  The  strength  of  the  animal  indeed  lies  in  his  neck  ;  of  the  power 
of  which  the  yoke  affords  him  all  the  advantage;  while  the  collar  de- 
prives him  of  it,  as  he  does  not  draw  by  the  shoulders.  The  far  greater 
cost  and  trouble  of  harness  tlian  of  yokes  and  bows,  are  slso  considerations 
of  moment ;  and  in  summer,  harness  has  been  found  an  incumbrance, 
the  ox  requiring  all  the  relief  and  liberty  that  can  be  given  in  hot  weather. 
The  advocates  for  the  collar  insist  upon  the  advantages  of  single-ox-carts; 
and  of  ploughing  with  the  team  at  length,  by  which,  as  they  walk  in  the 
furrow,  the  land  is  not  so  much  subject  to  be  poached,  as  when  they  are 
yoked  abreast.  They  affirm  also  that  the  j)ace  is  quicker  in  harness ;  and 
that  the  animal  works  with  greater  ease.  But  their  opponents  allege, 
that  oxen  are  more  advantageously  worked  in  couples  than  singly  ;  inas- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 35 

FEEDING  CATTLE. 

much  as  that,  being  nearer  to  the  draught,  they  possess  greater  power 
over  it  than  when  drawing  at  length :  they  consider  the  additional  ex- 
pense occasioned  by  a  double  number  of  one-ox-carts  and  drivers,  as  not 
counterbalanced  by  any  advantage,  even  if  .any  were  admitted,  in  their 
use;  and  they  deny  that  the  animal  works  either  quicker  or  with 
greater  ease. 

It  would  be  endless  to  detail  the  various  comparative  trials  that  have 
been  published  on  this  long  contested  subject ;  and  it  may  be  deemed 
sutficient  to  state  the  result  of  two,  made  some  years  ago,  in  Sussex, 
(Eng.) ;  where,  from  oxen  being  extensively  used,  the  dispute  has  excited 
more  than  common  interest. 

In  order  to  decide  the  respective  merits  of  the  two  methods,  it  wa.*? 
agreed  that  an  acre  of  land  should  be  ploughed  by  two  teams,  the  one  of 
six  oxeii  in  double  yokes,  the  other  of  four  oxen  in  collars ;  and  then, 
again,  with  four  oxen  in  single  yokes,  against  four  in  collars.  In  the  first 
trial,  the  six  in  yoke  beat  the  four  in  collar  easily ;  and  in  the  second, 
there  were  only  three  mmutes  difference.  The  work  was  equally  well 
performed ;  but  the  ploughing  must  have  been  very  light,  as  the  last 
match  was  completed  in  four  hours  and  ten  minutes. 

So  far  as  this  experiment  may  be  considered  decisive,  it  re-established 
the  equality  of  the  teams ;  but  had  it  been  tried  by  more  severe  labor, 
or  on  hilly  ground,  it  might  have  proved  difterent ;  and  in  steep  ascents, 
more  particularly,  the  yoke  would  probably  have  been  found  best  adapted 
to  the  animal.  It  is  a  prevalent  idea  in  England,  that  oxen  are  unfit  for 
draught  in  hilly  countries ;  but  a  large  portion  of  the  Peninsula  is  moun- 
tainous, and  they  there  draw  hea\7  weights  in  carts  of  a  very  nide  con- 
struction. Being  worked  in  yokes  they  possess  the  power  of  preserving 
the  line  of  draught,  by  lowering  the  head  according  to  the  inclination  of 
the  ground ;  an  advantage  which  is  lost  in  the  application  of  the  collar. 


ON  GRAZING,  SOILING  AND  STALL  FEEDING  NEAT  CATTLE. 

The  feeding  and  fattening  of  cattle,  whether  for  labor  or  for  sale,  is 
the  most  important  in  the  whole  economy  of  the  grass  farm :  hence  the 
farmer  should  previously  consider  the  nature  and  fertility  of  his  pastures, 
and  the  extent  and  quality  of  his  other  resources ;  and,  according  to  these, 
he  ought  to  regulate  his  system  o^ grazing,  soiling,  or  stall-feeding;  select- 
ing, in  the  first  instance,  those  beasts  only  which  evince  the  most  thriving 
disposition  to  fatten  with  the  least  consumption  of  food,  and  depasturing 
them  upon  such  lands  as  are  best  calculated  for  the  respective  breeds; 
and  especially  taking  care  not  to  bring  cattle  from  rich  to  inferior  soils, 
but,  wherever  it  is  practicable,  to  choose  them  from  lands  of  nearly  the 
same  <jttality  as  those  destined  for  their  reception ;  besides  which  pre- 
cautions, it  will  be  necessary,  in  all  situations  which  are  not  provided 
with  wholesome  water,  to  avoid  selecting  cattle  from  those  districts 
where  that  fluid  abounds  in  a  state  of  purity. 

The  introductory  view  of  breeds  prefixed  to  this  work,  will  probably 
supply  some  hints  for  enabling  the  farmer  to  decide  what  sort  of  stock  is 
calculated  for  peculiar  situations ;  in  addition  to  those  remarks,  we  would 
observe,  generally,  from  the  practice  of  the  most  eminent  graziers,  that 


36  FAMILY 


FEEDING  CATTLE. 


the  larger  beasts  are  preferable  for  the  more  luxuriant  pastures ;  while, 
in  such  as  are  less  rich  small  stock  answer  best.  Thus,  a  grazier  who 
has  fine  and  fertile  pastures,  may  select  his  beasts  as  large  as  he  can  find 
them  ;  provided  they  are  of  the  right  sort  and  shape.  But  it  is  requisite 
that  those  who  are  upon  indifierent  grass  take  care  to  proportion  the 
sire  of  their  beasts  to  the  goodness  of  their  pastures ;  for  it  is  preferable  to 
have  cattle  rather  too  small  than  too  large,  because  there  are  numerous 
tracts  of  ground  which  will  be  profitable  for  grazing  such  cattle,  which 
are  not  capable  of  supporting  large  breeds. 

With  regard  to  the  species  of  cattle  best  calculated  for  grazing,  spayed 
heifers  and  oxen  are  certainly  superior  to  any  other  stock ;  the  former, 
indeed,  are  of  less  frequent  occurrence,  though  they  fatten  with  more  ex- 
pedition. Many  graziers  consider  heifers  more  kindly  in  their  disposi- 
tion to  feed  than  steers ;  particularly  when  they  have  already  had  a  calf; 
and  some  are  of  opinion  that  they  are  superior  to  oxen  for  fatting  at 
any  age,  and  that  they  will  produce  a  greater  weight  of  beef  per  acre. 

In  order  to  graze  cattle  to  advantage,  it  ought  to  be  a  fundamental 
principle  so  to  stock  them  that  they  may  feed  witliout  restraint :  beside 
which,  as  often  as  opportunity  or  other  circumstances  will  allow,  it  will 
be  profitable  to  change  them  from  one  pasture  to  another,  beginning 
with  the  most  inferior  grass,  and  gradually  removing  them  into  the  best. 
By  tliis  expedient,  as  cattle  delight  in  variety,  they  will  cull  the  upper- 
most or  choicest  part  of  the  grass,  and  by  filling  themselves  quickly,  as 
well  as  by  lying  down  much,  they  will  rapidly  advance  towards  a  proper 
state  of  fatness  ;  while  the  grass  which  is  thus  left,  may  be  fed  off"  with 
laboring  cattle,  and  lastly  with  sheep.  Hence  it  will  be  advisable  to  have 
several  enclosures,  well  fenced  and  sheltered,  and  abundantly  supplied 
with  wholesome  water. 

Further;  it  will  be  of  service  to  erect  rvblnng-posls  in  different  parts  of 
the  various  enclosures,  where  stock  are  feeding;  as  such  posts  furnish 
them,  no  doubt,  with  an  agreeable,  and  perhaps  a  salutary  amusement, 
besides  that  they  keep  the  cattle  from  the  fences. 

In  the  grazing  of  cattle  a  variety  of  circumstances  will  claim  the 
farmer's  attention,  in  order  to  conduct  his  business  with  regularity,  or 
with  profit.  Hence  he  ought  to  take  especial  care  not  to  turn  his  stock 
out  into  the  pastures  in  the  spring,  before  there  is  a/wW  bite,  or  the  grass 
has  obtained  a  sufficient  degree  of  length  and  maturity;  for  neat  cattle, 
whose  tongues  chiefly  enable  them  to  collect  the  food  neither  can  nor 
will  bite  near  the  ground  unless  they  are  compelled  by  extreme  hunger, 
in  which  case  it  is  obvious  they  cannot  enjoy  their  feed,  and  consequently 
cannot  thrive  in  proportion. 

Further :  where  beasts  are  tixmed  into  fields,  consisting  either  of  clover 
entirely,  or  of  a  mixture  of  natural  and  artificial  grasses,  great  circum- 
spection is  required  to  see  that  they  do  not  eat  so  eagerly,  or  to  such 
excess,  as  to  become  Mourn  or  hoven,  an  affection  to  which  cows  are  more 
peculiarly  liable  than  any  other  neat  cattle.  That  disorder,  however, 
may  be  prevented,  either  by  feeding  the  animals  so  as  to  gratify  the 
cravings  of  appetite  before  they  are  turned  into  the  pasture,  or  by  con- 
stantly moving  them  about  the  field  for  a  few  hours  after  they  have  been 
turned  in,  that  the  first  ball  at  least  may  sink  into  their  maw  before  the 
next  be  deposited. 

It  is  also  important  to  remove  fattening  cattle  from  time  to  time  into 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 37 

FEEDING  CATTLE. 

fresh  grounds;  so  that  by  taking  the  uppermost  and  choicest  part  of  the 
grass,  tliey  may  feed  both  expeditiously  and  thoroughly.  The  grass  left 
behind  them  may  be  fed  otF  first  with  laboring  cattle,  and  afterwards 
with  sheep.  This  last  mentioned  point  cannot  be  too  minutely  regard- 
ed; for,  if  cattle  be  in  want,  they  will  lose  more  flesh  in  one  day  than  they 
can  possibly  gain  or  recover  in  three.  Hence  those  meadows,  or  pas- 
tures, (particularly  such  as  lie  in  fenny  or  other  situations,)  which  retain 
moisture  for  a  long  time,  ought  to  be  fed  otf  as  early  as  possible,  lest 
sudden  or  long-continued  rains  descend,  which  will  not  only  render  the 
juices  of  the  grass  thin  and  watery,  and  ultimately  putrescent,  but  which 
will  also  materially  affect  the  health  and  constitution  of  the  animals. 
To  prevent  the  losses  consequent  on  such  accidents,  it  will  therefore 
be  indispensably  necessary,  daily  and  attentively  to  inspect  the  grazing 
stock;  and  if  any  beasts  appear  to  be  affected  by  eating  wet  grass,  they 
should  be  immediately  conducted  into  dry  shelters,  and  fed  with  hay  or 
straw ;  though,  if  no  shelter  be  conveniently  at  hand,  they  must  be 
driven  to  the  driest  spot,  and  there  supplied  with  sweet  cut  grass,  and 
dry  fodder. 

The  fiard  or  light  stocking  of  pasture  ground,  is  a  point  on  which  many 
experienced  graziers  are  by  no  means  agreed.  By  some  it  is  contended, 
that  pastures  ought  to  be  stocked  very  lightly ;  alleging,  that  although 
much  of  the  produce  is  thus  allowed  to  run  to  seed,  which  the  cattle  will 
not  eat,  and  which  is  consequently  trodden  under  foot,  where  it  is  rotted 
by  rain,  and  thus  wasted ;  yet  experience,  say  the  advocates  for  light 
stocking,  evinces,  that  a  greater  profit  will,  upon  the  whole,  be  thence 
derived  than  by  any  other  practice,  on  account  of  the  superior  thriving 
of  the  animals. 

By  others,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  maintained  that  the  practicQ  of  light 
stocking  is  highly  to  be  condemned ;  because  it  not  only  tends  gradually 
to  diminish  its  produce,  but  also  to  encourage  the  growth  of  coarse  and 
unprofitable  grasses,  which  materially  deteriorate  the  pastures ;  and  that 
the  hard  stocking  of  grass  lands,  particularly  those  of  a  rich  quality,  is  an 
indispensable  requisite  of  good  management. 

It  is  recommended  by  a  third  party,  (whose  opinion,  perhaps,  approxi- 
mates more  nearly  to  the  truth,)  that  mixed  stock  should  be  always  kept 
on  the  same  field ;  for  the  foul  grass  produced  by  the  dung  of  some 
animals,  will  be  consumed  by  others  ;  and  as  it  is  well  known  that  dif- 
ferent species  of  cattle  prefer  different  kinds  of  grass,  there  is  an  evident 
advantage  in  tliis  practice. 

In  every  field,  numerous  plants  spontaneously  spring  up,  some  of 
which  are  disliked  by  one  class  of  animals,  while  they  are  eaten  by  others ; 
and  some  of  which  plants,  though  eaten  with  avidity  at  a  particular 
period  of  their  growth,  are  entirely  rejected  by  the  same  beasts  at  another 
period  of  their  age.  Hence  it  becomes  necessary,  not  only  to  have  a 
great  variety  of  catde  in  the  same  pasture,  but  also  a  very  particular 
attention  is  required  to  augment  or  diminish  the  proportions  of  some  of 
these  classes  of  animals  at  certain  periods  of  the  year ;  otlierwise  some 
part  of  the  produce  will  run  to  waste,  unless,  indeed,  it  be  hard  stocked 
to  such  a  degree  as  to  retard  their  thriving. 

Where,  however,  a  great  variety  of  animals  are  allowed  to  go  at  large 
in  the  same  pasture,  they  rarely  feed  with  that  tranquility  which  is  neces- 
sary to  ensure  thriving.    It  frequently  happens,  that  one  class  or  sort  of 


38  FAMILY 


FEEDING  CATTLE. 


beasts  wishes  to  feed  or  to  play,  while  others  are  inclined  to  rest ;  thus 
they  mutually  tease  and  disturb  each  other ;  and  this  inconvenience  in 
materially  augmented,  if  any  sort  oi' penning,  or  confinement,  be  attempt- 
ed. Hence  it  is  obvious,  that  the  practice  of  intermixing  various  kinds 
of  live  stock,  is  productive  of  evils,  which  are,  in  many  instances,  greater 
than  those  resulting  from  the  waste  of  food  intended  to  be  prevented  by 
this  practice.  There  is,  indeed,  no  doubt  but  that  by  liard  stocking,  the 
grass  will  be  kept  short,  and  will  consequently  be  more  palatable  in 
general  to  the  animals  that  eat  it,  than  if  it  were  allowed  to  grow  to  a  great 
length ;  and  that  even  unpleasant  patches  may  thus  be  consumed ;  but 
as  animals,  which  are  to  be  fattened,  must  not  only  have  sweet  food,  but 
also  an  abundant  bite  at  all  times,  in  order  to  bring  them  forward  in  a 
kindly  manner,  it  appears  scarcely  possible  to  unite  both  these  advantages 
with  an  indiscriminate  mixture  of  stock  :  it  may,  therefore,  be  generally 
prudent  toconiine  the  practice  to  neat  cattle  and  sheep. 

Soiling  comes  next  to  be  considered.  By  this  is  meant,  the  feeding 
of  animals  with  new  mown  grass,  or  grass  not  dried  in  racks  or 
otlierwise. 

This  method  of  keeping  cattle  is  probably  not  generally  applicable  to 
the  present  state  of  agriculture  in  our  country.  It  may  be  of  use  where 
fencing  stuft*  is  dear — where  grass  is  of  great  value — where  cultivation 
is  carried  to  great  perfection — where  population  treads  close  upon  the 
heels  of  production.  But  even  in  the  populous  parts  of  New  England, 
it  is  doubtful  whether  it  can  be  adopted  to  advantage,  except  on  lands 
in  the  vicinity  of  great  cities,  or  on  farms  rediiced  to  a  state  of  great  im- 
provement and  high  cultivation,  or  on  very  small  farms.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  the  lands  of  New  England,  and  indeed  in  other  parts  of  our 
country,  are  too  rough  and  rocky  to  admit  of  any  sort  of  cultivation,  yet 
they  answer  well  for  pasture  grounds,  and  to  no  other  purpose  can  they 
be  appropriated. 

Still,  it  is  believed,  that,  under  certain  circumstances,  soihng  may  be 
resorted  to  with  great  advantage.  Within  a  few  years,  an  experiment 
has  been  made  by  the  Hon.  Josiah  Q,uincy,  of  Massachusetts,  of  soiling 
cattle,  the  result  of  which  was  communicated  for  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Journal,  and  is  published  in  vol.  VI.  Nos.  II.  and  IV.  of  that 
work.  According  to  Mr.  Q,uincv,  the  advantages  of  soiling  consist  in, 
"1st.  the  saving  of  land.  2d.  't'he  saving  of  fencing.  3d.  The  econo- 
mising of  food.  4th.  The  better  condition  and  greater  comfort  of  the  cat- 
tle. 5th.  Thegrealerproduct  of  milk.  6th.  The  attainment  of  manure." 
For  an  illustration  of  these  several  particulars,  we  iimst  refer  our  readers 
to  the  above  work. 

In  respect  to  stall-feeding  neat  cattle,  it  may  be  observed,  that  good  hay 
is  undoubtedly  the  best  for  fattening  cattle,  when  judiciously  combined 
with  cabbages,  carrots,  parsnips,  turnips,  or  similar  succulent  plants, 
though  hay  will  rarely  be  found  capal)le  of  fattening  animals,  without  the 
aid  of  other  food  when  finishing  off  for  the  market. 

In  England,  great  use  is  made  of  the  cal)bage,  and  which  the  Editors 
of  the  Complete  Grazier  say,  will  fatten  oxen  or  bullocks,  when  com- 
bined with  good  hay,  in  the  short  space  of  five  months,  besides  yielding 
a  larger  quantity  of  manure,  than  almost  any  other  article  used  for 
winter  feed. 

Parsnips,  also,  have  been  employed  to  considerable  extent  in  England 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 39 

FEEDING  CATTLE. 

for  fatting  oxen,  and  the  benefit  thence  derived  in  the  estimation  of 
some  graziers  is  nearly  equal  to  that  derived  from  oil-cake ;  but  they  are 
apt  to  cloy  the  appetite,  and  should  therefore  be  given  with  other  food; 
or,  if  alone,  they  should  not  be  continued  for  a  long  time  together. 

Carrots,  also,  are  an  excellent  root,  not  only  for  fatting  cattle,  but  also 
for  milch  cows  and  even  for  working  horses.  The  butter  made  from 
cows  fed  on  carrots  is  said  to  be  generally  of  an  excellent  quality,  and 
much  richer  in  color.  On  a  good  soil,  and  when  well  attended,  carrot* 
are  often  very  productive. 

Turnips,  especially  when  steamed,  also  supply  a  nutritive  article  of 
winter  food  ;  though  from  their  peculiarly  moist  nature,  they  will  proba- 
bly require  to  be  combined  with  cut  hay,  to  which  a  little  meal  may  oc- 
casionally be  added.  In  England,  it  is  well  known,  turnips  are  much 
more  abundantly  used  than  in  this  country.  Great  numbers  of  cattle, 
it  is  said,  are  annually  fatted  for  the  London  market  on  little  other  food 
than  turnips. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  Mangle  wurzel,  or  root  of  scarcity,  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  Some  years  since  the  highest  expecta- 
tions were  formed  in  Britain  respecting  its  usefulness,  as  an  article  of 
fodder.  Although  highly  esteemed  in  that  country,  especially  for  cows, 
it  is  not  so  much  valued,  perhaps,  as  in  some  parts  of  the  continent,  where 
it  is  preferred  for  feeding  cattle  to  every  other  root.  In  this  country,  it  is 
now  frequently  raised  and  deserves  to  be  cultivated  still  more  than  it  is. 
In  the  opinion  of  the  editors  of  the  Complete  Grazier,  it  does  not  fat  cattle 
:ia  fast  as  the  potatoe,  and  some  other  roots. 

In  this  country,  potatoes  are  extensively  used  for  the  stall  feeding  of 
cattle.  They  are  generally  given  in  a  raw  state,  but  would  doubtless 
answer  a  better  purpose  if  steamed.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  give 
cattle  a  sufficient  quantity,  in  consequence  of  their  causing  them  to  scour. 
When  this  happens,  meal  or  other  dry  food  should  be  administered,  and 
the  quantity  of  potatoes,  for  the -time,  diminished.  The  editor  of  this 
work  has  known  an  ox  of  middle  age  to  be  fatted  surprisingly  quick, 
on  hay  of  good  quality  and  raw  potatoes.  No  other  article  of  food  was 
given,  and  during  the  process  of  fattening  not  a  gallon  of  water  was 
given  to  the  animal. 

Besides  the  above  vegetable  productions,  others  might  be  mentioned, 
such  as  the  ruta  baga,  or  Swedish  turnip,  sugar  beet,  &c.  which  are 
highly  valued  in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Passing  over  a  more  ex- 
tended notice  of  these,  we  proceed  to  detail  a  few  hints  respecting  other 
articles  which  are  or  may  be  likewise  employed  with  advantage.  For 
this  purpose  Unseed  oilcake  has  long  been  celebrated  as  eminently  use- 
ful ;  it  is  asserted  to  have  a  very  extraordinary  eti'ect  on  cows,  greatly 
increasing  their  milk  ;  but  it  is  said  that  linseed  jelly  Is  much  superior  to 
the  cake,  and  that  when  mixed  with  a  due  proportion  of  hay  or  meal 
affords  an  excellent  composition  for  stall  feeding  and  fattening.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner:  To  seven  parts  of  water  let  one  par:,  of 
linseed  be  put,  for  forty-eight  hours  ;  then  boil  it  slowly  for  two  hours, 
gently  stirring  the  whole  lest  it  should  burn.  Afterwards  it  ought  to  be 
cooled  in  tubs,  and  mixed  with  meal,  bran,  or  cut  chati',  in  the  proportion 
of  one  bushel  of  hay  to  the  jelly  produced  by  one  quart  of  linseed,  well 
mashed  together.  This  quantity  given  daily,  with  other  food,  will  for- 
ward cattle  rapidly  ;  but  it  must  be  increased'  when  they  are  intended  to 
bw  completely  fattened. 


40  FAMILY 


FEEDING  CATTLE. 


The  above  jelly  is  said  to  be  more  agreeable  to  cattle  than  cake,  whiler 
it  renders  them  less  liable  to  surfeit  in  case  an  extra  quantity  should  be 
accidentally  given,  and  is  less  liable  to  aftect  the  meat  with  a  peculiar 
taste  than  either  oil  or  cake,  and  consequently  it  merits  a  trial ;  but  it  will 
be  requisite  to  change  this  food  about  a  month  before  the  beast  is  killed, 
to  prevent,  il'  possible,  the  flesh  from  retaining  the  flavor  of  the  oilcake 
or  jelly. 

Cattle  fed  on  sour  food,  prepared  hy  fermenting  rye  flour  and  water  int© 
a  kind  of  paste,  juid  then  diluted  with  water,  and  thickened  with  hay  cut 
small,  are  also  said  to  fatten  quickly.  This  practice  chiefly  prevails  in 
France.  Concerning  the  eflicacy  of  acid  food  in  fattening  animals,  there 
is  much  difference  of  opinion.  It  is  well  known  that  bogs  derive  more 
l)enefit  from  sour  milk  and  swill  than  when  those  articles  are  in  a  fresh 
state ;  and  it  is  highly  probable,  that  sour  articles  may  contribute  to  pro- 
mote digestion,  and  by  facilitating  the  consumption  of  a  large  quantity  of 
food  in  a  stated  period,  consequently  expedite  the  fattenijig  of  cattle. 
Brewer's  grains  are  sometimes  used  in  that  state ;  but  distiller's  grams 
differ  from  them  in  having  a  proportion  of  rye  frequently  mixed  with 
the  malt,  which  renders  them  more  naturally  sour.  But  such  acid 
messes  can  only,  we  conceive,  be  considered  as  preparatory  to  the  more 
forcing  and  essential  articles  of  dry  food ;  without  which,  it  is  scarcely 
l>ossible  tliat  any  steer,  or  bullock  can  acquire  that  firmness  of  muscle  and 
fat  which  is  so  deservedly  admired,  and  considered  as  the  criterion  of 
excellence. 

The  wash,  or  refuse  of  malt,  remaining  after  distillation,  which  wa» 
formerly  applied  exclusively  to  the  feeding  of  swine,  has  of  late  years 
been  applied  with  success  to  the  stall  feeding  of  cattle.  It  is  conveyed 
from  the  distillery  in  large  carts,  closely  covered,  and  well  jointed,  in 
order  to  prevent  leaking.  The  hquor  is  then  discharged  into  vats,  or 
other  vessels,  and  when  these  are  about  two-thirds  filled,  a  quantity  of 
sweet  hay,  previously  cut  small,  is  immersed  for  two  or  three  days,  that 
the  wash  may  imbibe  the  taste  or  flavor  of  the  hay  before  it  is  used.  lu 
tliis  state  it  is  carried  to  the  stalls,  and  poured  into  trougks,  whence  it 
is  generfilly  eagerly  eaten  by  cattle.  Sometimes,  however,  the  beasts  are 
at  first  averse  to  this  mixture,  in  which  case  it  has  been  recommended 
frequently  to  sprinkle  their  hay  with  the  wash  ;  thus,  having  the  smel! 
conthmally  before  them,  and  seeing  other  animals  eating  the  same  compo- 
fcition  with  avidity,  they  gradually  become  accustomed  to  it,  and  at  length 
greatly  relish  it.  The  cattle  fed  in  this  manner,  are  asserted  not  only  to 
repay  the  expense  of  their  keeping  by  fattening  speedily,  but  also  yield 
a  large  quantity  of  valuable  manure. 

With  ^ual  success  has  molasses  or  treacle  been  employed;  though  the 
expense  incurred  by  the  use  of  this  article  will  probably  prevent  its  gene- 
ral adoption  in  this  country.  It  has  been  used  in  the  West  Indies,  in 
combination  with  farrinaceous  substances,  and,  when  these  could  not  be 
procured,  with  cane-lops,  oilcake,  and  other  articles  of  dry  food,  together 
with  a  little  hay,  or  not  too  green  fodder,  and  has  been  found  greatly  to 
expedite  the  fattening  of  cattle  in  general,  and  •fold  and  decayed  oxen  in 
particular;  in  the  proportion  of  half  a  pint  to  a  pint  of  molasses,  twice  ia 
the  day,  to  animals  which  have  been  exhausted  by  contiimal  and  severe 
labor  ibr  a  long  series  of  years. 

In  the  preceding  factu  and  statements  we  have  referred  chiefly  to  the 
feeding  and  fattening  of  middle  aged  and  old  cattle;  young  stock,  hov:- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  41 

FEEDING  CATTLE. 

ever,  require  particular  attention,  lest  their  growth  be  impeded — which 
uo  summer  food  can  restore — and  therefore  should  be  fed  on  the  best 
and  most  nutritive  food  the  farm  can  supply.  Hence,  yearlings  should 
be  fed  during  tlie  winter  with  hay,  turnips,  carrots,  potatoes,  or  other 
roots:  where  hay  cannot  be  obtained,  good  straw  must  be  substituted, 
the  proportion  of  roots  being  increased  and  given  with  attention.  For 
steers  and  heifers  two  years  old,  the  proper  food  is  hay,  if  it  be  cheap,  or 
straw,  witli  baits  of  turnips,  cabbages,  carrots,  &c.  In  summer  their 
Ibod  varies  so  little  from  that  above  specified,  as  to  require  no  particular 
details  on  this  head. 

With  regard  to  oxen  used  in  draught,  it  should  be  observed,  that  they 
ought  to  be  well  fed,  and  eveiy  attention  bestowed,  that  no  food  be  wasted, 
while  they  are  to  be  kept  in  constant  employ,  particularly  in  the  com- 
mencement of  spring  and  in  autumn,  when  their  labor  is  most  wanted. 

Some  farmers  indeed  endeavor  to  support  working  oxen  on  straw 
alone,  and  the  possibility  of  this  is  one  great  argument  used  in  favor  of 
their  employment ;  but  it  will  be  generally  found  to  injure  them  in  a 
greater  proportion  than  the  saving  in  food. 

Next  to  a  proper  stock  of  keep  for  cattle,  is  regtdarity  in  giving  tJiem 
food.  In  stall  feeding  it  is  too  common  a  practice  to  give  a  certain 
mess,  or  allowance,  every  day,  without  regard  to  any  circumstance; 
the  absurdity  of  which  conduct  is  too  obvious  to  be  here  pointed  out. 
It  is  a  fact,  that  a  bullock,  or  a  fattening  beast  will  eat  with  a  keener 
appetite  on  a  cold  day,  than  in  warm  damp  weather ;  hence  his  food 
ought  to  be  proportioned  accordingly.  By  giving  the  same  quantity 
every  day,  the  animal  may  be  cloyed ;  thus  his  appetite  becomes  im- 
paired, tlie  food  is  wasted,  and  several  days  will  necessarily  elapse  be- 
fore he  can  recover  his  natural  appetite.  By  such  delay  he  must  fall 
away,  and  many  weeks,  perhaps  months,  will  be  required  to  bring  him  to 
his  former  flesh. 

Animals  have  been  not  uncommonly  supposed  to  consume  a  quantity 
of  food  in  proportion  to  their  weight:  but  this  is  purely  theoretical;  for 
in  fact,  various  experiments  have  proved  that  although  small  cattle  may 
be  supported  on  pastures  that  will  not  carry  heavy  beasts,  and  also  on 
more  indifferent  soiling  food,  yet,  when  put  up  to  fatten  the  difference  is 
of  no  account  in  proportion  to  their  weight ;  though  cattle  of  the  same 
weight  and  breed  will  sometimes  consume  different  quantities. 

But  whatever  articles  of  food  may  be  given,  they  ought  to  be  appor- 
tioned with  as  much  regard  to  regidarity  of  time  and  quantity  as  is  practi- 
cable ;  and  if  any  small  part  be  at  any  time  left  unconsumed,  it  should 
be  removed  before  tlie  next  feed  is  given,  otherwise  the  beast  will  loath  it. 
Hence  three  periods  of  the  day,  as  nearly  equidistant  as  possible^  should 
be  selected,  when  such  an  allowance  should  be  given  to  each  animal  a» 
he  can  eat  with  a  good  appetite ;  which  point  can  be  regulated  best  by 
attending  duly  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  or  season,  and  the  progress 
he  makes  in  flesh  ;  for  as  he  fattens,  his  appetite  will  become  more  deli- 
cate, and  he  will  require  more  frequent  feeding,  in  smaller  quantities : 
thus  the  beast  will  improve  progressively  and  uniformly,  while  a  trifling 
loss  of  food  only  can  occur  by  this  method. 

Of  equal  if  not  superior  importance  with  regularity  in  feeding,  i» 
cleanliness,  a  regard  to  which  is  admitted,  by  all  intelligent  breeders,  to 
be  one  of  the  most  essential  requisites  to  the  prosperity  of  cattle.    The 

d2 


42  FAMILY 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY. 


mangers  snd  stalls  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible ;  and  the  former 
especially  should  be  cleared  every  morning  from  dust  and  filth ;  other- 
wise they  acquire  a  sour  and  offensive  smell  from  the  decay  of  vegetable 
matter  left  in  them ;  which  nauseates  the  cattle  and  prevents  their  feed- 
ing. After  the  stalls  have  been  cleansed  by  constantly  removing  the 
dung  and  sweeping  the  pavement,  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  litter 
ought  to  be  strewed  over,  which  will  invite  them  to  lie  down  ;  for  nothing 
contributes  more  to  expedite  the  fattening  of  cattle  than  moderate  warmth, 
ease,  and  repose.  In  fact,  where  straw  can  be  obtained  at  a  moderate 
price,  supposing  the  farm  does  not  yield  an  adequate  supply  for  this 
purpose,  the  stalls  and  farm  yards  ought  always  to  be  well  littered,  espe- 
cially during  the  winter  season. 

The  quantity  of  manure  thus  made  is  an  essential  object ;  for  it  ha.<? 
been  found  that  forty-five  oxen,  littered,  while  fatting,  with  twenty  wag- 
gon loads  of  stuble,  have  made  two  hundred  loads,  each  three  tons,  of  rotten 
dung.  Every  load  of  hay  and  litter,  given  to  beasts  fatiing  on  oil-cake, 
yields  seven  loads  of  dung,  of  one  ton  and  a  half  each,  exclusive  of  the 
weight  of  the  cake.  And  on  comparing  the  dung  obtained  by  feeding 
with  oil-c{ike  with  that  of  the  common  farm-yard,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  eftects  produced  by  spreading  twelve  loads  of  the  former  on  an  acre, 
considerably  exceeded  those  of  twenty-four  loads  of  the  latter  manure. 
It  is,  in  fact,  invariably  found  that  the  value  of  the  manure  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  nutriment  contained  in  the  aliment.  By  another  trial  it 
appears,  that  thirty-six  cows  and  four  horses,  when  tied  up,  ate  fifty  tons 
ofhay,  and  had  twenty  acres  of  straw  for  litter;  they  made  two  hundred 
loadsof  dung,  in  rotten  order  for  the  land : — a  difference  in  weight  which 
is  accounted  for  by  tlie  absorption  of  moisture  by  straw. 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  ECONOMY  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY. 


OF  Mir.CH  KINE,  AND  OF  THE  PASTURE  AND  OTHER  FOOD  BEST  CALCULATED 
FOR  dt)WS,  AS  IT  RESPECTS  THEIR  MILK. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark,  that  the  fiinner  should  take 
especial  care  to  select  his  stock  with  reference  to  the  great  object  he  has 
in  view.  This  is  eminently  true  in  respect  to  the  particular  branch  of 
rfairyin^,  which  he  means  to  pursue;  for  if  his  object  be  to  sell  or  suckle 
calves,  ^yuan/i/y  must  be  the  material  consideration;  and  qualUy,  if  he 
means  to  produce  butter  and  cheese- 
It  is  a  general  observation  that  the  richest  milk  is  produced  by  the  red 
cow,  while  the  black  sort  is  reckoned  best  for  the  purpose  of  breeding,  a» 
her  calf  is  u.sually  both  stronger  and  more  healthy  than  the  offspring  of 
the  red  species.  This,  however,  is  one  of  those  errors  which  have  been 
transmitted,  through  a  long  series  of  years,  without  being  founded  on 
fact.  The  red  cows  have,  indeed,  been  long  celebrated  for  the  excellen- 
cy of  their  milk ;  and  the  calves  of  black  cows  have  been  proverbially 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 43 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY. 

deemed  good ;  but  color  in  this  respect  is  a  matter  of  no  moment ;  the 
breed  alone  should  ciaim  the  farmer's  attention.  But  cows  even  of  the 
same,  and  of  the  best  breeds,  will  not  always  yield  the  same  quantity  of 
milk  ;  and  of  those  which  yield  the  most,  it  is  not  unfrequently  deficient 
in  richness.  Trials,  are,  however,  easily  made,  by  keeping  the 
cows  on  the  same  food,  weighing  the  quantity  consumed  by  each,  and 
measuring  their  milk  ;  then  keeping  and  churning  it,  a  few  times,  sepa- 
rately :  thus,  reckoning  the  cost  of  the  provender,  and  the  produce  of 
the  milk  of  each,  and  comparing  the  result,  it  will  be  soon  discovered 
which  is  the  most  profitable  animal.  Comparisons  of  this  kind  are  not 
often  made ;  for  farmers  usually  purchase  whatever  stock  they  can  most 
conveniently,  or  most  cheaply,  lay  their  hands  on ;  and  are  then  content 
to  keep  them  so  long  as  they  turn  out  tolerably  well.  This,  however,  is 
the  height  of  bad  economy ;  for  an  indifferent  cow  will  eat  as  much  and 
require  as  much  attendance  as  the  best ;  and  thus  occasions  a  daily  loss, 
that  will  soon  exceed  any  probable  saving  in  the  original  price ;  whereas 
the  man  who  takes  the  pains  to  acquire  a  good  stock,  and  has  the  sense 
to  keep  it,  lays  the  sure  foundation  of  a  fortune. 

Whatever  breed  may  be  selected,  there  is  still  a  material  distinction  to 
be  observed  between  the  form  of  a  cow,  intended  for  the  dairy,  and  that 
of  one  intended  for  fatting.  While  the  latter  should  possess,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  till  the  most  remarkable  points,  already  described,  of  the  best 
oxen,  tiie  milch  cow  should,  on  the  contrary,  be  thin  and  hollow  in  the 
neck ;  narrow  in  the  breast  and  point  of  the  shoulder,  and  altogether 
light  in  the  fore  quarter ;  with  little  dewlap,  and  neither  full  fleshed  along 
the  chine,  nor  shewing,  in  any  part,  much  indication  of  a  disposition  in 
any  part  to  put  on  fat.  The  hide  should  be  thin,  the  hair  fine,  and  the  tail 
small.  But  especially  the  udder  should  be  full  and  round,  yet  thin  to  the 
touch,  and  shotdd  be  of  equal  size  and  substance  throughout.  If  it  shews 
more  behind  than  before,  it  is  deemed  a  sign  of  the  milk  falling  off  soon 
after  calving,  and  if  it  feel  coarse  and  lumpy,  the  bag  will  be  found  not 
to  contain  a  large  quantity.  The  teats  should  st;md  square,  at  equal  dis- 
tances, and  should  be  neither  very  large  nor  very  thick  towards  the 
udder,  but  nearly  equal,  yet  ending  in  a  point.  Another  very  material 
consideration  is  the  temper;  for  findly  cows  will  not  only  give  less 
trouble  than  those  of  an  opposite  disposition,  but  they  are  generally 
marked  to  possess  a  greater  quantity  of  milk ;  and  from  parting  with  it 
more  readily,  they  are  less  subject  to  fall  off  in  their  milking. 

As  the  nature  of  the  grass,  or  other  vegetables,  has  a  very  considerable 
influence  both  on  the  quality  and  on  the  quantity  of  milk  which  cows 
produce,  the  attention  of  the  industrious  farmer  wdl,  of  course,  be  direct- 
ed to  this  point ;  for,  as  instances  have  occurred,  where  six  milch  kine, 
fed  on  some  pastures,  have  yielded  as  much  milk  as  nine,  or  even  a  dozen 
will  artbrd  on  an  inferior  ground,  it  is  obviously  his  interest  to  have  his 
cows  well  fed  and  in  good  condition,  rather  than  to  keep  up  a  particular 
number,  without  heeding  whether  they  are  properly  supplied  or  not. 
Hence,  it  will  be  proper  to  suit  the  milch  cows  to  the  nature  and  fertility 
of  the  soil ;  and  on  no  account  to  purchase  them  from  pastures  superior 
to  those  destined  for  their  reception. 

The  feeding  of  milch  kine  is  divided  into  two  branches,  viz.  pasturing 
and  home-feeding. 

In  order  to  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of  good  milk,  where  the  pastur- 
ing of  cows  is  adopted,  they  ought  uniformly  to  be  well  fed ;   for  this 


44  FAMILY 


MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  DAIRY 


purpose,  grass  growing  spontaneously  on  good,  sound  meadow  land  is. 
in  general  deemed  the  most  proper  food.  Another  requisite  is,  that  the 
grass  be  plentifully  produced,  and  of  that  quality  which  is  relished  by  the 
cattle.  This  property  will  generally  be  found  in  old  natural  pastures  that 
have  been  properly  managed. 

Long,  rank  grass,  growing  in  orchards  or  other  places,  in  general  feeds 
well,  and  produces  a  flush  of  milk,  yet  such  milk  will  neither  be  so  rich, 
nor  carry  so  much  cream  in  proportion,  as  the  milk  of  those  cows  which 
are  fed  upon  short  fine  grass ;  nor,  of  course,  will  their  butter  be  so  good. 

Further,  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  is  materially  affected  by  driv- 
ing them  to  a  distance  from  one  pasture  to  another ;  hence  it  will  be  proper 
to  have  the  cow  sheds  in  as  central  a  part  of  the  farm  as  possible.  It  is 
also  of  essential  importance  to  have  pastures  inclosed,  as  the  produce  of 
milch  kine  will  be  greatly  improved,  or  deteriorated,  according  to  the 
attention  or  disregard  bestowed  on  this  point ;  for,  when  confined  within 
proper  inclosures  they  not  only  feed  more  leisurely  but  are  also  less  liable 
to  disturbance  than  when  they  wander  into  other  fields. 

In  summer,  milch  cows  need  less  care  ;  but  in  winter,  they  shonld  be 
stabled,  or  at  least  should  have  warm  sheltered  yards,  furnished  with  open 
sheds,  in  which  they  can  feed  without  exposure  to  the  severities  of  the 
weather;  a  measure,  of  which  the  expense  will  be  more  than  counter- 
balanced by  the  increased  quantity  of  milk,  which  they  will  yield. 

In  the  management  of  milch  kine,  it  is  essential  that  they  be,  at  all  times, 
as  has  been  observed  in  the  preceding  page,  kept  in  high  health  and 
good  condition ;  for  if  they  are  suffered  to  fall  in  flesh  during  the  winter, 
it  will  be  impossible  to  expect  an  abundant  supply  of  milk  by  bringing 
them  into  a  high  condition  in  the  summer.  Hence,  if  cows  are  lean  when 
calving,  no  subsequent  management  can  bring  them  to  yield,  for  that  sea- 
son, any  thing  like  the  quantity  they  would  have  furnished,  in  case  they 
had  been  well  kept  throughout  the  winter.  During  that  inclement  season, 
therefore,  the  most  nutritious  food  should  be  provided  for  them,  and  the 
animals  kept  in  warm  stables;  for  beasts  will  not  eat  so  much  when  kept 
warm,  as  when  they  are  shivering  with  cold;  and  if  they  are  curried  in  the 
same  manner,  and  kept  cleanly  as  horses  in  a  stable,  the  happiest  conse- 
quences will  ensue,  both  in  regard  to  the  milk  they  yield,  and  the  rapid 
improvement  of  the  cows  themselves.  Such  is  the  practice  pursued  m 
Holland,  where  it  is  well  known  that  the  management  of  cows  is  carried 
to  the  highest  perfection  ;  and  if  that  be  closely  followed,  if  they  be  well 
supplied  with  the  purest  water,  kept  very  clean,  and  laid  dry,  they  will 
produce  milk  more  copiously,  and  afford  a  quantity  of  rich  manure  that  will 
amply  repay  the  trouble  and  attention  thus  bestowed  on  them. 

It  has  already  been  intimated  that  the  best  summer  food  for  cows  is  good 
grass,  spontaneously  growing  on  sound  meadows.  The  other  additions  to 
hay  for  winter  food  arc  those  most  commonly  employed  for  fatting  cattle : 
parsnips  and  carrots,  which  roots  not  only  render  the  milk  richer,  but  also 
communicate  to  the  butter  made  from  such  milk,  a  fine  color,  equal  to  that 
produced  by  the  most  luxuriant  grasses: — the  mav gel-tour zel,  which,  on 
the  continent,  is  preferred  to  every  other  vegetable  for  feeding  cattle  in 
general : — potatoes,  on  which  cows  will  thrive  well,  so  that  with  one  bushel 
of  these  roots,  together  with  soft  meadow-hay,  they  have  been  known  to 
yield  as  large  a  quantity  of  sweet  milk,  or  butter,  as  they  usually  afford 
when  fed  on  the  finest  pastures ;  but  alone,  it  has  been  proved  by  vaiious 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. '      45 

MAKING  AND  PRESERVING  BUTTER. 

experiments  that  potatoes  will  not  support  a  cow  m  milk;  they  may  add 
to  the  flow  of  it  when  given  to  a  cow  with  hay,  but  the  chief  dependence 
must  be  upon  the  latter ;  carrots  are  far  superior.  CaWoo^cs  are  likewise 
of  emment  service  in  this  respect,  but  they  require  to  be  given  with  a  good 
portion  of  fine  hay  ;  and  as  well  as  turnips,  the  utility  of  which  is  too  well 
known  to  require  any  particular  detail  here  ;  they  are  apt  to  impart  an  un- 
pleasant flavor  to  butter,  unless  great  care  be  taken  to  reniove  all  the  decay- 
ed leaves.  And  even  then  if  a  cow  be  in  any  wise  full  fed  on  turnips,  her 
milk,  and  the  butter  made  from  it  will  taste  of  it.  To  avoid  this  taste  in 
the  butter,  the  following  receipe  from  Hunter's  Georgical  Essays  may  be 
found  useful. — "  Let  the  vessels  in  wliich  the  milk  is  put,  be  kppt  con- 
stantly clean  and  well  scalded  with  boiling  water  before  nsing.  When 
the  milk  is  brought  into  the  dairy,  to  every  eight  quarts  of  milk,  mix  one 
quart  of  boiling  water:  then  put  up  the  milk  into  the  pans  to  stand  for 
cream." — liowen  grass,  also,  dried  and  reserved  for  winter's  use,  is  an  ex- 
cellent food  for  milch  cows;  as  are  oil-cake,  linsccd-jelly ,  and  grains.  By 
the  judicious  use  of  these  various  articles,  together  with  a  due  admixture 
of  dry  food,  considerable  nutriment  is  thrown  into  the  system,  while  the 
regular  secretions  will  be  excited,  and  the  quality  of  the  milk  very  materi- 
ally improved. 

It  is  important,  also,  that  due  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  salting  of 
cows,  as  well  as  other  cattle.     The  advantages  of  salt,  are 

I.  It  restores  the  tone  of  the  stomach  when  impaired  by  excess  in  other 
food,  and  corrects  the  crudity  of  moist  vegetables  and  grasses  in  a  green 
state. 

II.  It  helps  digestion,  keeps  the  body  cool,  by  which  many  disorders 
are  prevented ;  and  it  destroys  botts. 

III.  It  renders  inferior  food  palateable ;  and  is  so  much  relished  by 
cattle,  that  they  seek  it  with  eagerness  in  whatever  state  it  may  be  found, 
and  have  been  rendered  so  tame  by  its  use,  that  if  they  stray  from  their 
pastures,  they  will  return  at  the  usual  time  for  their  accustomed  allowance. 

IV.  When  given  to  cows,  it  increases  the  quantity  of  their  milk,  and 
has  a  material  effect  in  correcting  the  disagreeable  taste  it  acquires  from 
turnips. 


OF   THE    MANAOEMENT   OF   MILK  AXD   CREAM  ;   AND   THE    MAKING   ASD 
PRESERVING    OF    BUTTER. 

Be.'bre  speaking  of  the  management  of  milk  andcream.it  will  be  proper 
to  make  a  few  observations  on  the  Situation,  and  Buildings  proper  for  a 
Dairy. 

I.  A  dairy  ought  if  possible  to  be  so  arranged,  that  its  lattices  may  never 
front  the  south,  south  west,  south  east,  or  west; — a  northern  aspect  is  the 
best ;  but  there  should  be  openings  on  two  sides  of  the  building,  in  order  to 
admit,  when  necessary,  a  free  current  of  air. 

II.  The  temperature  of  the  milk-room,  should  be  as  nearly  uniform  as 
possible,  that  is  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  degrees  of  Farenheit's  thermometer. 
This  may  be  effected  by  making  use  either  of  a  well  ventilated  celhr.  or, 
of  a  house  constructed  for  the  purpose,  consisting  of  double  walls,  so  thick 
as  not  to  subject  the  interior  to  tho  changes  of  temperature  abroad. 


46  FAMILY 


MAKING  AND  PRESERVING  BUTTER. 

III.  As  great  cleanliness  is  requisite,  and  at  the  same  time  coolness,  the 
floor  should  be  made  of  stones,  bricks,  or  tiles,  in  order  that  it  may  be  fre- 
qaently  washed,  both  to  sweeten  and  to  cool  the  air. 

IV.  If  practicable,  a  small  current  of  water  should  be  so  introduced  as 
to  run  in  a  constant  stream  along  the  pavement.  This  will  contribute 
much  to  preserve  the  air,  pure,  fresh,  and  cool.  If  a  current  of  water 
cannot  be  obtained  an  ice-house  should  be  attached  to  the  dairy. 

V.  Cream  which  is  put  by  for  churning  ought  never  to  be  kept  in  that 
apartment,  which  contains  the  milk ;  because  acidity  m  cream  ia  expected, 
and  necessary  before  butter  will  come. 

VI.  If  necessary  at  any  time  during  the  winter  months  to  raise  the  tern* 
perature  of  the  milk  room,  hot  water  should  be  made  use  of,  or  a  few  hot 
bricks ;  but  on  no  account  whatever,  should  a  chafing  dish  with  burning 
coals  be  used,  as  it  will  certainly  impart  a  bad  taste  to  the  milk. 

We  shall  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  management  of  milk  and  cream, 
and  the  making  and  preserving  of  butter. 

In  this  countiy,  it  is  the  general  practice  to  milk  cows  twice  in  the 
course  oC  twenty-fou^ hours,  throughout  the  year;  but  in  summer  the 
proper  periods  are,  at  least  three  times  every  day,  and  at  intervals  as 
nearly  equidistant  as  possFbte ;  viz.  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  a  little 
before  the  approach  of  night.  For  it  is  a  fact,  confirmed  by  the  experi- 
ence of  those  who  have  tried  it,  that  cows,  when  milked  thrice  in  the  day 
will  yield  more  milk  in  point  of  quantity,  and  as  good,  if  not  better  quali- 
ty, than  they  will  under  the  common  mode  of  mUking  only  on  tlie  morn- 
ing and  evening. 

With  regard  to  the  process  of  making  butter  we  would  observe : 

I.  The  milk  first  drawn  from  a  cow  is  always  thinner,  and  inferior  in 
quality  to  that  afterwards  obtained,  and  this  richness  increases  progress- 
ively to  the  very  last  drop  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  udder. 

II.  The  portion  of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface,  is  richer  in  point 
of  quality,  and  greater  in  quantity,  than  tliat  which  rises  in  the  second 
equal  space  of  time,  and  so  of  the  rest;  the  cream  continually  decreas- 
ing, and  growing  worse  than  the  preceding. 

III.  Thick  milk  produces  a  smaller  proportion  of  cream  than  that 
which  is  thinner,  though  the  cream  of  the  former  is  of  a  richer  quality. 
If  thick  milk,  therefore,  be  diluted  with  water,  it  will  afford  more  cream 
than  it  would  have  yielded  in  its  puKe  state,  though  its  quaUty  will  at  the 
same  time  be  inferior. 

IV.  Milk  carried  about  in  pails,  or  other  vo.s.sels,  agitated  and  partly 
cooled  before  it  be  poured  into  the  milk  pans,  never  throws  up  such 
good  and  plentiful  cream  as  if  it  had  been  put  into  proper  vessels  im* 
mediately  after  it  came  from  the  cow. 

From  th'^se  fundamental  facts,  many  very  important  corollaries  serv- 
ing to  direct  the  practice,  may  be  deduced,  among  which  we  can  only 
notice  the  following : 

I.  It  is  evidently  of  much  importance,  that  the  cows  should  l)e  always 
milked  as  nearth«  dairy  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  necessity  of  carrying 
and  cooling  the  milk  before  it  be  put  into  the  dishes ;  and  as  cows  are 
much  hurt  by  far  driving,  it  must  be  a  great  advantage  in  a  dairy  farm 
to  have  the  principal  grass  fields  as  near  the  dairy  or  homestead  as  pos- 
sible.    In  this  point  of  view,  also,  the  practice  of  feeding  cows  in  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 47 

MAKING  AND  PRESERVING  BUTTER. 

house,  rather  than  turning  them  out  to  pasture  in  the  field,  must  appear 
to  be  obviously  beneficial. 

II.  The  practice  of  putting  the  milk  of  all  the  cows  of  a  large  dairy 
into  one  ves.sel,  as  it  is  milked,  there  to  remain  till  the  whole  milking 
be  finished,  before  any  part  is  put  into  the  milk  pans,  seems  to  be  highly 
injudicious,  not  only  on  account  of  the  loss  sustained  by  the  agitation 
and  cooling;  but  also,  and  more  especially,  because  It  prevents  the  own- 
er of  the  dairy  from  distinguishing  the  good  from  the  bad  cow's  milk, 
so  as  to  enlighten  his  judgment  respecting  the  profit  that  he  may  derive 
from  each.  Without  this  precaution,  he  may  have  the  whole  of  his  dairy  - 
produce  greatly  debased  by  the  milk  of  one  bad  cow,  for  years  together, 
without  being  able  to  disover  it.  A  better  practice,  therefore,  would  be, 
to  have  the  milk  drawn  from  each  cow  separately,  put  into  the  creaming- 
pans  as  soon  as  milked,  without  being  ever  mixed  with  any  other; 
and  if  these  pans  were  all  made  of  such  a  size  as  to  be  able  to  contain 
the  whole  of  one  cow's  milk,  each  in  a  separate  pan,  the  careful  dairy  wo- 
man would  thus  be  able  to  remark,  without  any  trouble,  the  quantity  of 
milk  afforded  by  each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  qualities 
of  the  cow's  milk.  And  if  the  same  cow's  milk  were  always  to  be  pla- 
ced on  the  same  part  of  the  shelf,  having  the  cow's  name  written  beneath, 
there  never  could  be  the  smallest  difficulty  in  ascertaining  which  of  the 
cows  it  would  be  the  owner's  interest  to  dispose  of,  and  which  he  ought 
to  keep  and  breed  from. 

A  small  quantity  of  clear  water,  cold  in  summer,  and  warm  in  winter, 
put  into  the  bottom  of  the  milk-pan,  is  said  to  assist  the  rising  of  the 
cream. 

III.  If  It  be  intended  to  make  butter  of  a  very  fine  quality,  it  will  be 
advisable,  not  only  to  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  all  those  cows  which 
yield  cream  of  a  bad  quality,  but  also,  in  every  case,  to  keep  the  milk 
that  I's  first  drawn  from  the  cow,  at  each  milking,  entirely  separate  from 
that  which  is  got  last ;  as  it  is  obvious,  if  this  be  not  done,  the  quality 
of  the  butter  must  be  greatly  debased,  without  much  augmenting  its 
quantity.  It  is  also  obvious,  that  the  quality  of  the  butter  w  ill  be  im- 
proved in  proportion  to  the  smallness  of  the  quantity  of  the  last  drawn 
milk  which  is  used,  as  it  increases  in  richness  to  the  very  last  drop  that 
can  be  drawn  from  the  udder  at  that  time ;  so  that  those  who  wish  to 
be  singularly  nice,  will  do  well  to  keep  for  their  best  butter  a  rcr^  STnall 
proportion  only  of  the  last-drawn  milk. 

With  respect  to  the  operation  of  churning,  we  would  particularly  re- 
mark, that  it  ought  to  be  reguhirly  continued,  till  the  butter  is  come,  or 
formed ;  nor,  unless  from  absolute  and  irremediable  necessity,  should 
any  assistant  be  allowed  to  churn;  because,  if  the  motion  be,  in  summer, 
too  quick,  the  butter  will  in  consequence  ferment  and  become  ill-tasted ; 
and,  in  winter,  it  will^^o  hack.  The  business  of  churning  may,  however, 
be  much  facilitated,  by  immersing  the  pump-churn  (ifsuch  be  employed) 
about  one  foot  deep  into  a  vessel  of  cold  water,  and  continuing  it  there 
till  the  butter  is  made.  Where  other  churns  are  made  use  of,  the  addi- 
tion of  one  or  two  table-spoonsful  of  distilled  vinegar,  after  the  cream 
has  been  considerably  agitated,  will,  it  is  said,  produce  butter  in  the 
course  of  an  hour.  After  the  butter  is  formed,  the  usual  practice  is  to 
wash  it  in  several  waters  till  all  the  milk  is  removed  ;  but  some  advise 
the  milk  to  be  forced  out  of  the  cavities  of  the  butter  by  means  of  a  flat, 
wooden  ladle,  furnished  with  a  short  handle,  at  the  same  lime  agitating 


48  FAMILY 


MAKING  AND  PRESERVING  BUTTER. 


the  butter  as  little  as  possible,  lest  it  become  tough  and  gluey.  The  bea^ 
ing  of  butter  up  by  the  hand  is  an  indelicate  practice ;  and,  as  it  is 
hurtful  to  the  quality  of  the  butter  to  pour  cold  water  on  it  during 
this  operation,  the  butter,  if  too  soft  to  receive  the  impression  of  the 
mould,  may  be  put  into  small  vessels,  and  these  be  pennitted  to  float 
in  a  trough  of  cold  water  beneath  the  table,  without  wetting  the  butter, 
which  will  soon  become  sufficiently  firm.  Or,  when  butter  is  first 
made,  after  as  much  of  the  milk  has  been  got  out  as  possible,  it  may  be 
thinly  spread  on  a  marble  slab,  and  tlie  remaining  moisture  be  absorbed 
by  patting  it  with  clean  dry  towels. 

Dr.  Anderson  observes  that  wooden  vessels  are  most  proper  for  con- 
taining salted  butter.  Oak  is  said  to  be  the  best  kind  of  wood.  Iron 
hoops  should  not  be  used,  as  the  rust  of  them  will  sink  through  the  wood 
and  injure  the  butter.  It  is  difficult  to  season  new  vessels,  and  there- 
fore it  is  best  to  use  old  ones  as  long  as  they  will  last.  Unslacked  lime, 
salt  and  water  well  boiled,  hot  water,  and  wood  ashes,  are  recommend- 
ed for  scouring  them.  The  vessels  having  been  repeatedly  scrubbed, 
with  some  or  all  of  these,  should  afterwards  be  thrown  into  cold  water 
to  remain  three  or  four  days,  or  till  wanted.  They  should  then  be 
scrubbed  as  before,  and  well  rinsed  with  cold  water,  and  before  the 
butter  is  put  in,  every  part  of  the  inside  should  be  well  rubbed  with 
salt. 

Dr.  Anderson's  famous  recipe  for  preserving  butter  has  been  often 
published,  but  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  give  it  again,  as  things  of  the 
greatest  utihty  are  a  long  time  in  making  their  way  to  general  adoption. 
"  Best  common  salt,  two  parts ;  saltpetre,  one  part ;  sugar,  one  part — 
beat  them  up  together,  so  that  they  may  be  completely  blended.  To 
every  pound  or  sixteen  ojiinces  of  butter  add  one  ounce  of  the  compo- 
sition. Mix  it  well  in  the  mass,  and  close  it  up  for  use."  Butter  pre- 
pared in  this  manner  will  keep  for  years,  and  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  that  recently  salted.  It  should  however  be  remarked,  that  butter 
thus  cured  does  not  taste  well  till  it  has  stood  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks. 
Dr.  Anderson  remarks,  that  he  has  found  by  experience,  that  the  above 
mentioned  composition  not  only  preser^•es  the  butter  more  Pifectually 
from  any  taint  of  rancidity,  but  makes  it  also  look  better,  taste  sweeter, 
richer  and  more  marrowy,  than  if  it  had  been  cured  with  common  salt 
alone. 

A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer  proposes  an  alteration,  which 
he  considers  an  improvement  in  the  above  recipe  of  Dr.  Anderson, 
namely,  that  the  sugar  made  use  of  should  be  loaf  sugar,  and  that  the 
salt  should  be  well  dried  before  weighing  it. 

When  butter  is  put  into  firkins,  or  other  vessels  for  preservation,  it 
should  be  so  closely  packed  and  crowded,  that  no  air  can  come  in  con- 
tact with  it.  The  butter  should  be  carefully  covered  with  a  piece  of 
fine  cloth,  previously  dipped  in  melted  sweet  butter.  When  more  is 
put  into  the  tub,  take  up  the  cloth ;  and  after  that  is  well  crowded  in, 
and  levelled,  put  on  the  cloth  again,  so  nicely  as  to  shut  out  the  air. 
When  tlie  tub  is  filled  in  this  manner,  j)our  a  httle  melted  butter  over  the 
surface  to  fill  up  every  vacuity,  before  llie  top  is  put  on. 

"  For  keeping  butter  sweet  that  is  salted  in  the  usual  way,"  says  the 
Farmer's  Guide,  "  it  should  be  salted  with  an  ounce  and  a  half  more  of 
the  strongest  and  best  salt,  finely  powdered,  to  each  pound,  and  so  tho- 
roughly mixed  that  every  part  may  be  equally  salt ;  made  into  rolls,  aiid 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 49 

MAKING  AND  PRESERVATION  OP  CHEESE. 

then  put  into  a  cask  of  pure  strong  brine ;  and  for  keeping  the  rolls  com- 
pletely immersed  in  this  liquid,  there  should  be  a  cover,  suitable  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  uiside  of  the  cask,  to  be  laid  on  the  rolls,  and  sunk 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  brine  by  a  weight,  which  may  be  a  block  of 
wood,  fastened  to  the  cover,  that  will  sink  only  to  a  given  depth.  The 
brine  does  not  penetrate  the  butter  so  as  to  give  out  any  additional  salt- 
ness.  For  clarifying  the  brine,  it  should  occasionally  be  scalded,  the 
scum  taken  off,  and  more  salt  added  if  necessary.  Butter  made  in  May 
is  observed  to  be  best  for  keeping. 


OF  THE  MAKING  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  CHEESE. 

The  goodness  of  cheese,  as  well  as  of  butter,  depends  much  on  the 
.quality  of  the  milk:  though  the  season,  and  particular  process  adopted 
ill  making  it,  also,  have  a  very  considerable  influence  upon  it  in  this 
respect — more,  perhaps,  than  the  material  of  which  it  is  prepared.  We 
shall,  therefore,  briefly  notice  these  circumstances ;  and,  as  different 
modes  of  making  cheese  are  practised  in  different  countries  or  places, 
we  shall  then  concisely  state  those  which  are  more  parti/cularly  deserving 
of  notice. 

The  best  season  for  this  purpose  is  from  the  commencement  of  May 
till  the  close  of  September ;  or,  under  favorable  circumstances,  till  the 
middle  of  October ;  during  which  interval  cows  are,  or  can  in  general, 
be  pastured.  In  many  large  dairies,  indeed,  cheese  is  often  manufac- 
tured all  the  year  round ;  but  the  winter  cheeses  are  much  inferior  in 
quality  to  these  made  during  the  summer  months ;  though  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  good  cheese  may  be  made  tln-oughout  the  year,  provided 
the  cows  be  well  fed  in  the  winter. 

With  regard  to  the  rennet,  as  no  good  cheese  can  be  made  without  it, 
great  attention  is  necessary  in  preparing  it  for  coagulating  the  milk- 
Strictly  speaking,  rennet  is  the  coagulated  lacteous  matter,  or  substance, 
found  in  the  stomach  or  maws  of  calves  that  have  been  fed  only  with 
milk,  and  which  was  formerly  used  in  coagulating  milk ;  though  it  is, 
in  a  more  extensive  sense,  applied  to  the  bait,  veil,  maw,  or  stomach,  as 
it  is  variously  termed,  which  possesses  the  same  properties;  and  which 
is  now  invariably  used  for  that  purpose. 

Dairy  women  usually  preserve  the  maw,  and  the  curd  contained  in  it, 
afler  salting  them,  and  then,  by  steeping  this  bag  and  curd,  make  a  ren- 
net, to  turn  their  milk  for  maldng  cheese.  But  a  more  simple  method, 
and  which  is  equally  good  in  every  respect,  is  to  throw  away  the  curd, 
and,  after  steeping  it  in  pickle,  stretch  out  the  maw  upon  a  slender  bow 
inserted  into  it,  which  will  soon  be  very  dry,  and  keep  well  for  a  long 
time.  Take  an  inch  or  two  of  the  maw  thus  dried,  and  steep  it  over 
night  in  a  few  spoonsfuU  of  warm  water,  which  water  serves  full  as  well 
as  if  the  curd  had  been  preserved  for  turning  tlie  milk.  It  is  said,  that 
one  inch  will  serve  for  the  milk  of  five  cows. 

An  ingenious  writer,  who  has  made  strict  inquiry  into  this  subject, 
recommends  the  following  method  of  preparing  a  rennet,  which  he  has 
found  to  be  better  than  any  other :  "  Throw  away  the  natural  curd, 
which  is  apt  to  taint  and  give  the  bag  a  bad  smell ;  then  make  an  artifi' 


50  FAMILY 


MAKING  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  CHEESE. 

cialcurd,  or  rather  butter,  of  new  cream,  of  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  the 
bag.  Add  three  new  laid  eggs  well  beaten,  one  nutmeg  grated  fine,  or 
any  other  good  spice ;  mix  them  well  together,  with  three  teacups  full  of 
fine  salt ;  fill  the  rennet-bag  with  this  substance,  tie  up  the  mouth,  lay  it 
Tinder  a  strong  brine  for  three  days,  turning  it  over  daily.  Then  hang  it 
up  in  a  cool  and  dry  place  for  six  weeks,  and  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  When 
it  is  used,  take  with  a  spoon  out  of  the  bag  a  sufficient  quantity  of  this 
artificial  butyrous  curd  for  the  cheese  you  propose  to  make,  dissolve  it 
in  a  small  quantity  of  warm  water,  and  then  use  it  in  the  same  manner 
'as  other  rennet  is,  mixed  with  the  milk  for  its  coagulation." 

In  the  Bath  papers,  Mr.  Hazard  gives  the  following  recipe  for  mak- 
ing rennet:  "When  the  raw  skin  is  well  prepared  and  fit  for  the  pur- 
pose, three  pints  of  soft  water,  clean  and  sweet,  should  be  mixed  with 
salt,  wherein  should  be  put  sweet  briar,  rose  leave.>  and  flowers,  cinna- 
mon, mace,  cloves,  and  almost  every  sort  of  spice  ;  and  if  these  are  put 
into  two  quarts  of  water,  they  must  boil  gently,  till  the  hquor  is  reduced 
to  three  pints,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  this  lif[uor  is  not  smoked. 
It  should  be  strained  clear  from  the  spices,  &c.  and  when  found  to  be 
not  warmer  than  milk  from  the  cow,  it  should  be  poured  upon  the 
cawl  or  maw  ;  a  lemon  might  be  sliced  into  it,  where  it  may  remain  a 
day  or  two  ;  after  which  it  should  be  strained  again  and  put  into  a  bot- 
tle, where  if  well  corked,  it  will  keep  good  for  twelve  months.  It  will 
smell  like  a  perfume,  and  a  small  quantity  of  it  will  turn  the  milk,  and 
give  the  cheese  a  pleasing  flavor."  He  adds,  "  If  the  maw  be  salted 
and  dried  for  a  week  or  two  near  the  fire,  it  will  do  for  tlie  purpose 
again,  almost  as  well  as  before." 

Another  recipe  is  as  follows  :  after  the  maw  has  been  well  cleansed, 
and  salted,  and  dried  upon  sticks  or  splints,  take  boiled  water,  two 
quarts,  made  into  a  brine  that  will  bear  an  egg.  Let  it  be  blood  warm, 
and  put  in  the  maw  either  cut  or  whole :  let  it  steep  twenty-four  hours, 
and  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  About  a  tea-cup  full  will  turn  the  milk  often 
cows.     It  should  be  kept  in  glass  bottles  well  corked. 

The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository  gives  still  another  recipe 
for  making  rennet,  which  is  as  follows.  The  rennet  is  prepared  by 
taking  some  whey  and  salting  it  till  it  will  bear  an  c^^g ;  it  is  then  suf- 
fered to  stand  over  night,  and  in  the  morning  it  is  skunmed  azid  racked 
off  clear ;  to  this  is  added  an  equal  quantity  of  water  brine,  strong  as  the 
whey,  and  into  this  mixture,  some  sweet  brier,  thyme,  or  other  sweet 
herbs,  also  a  little  black  pepper  and  salt  petre  ;  the  Jierbs  are  kept  in  the 
brine  three  or  four  days,  after  which  it  is  decanted  clear  from  them. 
Into  six  quarts  of  this  liquor  four  large  calves'  bags,  or  more  properly 
called  calves'  stomachs  are  put.  No  part  of  the  preparation  is  heated, 
and  frequently  the  calves'  bags  are  only  steeped  in  cold  salt  and  water. 
But  whatever  kind  of  rennet  the  dairy-woman  may  clioo.se  to  prepare, 
it  should  be  remembered,  that  this  animal  acid  is  extremely  apt  to  be- 
come rancid  and  putrescent,  and  that  great  care  is  necessary  to  apply  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  salt  to  preserve  it  in  its  best  state.  The  rank  and 
diijagreeable  taste  too  frequently  found,  is  often  caused  by  the  rennets 
having  been  badly  preserved. 

In  respect  to  the  process  of  making  cheese,  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural Repository  gives  tlie  following  directions. 
The  milk  is  luaiversally  set  for  cheese  as  soon  as  it  comes  from  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 51 

MAKING  AND  PRESERVATION  OF  CHEESE. 


COW.  The  management  of  the  curd  depends  on  the  kind  of  cheese ; 
thin  cheese  requires  the  least  labor  and  attention. 

Breaking  the  curd  is  done  with  the  hand  and  dish.  The  finer  the 
curd  is  broken  the  better,  particularly  in  thick  cheeses.  The  best  color 
of  this  kind  of  cheese  is  that  of  beeswax,  which  is  produced  by  annotta, 
rubbed  into  the  milk  after  it  is  warmed^  The  dairy-woman  is  to  judge 
of  the  quality  by  the  color  of  the  milk,  as  it  differs  much  in  strength. 
Turning  the  milk  differs  in  different  dairies ;  no  two  dairy- women  con- 
duct exactly  alike. 

Setting  the  milk  too  hot  inclines  the  cheese  to  heave,  and  cooling  it 
with  cold  water  produces  a  similar  effect.  The  degree  of  heat  varies 
according  to  the  weather.  The  curd,  when  formed,  is  broken  with  what 
is  called  a  tripple  cheese  knife.  The  use  of  this  is  to  keep  the  fat  in  the 
cheese  ;  it  is  drawn  the  depth  of  the  curd  two  or  three  times  across  the 
tub,  to  give  the  whey  an  opportunity  of  running  off  clear ;  after  a  few 
minutes,  the  knife  is  more  freely  used,  and  the  curd  is  cut  into  small 
pieces  like  chequers,  and  is  broken  fine  in  the  whey  with  the  hand  and 
u  wooden  dish.  The  curd  being  allowed  about  half  an  hour  to  settle, 
the  whey  is  laded  off  with  the  dish,  after  it  is  pretty  well  separated  from 
the  curd. 

It  is  almost  an  invariable  practice  to  scald  the  curd.  The  mass  is 
first  broken  very  fine,  and  then  the  scalding  whey  is  added  to  it,  and 
stirred  a  few  minutes ;  some  make  use  of  hot  water  in  preference  to 
whey,  and  in  both  cases  heated  according  to  the  nature  of  the  curd; 
if  it  is  soft,  tiie  whey  or  water  is  used  nearly  boiling  ;  but  if  hard,  it  is 
only  used  a  little  hotter  than  the  hand.  After  the  curd  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  hot  stuff,  it  is  suffered  to  stand  a  few  minutes  to  settle, 
and  is  then  separated,  as  at  the  first  operation.  After  the  scaldirig 
liquor  is  separated,  a  vat,  or  what  is  often  called  a  cheese  hoop,  is  laid 
across  the  cheese  ladder  over  the  tub,  and  the  curd  is  crumbled  into  it 
with  the  hands,  and  pressed  into  the  vat,  to  squeeze  out  the  whey.  The 
vat  being  filled  as  full  and  as  firmly  as  the  hand  alone  can  fill  it,  and 
rounded  up  in  the  middle,  a  cheese  cloth  is  spread  over  it,  and  the  curd 
is  turned  out  of  the  hoop  into  the  cloth ;  the  vat  is  then  washed,  and 
the  inverted  mass  of  curd  with  the  cloth  under  it,  is  returned  into  the 
vat  and  put  into  the  press ;  after  standing  two  or  three  hours  in  the 
press,  the  vat  is  taken  out,  and  the  cloth  is  taken  oft',  washed,  and  put 
round  the  cheese  and  replaced  in  the  vat  and  in  the  press.  In  about 
seven  or  eight  hours  it  is  taken  out  of  the  press  and  salted,  the  cheese  is 
placed  on  a  bo-.ird,  and  a  handful  of  salt  rubbed  all  over  it,  and  the  edges 
are  pared  off  if  necessary;  another  handful  of  sale  is  strewed  on  the 
upper  side,  and  as  much  left  as  will  stick  to  it ;  afterwards,  it  is  turned 
into  the  bare  vat  without  a  cloth,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  salt  is  added 
to  it,  and  the  cheese  is  returned  into  the  pres:?.  Here  it  continues  one 
night ;  and  the  next  morning  it  is  turned  in  the  vat,  and  continues  till 
the  succeeding  morning,  and  the  curd  is  taken  out  and  placed  on  the 
dairy  shelf;  liere  they  are  turned  every  day,  or  every  other  day,  as  the 
weather  may  be.  If  it  is  hot  and  dry,  the  windows  and  door  are  kept 
shut ;  but,  if  wet  or  moist,  the  door  and  windows  are  kept  open  night 
and  day. 

Cleaning  the  Cheese. — The  cheeses  having  remained  about  ten  days 
after  leaving  the  press,  are  to  be  washed  and  scraped  in  the  following 
manner;  a  large  tub  of  cold  sweet  whey  is  placed  on  the  floor,  the 


52  FAMILY 


HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE. 


eheeses  are  immersed  iu  it,  wliere  they  continue  one  hour,  or  longer,  if 
necessary  to  soften  the  rind.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  scraped 
with  a  common  case  knife,  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  ten- 
der rind,  till  every  part  of  the  cheese  is  smooth ;  they  are  after  the  last 
operation  rinsed  iu  the  whey  and  wiped  clean,  with  a  coarse  cloth,^  and 
placed  in  an  airy  situation  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  placed  in  the 
rheese  room. 

The  floor  of  the  cheese  room  is  generally  prei>ared  by  rubbing  it  with 
bean  or  potatoe  tops,  or  any  succulent  herb,  till  it  appears  of  a  black 
wet  color ;  on  this  floor  the  cheeses  are  placed,  and  turned  twice  a  week, 
their  edges  are  wiped  hard  with*  a  cloth  once  a  week,  and  the  floor  is 
cleansed  and  rubbed  with  fresh  herbs  once  a  fortnight.  They  must  not 
lie  too  long  or  they  will  stick  to  the  floor.  This  preparation  of  the  floor 
ffives  the  cheese  a  blue  coat,  which  is  considered  of  great  consequence. 

Skippers  in  Clieese. — Wrap  the  cheese  in  thin  brown  paper,  so  thin 
the  moisture  may  strike  through  soon — dig  a  hole  in  good  sweet  earth 
about  two  feet  deep,  in  which  the  cheese  must  be  buried  about  36 
hours,  and  the  skippers  will  be  found  all  on  the  outside  of  the  cheese ; 
brush  them  off"  immediately,  and  you  will  find  your  cheese  sound  and 
good. 

To  prevent  Cheese  having  a  rancid  nauseous  flavor. — Put  about  one 
table-spoonful  of  salt  to  each  gallon  of  milk,  when  taken  from  the  cows 
in  the  evening,  for  the  cheese  to  be  made  the  next  day :  put  the  salt  at 
the  bottom  of  the  vessel  that  is  to  receive  tlie  milk  ;  it  will  increase  the 
curd,  and  prevent  the  milk  from  growing  sour  or  putrid  the  hottest 
nights  in  the  summer. 


SECTION  111. 

ON  THE  BREEDING,  REARING,  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES* 


BRIEF  HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE. 

Although  tlie  native  countrj*  of  the  hoi-se  cannot  with  tertainty  be 
traced,  it  seems  probable  tl\at  he  was  first  domesticated  in  Egypt,  but 
the  precise  period  it  is  diflicuh  to  settle.  1920  years  before  the  birth  of 
Chri>t,  when  Abraham,  having  left  Haran,  iu  obedience  to  the  divine 
command,  was  driven  into  Egypt  by  the  famine,  which  raged  in  Canaan^ 
(Gen.  xii.  16.)  Pharaoh  oflered  him  slieep  and  oxen,  and  asses  and 
camels.  Horses  would  doubtless  have  been  added,.  Iiad  they  then  exist- 
ed, or  had  they  been  subdued  in  Egypt. 

When  fifty  years  afterward.^,  Abraham  joumied  to  Mount  Moriah, 
to  offer  up  his  only  son,  he  rode  upon  an  ass ;  which,  with  all  his  wealth 
and  power,  he  would  scarcely  have  done  had  the  horse  been  known. 
Gen.  xxii.  3. 

Thirty  years  later,  when  Jacob  returned  to  Isaac  with  Radiael  and 
l^eah,  an  account  i«  given,  Gen.  xxii.  14.  of  the  numlier  of  oxen,  sheep^ 
camels,  goats,  an'  sliieh  he  sent  to  appease  the  anger  of  Esau^ 

but  not  one  hor-  ued. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 53 

DIFFERENT    BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 

It  was  not  until  twenty-four  years  after  this,  when  the  famine  devas- 
tated Canaan,  and  Jacob  sent  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn,  that  horses  are 
first  heard  of.  "  Waggons,"  probably  carriages  drawn  by  horses,  were 
sent  by  Joseph  into  Canaan  to  bring  his  father  to  Egypt.  It  would 
.seem,  however,  that  horses  had  been  but  lately  introduced,  or  not  used 
as  beasts  of  burden  ;  for  the  whole  of  the  corn,  which  was  to  be  convey- 
ed some  hundred  miles,  and  was  to  afford  sustenance  for  Jacob's  large 
household,  was  carried  on  asses.     Gen.  xiv.  19. 

About  the  year  1740,  before  Christ,  is  the  period  when  horses  appear 
to  have  been  used  first  in  Egypt.  They  appear,  however,  to  have  rap- 
idly increased  and  spread  abroad ;  for  w^hen  the  Israelites  returned  into 
Canaan,  the  Canaanites  went  out  to  fight  against  Israel  with  chariots  and 
horsemen  very  many. 

The  sacred  volume  seems  therefore  to  decide  the  important  point, 
that  the  first  domestication  of  the  horse  was  in  Egypt.  Another  point 
also,  it  decides,  that  Arabia  by  whose  breed  of  horses  those  of  other 
countries  have  been  so  much  improved,  was  not  the  native  place  of  the 
horse.  600  years  after  the  time  just  referred  to,  Arabia  had  no  horses . 
Solomon  imported  silver,  gold,  and  spices  from  Arabia,  2  Chron.  ix.  14, 
but  all  the  horses  for  his  own  cavalry  and  chariots  he  procured  from 
Egypt.  2  Chron.  i.  17.  In  this  place,  it  is  mentioned  that  a  horse 
brought  from  Egypt  cost  150  shekels  of  silver,  which  at  two  shillings 
threepence,  and  one  half  fiirthing  each,  amount  to  about  £  17,2s.  ster- 
ling, an  enormous  price  for  those  days. 

The  horses  of  Arabia  itself,  and  of  the  southeastern  parts  of  Europe 
are  clearly  derived  from  Egypt ;  but  whether  they  were  there  bred  or 
imported  from  the  southwestern  regions  of  Asia,  or,  as  is  more  proba- 
l)le,  brought  from  the  interior  or  northern  coasts  of  Africa,  cannot  with 
certainty  be  determined. 


DIFFERENT    BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 


It  has  been  stated  in  the  preceding  section,  that  the  earliest  records  of 
the  horse  trace  him  to  Egypt,  as  the  country  where  he  was  domesticat- 
ed ;  but  as  it  is  probable  that  he  was  derived  from  the  neighbouring  and 
interior  districts  of  Africa,  in  giving  an  account  of  the  most  celebrated 
and  useful  breeds  of  different  countries,  it  is  natural  to  begin  with  those 
of  Africa. 

Barb.  At  the  head  of  the  African  breeds,  and,  perhaps,  at  the  head 
of  all  other  breeds,  may  be  placed  the  Barb  from  Barbary,  and  particu- 
larly from  Morocco  and  Fez,  an  animal  remarkable  for  its  fine  and 
graceful  action.  It  is  rather  lower  than  the  Arabian,  seldom  exceeding 
fourteen  hands  and  an  inch.  The  shoulders  are  flat,  the  chest  round, 
the  joints  incUned  to  be  long,  and  the  head  particularly  beautiful.  The 
Barb  is  decidedly  superior  to  the  Arab  in  form,  but  has  not  his  spirit,  or 
speed  or  countenance. 

The  Barb  has  chiefly  contributed  to  the  excellence  of  the  Spanish 
horse ;  and,  when  the  improvement  of  the  breed  of  horses  began  to  be 
systematically  pursued  in  Great  Britain,  the  Barb  was  very  early  intro- 
duced.   The  Godolphin  Arabian,  as  he  is  caUed,  of  whom  we  here  pre- 

e2 


54  FAMILY 


DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OP  HORSES. 

sent  our  readers  with  a  cut,  and  who  was  the  origin  of  some  of  the  best 
English  racing  blood,  was  a  Barb ;  and  others  of  their  most  celebrated 
turf-horses,  trace  their  descent  from  African  mares. 


The  Godolphin  Arabian. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  the  above  horse  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, different  accounts  have  been  given.  According  to  one  writer,*" 
his  introduction  was  by  means  of  a  Col.  Coke,  an  Englishman  of  for- 
tune and  education,  who  on  account  of  several  crimes  was  obliged  lo 
flee  from  England,  and  during  his  absence,  travelled  into  Syria,  and 
thence  into  Arabia. 

In  this  latter  country,  he  accidentally  heard  of  the  above  horse,  whicli 
it  was  stated,  belonged  to  a  certain  "  Sheik."  He  visited  the  Sheik,, 
but  was  unable  to  purchase  him,  on  account  of  the  great  value  put  upon 
him.  He  contrived,  however,  to  steal  him — made  his  escape — reached 
Damietta,  a  seaport  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  whence  he  sailed  with 
the  horse,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  France,  until  he  could  aj)pear  in 
England,  and  be  restored  to  his  family. 

The  Earl  of  Godolphin  was,  at  this  time,  prime  minister  of  England. 
To  him  Coke  addressed  several  letters,  but  nis  Lordship  paid  no  atten- 
tion to  them. — ^At  length,  by  some  means.  Coke  discovered  that  his  Lord- 
ship at  that  season  of  the  year,  was  afflicted  with  the  gout ;  and  dailj 
took  an  airing  in  hb  carriage  in  Hyde  Park,  London — he  wrote  to  his* 
Lordship,  that  at  a  particular  time,  and  place,  in  said  Park,  he  would 
see  a  man,  (describing  his  stature  and  dress,  riding  a  beautiful  brown 
horse,  which  he  also  described,  having  his  off  heel  behind  white,)  who 
had  no  designs  whatever  on  his  person,  but  on  the  contrary  a  great 
friendship  for  him,  who  wished  to  nave  an  interview  with  him,  and  that 
when  his  Lordship  in  his  next  ride  saw  him,  he  the  said  Coke,  would 
take  it  as  a  particular  favor,  if  his  Lordship  would  direct  his  outriders  to 
withdraw,  so  that  the  interview  as  aforesaid  might  be  effected. 

*  American  Fanner,  vol.  9.  p.  134. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  65 


DIFFERENT   BREEDS  OF  HORSES. 


The  next  day  Lord  Godolphin  took  his  usual  jaunt — at  the  place  and 
time  appointed  he  saw  Col.  Coke,  who,  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  out- 
riders, rode  up  to  his  Lordshij^'s  carriage,  and  after  making  his  obeisance 
asked  him  respecting  the  receipt  of  his  former  letters ;  his  Lordship  an- 
swered in  the  ulHnuative. 

Col.  Coke  innnediately  dismounted,  and  made  his  Lordship  another 
low  bow,  and  in  a  very  condescending  manner  told  him,  that  from 
hearing  of  his  Lordships  very  great  partiality  for  being  possessed  of  the 
linest  liorses  in  the  khigdom,  he,  after  ti-aveUing  several  years  in  Arabia, 
had  brought  over  the  very  finest  and  best  bred  horse  in  the  whole  world, 
as  a  present  for  him. 

Lord  Godolphin  very  politely  refused  the  present,  alleging  that  it 
would  be  entirely  inconsistent  with  his  dignity  and  station,  to  accept  of 
so  very  valuable  a  present,  (which  must  have  cost  an  immense  sum  to 
procure,)  from  an  entire  stranger. 

His  Lordship,  after  a  minute  inspection  of  the  horse,  pronounced  him 
to  be  the  very  finest  and  best  looking  Arabian  horse,  he  ever  saw,  or  had 
been  brought  into  England,  and  if  Col.  Coke,  as  he  styled  himself,  at 
that  time,  would  part  witli  the  horse,  he  would  give  him  a  blank  check 
upon  the  Bank  of  England,  wliich  he,  Coke,  might  fill  up  with  any  sum 
he  pleased. 

Col.  Coke  told  his  Lordship  that  he  never  would  sell  the  horse — 
alleging,  at  the  same  time,  that  he,  with  great  difficulty,  labor,  and  ex- 
pense, and  after  travelling  in  Arabia  upwards  of  three  years,  procured 
the  horse  for  the  express  purpose  of  presenting  to  his  Lordship,  on  his 
arrival  in  England — he  further  said,  that  if  his  Lordship  would  not  accept 
him,  he  would  not  part  with  him  to  any  other  person.  Lord  Godolphin 
was  inexorable. 

Col.  Coke  solicited  his  Lordship  again  and  again,  without  success, 
until  Coke's  entreaties,  after  a  very  considerable  time  became  so  very 
urgent,  that,  at  length,  Lord  Godolphin  accepted  of  this  very  Arabian, 
as  the  greatest  present  of  the  animal  creation  in  the  world. 

After  his  Lordship  had  presented  his  comphments  to  Coke,  he  told 
him,  if  he  could  in  any  way  whatever  serve  him,  he  would  do  it  with  a 
great  deal  of  pleasure. 

About  this  time,  by  means  (it  was  supposed)  of  the  servants  of  Col. 
C.'s  relations  hearing  his  name  frequently  mentioned  in  their  respective 
families,  and  no  doubt  with  a  view  of  receiving  the  reward  ot  "  150 
guineas,"  wliich  government  had  formerly  offered  for  his  apprehension, 
they  lodged  uiformation  against  him  and  he  was  arrested  lor  his  former 
offences,  and  committed  to  prison;  he  wrote  to  Lord  Godolphin  (dis- 
covering to  him  who  he  was,  and  his  real  name)  to  intercede  in  his 
behalf  with  his  jMajesty,  who  ordered  a  writ  of  "  nolle  prosequi"  to  be 
issued,  saying  that  Col.  C.  was  an  innocent  man,  and  could  not  be  the 
same  person  who  committed  the  felonious  acts,  for  which  he  fled  from 
England. 

Colonel  Coke  was  immediately  restored  to  his  former  rank,  and  hi? 
family. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  if  the  foregoing  account  were  true,  this  cele- 
brated horse  could  not  be  a  Barb.  It  seems  probable,  therefore,  from  the 
testimony  of  others,  that  the  above  writer  labored  under  some  mistake, 
for  we  find  it  asserted  by  high  authority,  (American  Farmer,  Vol.  VIII. 


m  FAMILY 


ARABIAN    HORSE. 


page  215)  that  he  was  in  reality  a  Barb— a  horne  of  the  desert.  His 
color  was  entire  brown  bay,  with  mottles  on  the  buttocks  and  crest,  ex- 
cept a  small  streak  of  white  upon  the  hinder  heels.  He  was  imported 
into  France,  from  some  capital  or  royal  stud  in  Barbary,  whence  it  was 
suspected  he  was  stolen,  and  said  to  have  been  foaled  in  1724.  So  little 
was  he  valued  in  France,  that  he  was  actually  employed  in  the  drudgery 
of  drawing  a  cart  in  the  streets  of  Paris.  Mr.  Coke  brought  him  over 
from  France,  and  gave  him  to  Williams,  master  of  St.  James' Coffee 
House,  who  presented  him  to  the  Earl  of  Godolphin. 

From  still  higher  authority,  (Library  of  useful  Knowledge,  Farmer's 
Series,  No.  2,  page  4d,)  we  learn  that  he  was  picked  up  in  France  where 
he  was  actually  employed  iu  drawing  a  cart,  and  when  he  was  afterwards 
presented  to  Lord  Godolphin,  he  was  in  that  nobleman's  stud  a  consider- 
able time  before  his  value  was  discovered.  It  was  not  until  the  birth  of 
Lath,  one  of  the  first  horses  of  that  period,  that  his  excellence  began  to  be 
appreciated.  He  was  then  styled  an  Arabian,  and  was  in  higher  esti- 
mation than  even  the  Darley,  the  founder  of  the  modern  thorough-bred 
horses.     He  died  in  1753,  at  the  age  of  29. 

To  this  account,  it  is  added,  that  an  intimate  friendship  subsisted  be- 
tween him  and  a  cat,  which  either  sat  on  his  back  when  he  was  in  the 
stable,  or  nestled  as  closely  to  him  as  she  could.  At  his  death  the  cat  re- 
fused her  food — pined  away,  and  soon  died.  Mr.  Holcroft  gives  a  simi- 
lar relation  of  the  attachment  between  a  race-horse  and  a  cat,  which  the 
courser  would  take  in  his  mouth,  and  place  in  his  manger  and  upon  his 
back,  without  hurting  her. 

The  DONGOLA  HORSE.  The  kingdom  of  Dongola,  and  the  neigh- 
boring  districts  of  Egypt,  and  Abyssinia,  contain  a  horse  not  at  all  like 
any  other  oriental. 

The  Dongola  horses  stand  full  sixteen  hands  high,  but  the  length  of 
the  body,  from  the  .shoulders  to  the  quarter,  is  considerably  less.  Their 
form,  therefore,  is  opposite  to  that  of  the  Arabian  or  English  thorough- 
bred, which  are  longer  by  some  inches  than  they  are  high.  The  neck  is 
long  and  slender,  the  crest  fine,  and  the  withers  sharp  and  high,  giving  a 
beautiful  fore-hand  ;  but  the  breast  is  too  narrow,  the  quarters  and  flanks 
too  flat,  and  the  back  carped.  They  constitute  excellent  war-horses,  from 
their  sjjced,  durability,  and  size.  Several  of  them  have  been  lately  im- 
ported into  Europe,  but  they  are  little  valued. 

The  ARABIAN.  Going  further  eastward  we  arrive  at  Arabia,  whose 
horses  deservedly  occupy  the  very  highest  rank. 

There  are  said  to  be  three  breeds  or  varieties  of  Arabian  horses: — the 
Altccki,  or  inferior  breed,  on  which  they  set  little  value,  and  w^hich  are 
found  wild  on  some  parts  of  the  deserts ;  the  Kadischi,  literally  horses  of 
an  unknown  race,  answering  to  our  half  bred  horses — a  mixed  breed ; 
and  the  Kotddanl,  horses  whose  genealogy,  according  to  the  Arab  ac- 
count, is  known  for  two  thousand  years. 

The  Arabian  horse  would  not  be  acknowledged  by  every  judge  to  pos- 
sess a  perfect  form :  his  head,  however,  is  inimitable.  The  broadness 
and  squareness  of  the  forehead,  the  shortness  and  firmness  of  the  muzzle, 
the  prominency  and  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  the  sraallness  of  the  ears,  and 
ihe  beautiful  course  of  the  veins,  will  always  characterize  the  head  of  the 
Arabian  horse. 

His  body  may  be  considered  as  too  light,  and  his  ehest  u  too  narrow ; 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 57 

ARABIAN    HORSE. 

butbehlDd  the  arms,  the  barrel  generally  swells  out,  and  leaves  sufficient 
room  for  the  play  of  the  lungs. 

In  the  formation  of  the  shoulder,  next  to  that  of  the  head,  the  Arab  is 
superior  to  any  other  breed.  The  withers  are  high,  and  the  shoulder- 
blade  inclined  backward,  and  so  nicely  adjusted,  that  in  descending  a  hill 
the  point  or  edge  of  the  ham  never  ruffles  the  skin.  He  may  not  be 
thought  sufficiently  high ;  he  seldom  stands  more  than  fourteen  hands 
and  two  inches. 

The  fineness  of  his  legs,  and  the  oblique  position  of  his  pasterns,  may 
be  supposed  to  lessen  his  apparent  strength ;  but  the  leg,  although  small, 
is  flat  and  wiry :  anatomists  know  that  the  bone  has  no  common  density, 
and  the  starting  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  and  the  thigh  indicate  that 
he  is  fully  capable  of  accomplishing  many  of  the  feats,  which  are  recorded 
of  him. 

The  Barb  alone  excels  him  in  noble  and  spirited  action  ;  and  if  there 
be  defects  about  him,  he  is  perfect,  for  that  for  which  he  was  designed. 
He  presents  the  true  combination  of  speed  and  bottom — strength  enough 
to  carry  more  ihan  a  light  weight,  and  courage  that  would  cause  him  to 
die  rather  than  give  up. 

Several  interesting  anecdotes  are  related  of  the  Arabian.  A  few  of 
these  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  our  readers.  When  the  Arab  falls  from 
his  mare,  observes  a  writer,  and  is  unable  to  rise,  she  will  immediately 
stand  still,  and  neigh  until  assistance  arrives.  If  he  lies  down  to  sleep, 
as  fatigue  sometimes  compels  him,  in  tlie  midst  of  the  desert,  she  stands 
watchful  over  him,  and  neighs  and  rouses  him  if  either  man  or  beast  ap- 
proaches. An  old  Arab  had  a  valuable  mare  that  had  carried  him  for 
fifteen  years  in  many  a  hard  fought  battle,  and  in  many  a  rapid  weary 
march ;  at  length,  eighty  years  old,  and  unable  longer  to  ride  her,  he 
gave  her,  and  a  scimitar  that  had  been  his  father's,  to  his  eldest  son,  and 
told  him  to  appreciate  their  value,  and  never  he  down  to  rest  until  he  had 
rubbed  them  both  as  bright  as  a  looking-glass.  In  the  first  skirmish  in 
which  the  young  man  was  engaged  he  was  killed,  and  the  mare  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  enemy.  When  the  news  reached  the  old  man,  he 
exclaimed  that  "life  was  no  longer  worth  preserving,  for  he  had  lost  both 
his  son  and  his  mare,  and  he  grieved  for  one  as  much  as  the  other;''  and 
he  immediately  sickened  and  died.* 

The  following  anecdote  of  the  attachment  of  an  Arab  to  his  mare  has 
often  been  told,  but  it  comes  home  to  the  bosom  of  every  one  possessed 
of  common  feeling.  "  The  whole  stock  of  an  Arab  of  the  desert  consist- 
ed of  a  mare.  The  French  consul  offered  to  purchase  her  in  order  to 
send  her  to  his  sovereign,  Louis  XIV.  The  Arab  would  have  rejected 
the  proposal  at  once  with  indignation  and  scorn ;  but  he  was  miserably 
poor.  He  had  no  means  of  supplying  his  most  urgent  wants,  or  pro- 
curing the  barest  necessaries  of  life.  Still  he  hesitated  ; — he  had  scarce- 
ly a  rag  to  cover  him — and  his  wife  and  his  children  were  starving.  The 
sum  offered  was  great, — it  would  provide  him  and  his  family  with  food 
for  life.  At  length,  and  reluctantly,  he  consented.  He  brought  the 
mare  to  the  dwelling  of  the  consul, — he  dismounted, — he  stood  leaning 
upon  her ;  he  looked  now  at  the  gold,  and  then  at  his  favorite ;  he  sighed, 
he  wept.  \To  whom  is  it,'  said  he,  *  I  am  going  to  yield  thee  up  ?  To 
Europeans,  who  will  tie  thee  close, — who  will  beat  thee, — who  will  ren- 

*  Smith  on  Breeding  p.  80. 


58  FAMILY 


ARABIAN   HORSB. 


der  thee  miserable.  Return  with  me,  my  beauty,  my  jewel,  and  rejoice 
the  hearts  of  my  children.'  As  he  pronounced  the  last  words,  he  sprung 
upon  her  back,  and  was  out  of  sight  in  a  moment." 

The  next  anecdote  is  scarcely  less  touching,  and  not  so  \vell  known. 
Ibrahim,  a  poor  but  worthy  Arab,  unable  to  pay  a  sum  of  money  which 
he  owed,  was  compelled  to  allow  a  merchant  of  Rama  to  become  partner 
with  him  in  a  valuable  mare.  When  the  time  came,  he  could  not  re- 
deem his  pledge  to  this  man,  and  the  mare  was  sold.  Her  pedigree 
could  be  traced  on  the  side  of  sire  and  dam  for  full  five  hundred  years. 
The  price  was  three  hundred  pounds ;  an  enormous  sum  in  that  country. 
Ibrahim  went  frequently  to  Rama  to  inquire  after  the  mare ;  he  would 
embrace  her, — wipp  her  eyes  with  his  handkerchief, — rub  her  w^ith  his 
shirt  sleeves, — and  give  her  a  thousand  benedictions  during  whole  hours 
that  he  remained  talking  to  her.  '  My  eyes !'  would  he  say  to  her,  '  my 
soul!  my  heart !  must  I  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  have  thee  sold  to  so 
many  masters  and  not  keep  thee  myself?  I  am  poor,  my  antelope  !  I 
brought  thee  up  in  my  dwelling  as  my  child.  I  did  never  beat  nor  chide 
thee;  I  caressed  thee  in  the  proudest  manner.  God  preserve  thee,  my 
beloved !  thou  art  beautiful,  thou  art  sweet,  thou  art  lovely  !  God  defend 
thee  from  envious  eyes !" 

Sir  John  Malcomb  gives  two  anecdotes  to  the  same  purpose,  but  of  a 
more  amusing  nature. 

"  When  the  envoy,  returning  from  his  former  mission,  was  encamped 
near  Bagdad,  an  Arab  rode  a  bright  bay  mare  of  extraordinary  shape 
and  beauty  before  his  lent  until  he  attracted  his  attention.  On  being 
asked  if  he  would  sell  her, — '  What  will  you  give  me  ?'  was  the  reply: 
■'That  depends  upon  her  age;  I  suppose  she  is  past  five?'  'Guess 
again,' said  he.  'Four?'  'Look  at  her  mouth,'  said  the  Arab  with  a 
smile.  On  examination  she  was  found  to  be  rising  three.  This,  from 
her  size  and  symmetry,  greatly  enhanced  her  value.  The  envoy  said, 
*■  I  will  give  you  fifty  tomans'  (a  coin  nearly  of  the  value  of  a  pound 
sterling.)  'A  little  more,  if  you  please,'  said  the  fellow,  apparently  en- 
tertained- 'Eighty.  A  hundred-'  He  shook  his  head  and  smiled.  The 
offer  at  last  came  to  two  hundred  tomans !  '  Well,'  said  the  Arab,  '  you 
need  not  tempt  me  farther ;  it  is  of  no  use.  You  are  a  rich  elchee  (noble- 
man.) You  have  fine  horses,  camels,  and  mules,  and  I  am  told,  you 
have  Joads  of  silver  <ii)d  gold.  'Now,'  added  he,  'you  want  my  mare, 
l)Ut  you  shall  not  have  her  for  all  you  have  got.'* 

The  East  Indiax  Horse.  The  horses  of  the  East  Indies  are  the 
Toorhy,  which  is  said  to  be  beautiful  in  form,  graceful  in  action,  and  do- 
cile in  temper;  the  Jrance,  well  limbed,  but  ears  large  and  loose,  and 
deficient  in  spirit;  the  Covakee,  patient  and  docile,  but  with  an  unsight- 
ly head  ;  hardy  and  calculated  for  long  journies  and  severe  service ;  the 
ikfojiMnws, spirited,  beautifid, fleet,  and  persevering,  and  the  Taz8ee,ho\\ow 
backf'd.  and  therefore  deficient  in  ntrength,  irritable  in  temper;  yet 
sought  after  ou  account  of  the  peculiar  easiness  of  hi.s  pace.  A  general 
remark  applies  to  all  the  native  horses  throughout  India,  that  they  want 
hone  below  the  knee. 

The  Chi?ibsk  Horsk.  Thi«  breed  ie  Bmall,  weak,  ill  formed,  without 
<«pirit,  and  altogether  undeserving  of  notice. 

The  Pkrsiax  Horse,  is  next  in  estimation,  and  deservedly  so,  to  the 

*Malcom'8  Sketches  of  Persia,  Vol.  I.  p.  41. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 59 

TURKISH    HORSE. 

Arabian.  The  head  is  almost  equally  beautiful,  the  crupper  superior ; 
he  is  equal  in  speed,  but  far  inferior  in  endurance.  The  whole  frame  is 
more  developed  than  in  the  Arabian.  They  never  exceed,  it  is  said,  four- 
teen hands,  or  fourteen  hands  and  a  hcdf  high,  yet  certainly,  in  the  whole, 
are  taller  than  the  Arabs. 

The  TooRKOMAN  Horse.  Turkistan  is  that  part  of  South  Tartary, 
north-east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  has  been  celebrated  from  very  early 
thiies,  for  producing  a  pure  and  valuable  breed  of  horses.  They  are 
called  Toorkomans ;  are  said  to  be  preferable  even  to  the  pure  Persians 
for  service.  They  are  large,  standing  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high; 
swift  and  inexhaustable  under  fatigue.  Some  of  them  have  travelled- 
nine  hundred  miles  in  eleven  successive  days.  They  however,  are  some- 
what too  small  in  the  barrel, — too  long  on  the  legs, — occasionally  ewe- 
necked,  and  always  have  a  head  out  of  proportion  large  ;  yet,  such  are 
the  good  qualities  of  the  horse,  that  one  of  pure  blood  is  worth  two  or 
three  hundred  pounds,  even  in  that  country. 

The  Tartar  and  Kalmuck  Horse.  The  horses  of  the  other  parts  of 
Tartary,  comprehending  the  immense  plains  of  Central  Asia,  and  a  con- 
siderable part  of  European  Russia,  are  little  removed  from  a  wild  state : 
they  are  small  and  badly  made ;  but  capable  of  supporting  the  longest  and 
most  rapid  journey,  on  the  scantiest  fare. 

The  Thrkish  Horse.  The  Turkish  horses  are  descended  principally 
from  the  Arab,  crossed  by  the  Persian  and  certain  other  bloods.  The 
body,  however  is  even  longer  than  the  Arabian's,  and  the  crupper  more 
elevated.  They  have  contributed  materially  to  the  improvement  of  the 
EngHsh  breed. 

There  is  no  creature  so  gentle  as  a  Turkish  horse,  or  more  respectful 
to  his  master,  or  the  groom  that  dresses  him.  The  reason  is,  because 
they  treat  their  horses  with  great  lenity.  This  makes  their  horses  great 
lovers  of  mankind  ;  and  they  are  so  far  from  kicking,  wincing,  or  growing 
untractable  by  this  gentle  usage,  that  you  will  hardly  find  a  masterless 
horse  among  them. 

The  German  Horses,  are  generally  large,  heavy,  and  slow.  The 
Hungarian  may  be  an  exception,  being  lighter,  speedier,  and  giving 
greaterproof  of  Eastern  blood.  Every  part  of  the  continent,  however, 
foUowhig  the  example  of  England,  has  been  diligently  engaged  in  the 
improvement  of  its  breed,  and  the  German  and  Prussian  horses  are  now 
better  proportioned  and  have  considerable  endurance,  but  are  still  defi- 
cient in  speed.  The  Prussian,  German,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
French  cavalry  are  procured  from  Holstein.  They  are  of  a  dark,  glossy, 
bay  color,  with  small  heads,  large  nostrils,  and  full  dark  eyes,  the  tire  and 
clearness  of  which  seeua  to  denote  the  inward  spirit  of  the  animal.  They 
are  beautiful,  active,  and  strong. 

The  Swedish,  Finland,  and  Norwegian  Horse.  Of  the  Swedish 
horses,  Clarke,  in  his"  Scandinavia,"  says,  that  they  are  small,  but  beau- 
tiful, and  remarkable  for  their  speed  and  spirit.  Those  of  Finland  he 
describes  as  yet  smaller,  not  more  than  twelve  hands  high,  beautifully 
formed  and  very  fleet.  The  peasants  take  them  from  the  forests  when 
they  are  wanted  for  travellers.  Although  apparently  wild,  they  are  un- 
der perfect  control,  and  they  troi  along  with  ease  at  the  rate  of  twelve 
miles  an  hour. 

The  following  Btory  is  told  of  one  of  the  Norwegian  horses.    His 


FAMILY 


ENGLISH    HORSE. 


master  had  been  dining  at  a  neighboring  town,  and  when  it  was  time 
to  return,  had  exceeded  so  much,  that  he  could  not  keep  a  firm  seat  in  his 
saddle.  The  horse  regulated  himself,  as  well  as  he  could,  according  to 
the  unsettled  motion  of  his  rider,  but,  happening  to  make  a  false  step, 
the  peasant  was  thrown,  and  hung  with  one  foot  entangled  in  the  stirrup, 
the  horse  immediately  stopped,  and  twisting  his  body  in  various  direc- 
tions, endeavored  to  extricate  his  master,  but  in  vain.  The  man  was 
severely  hurt,  and  almost  helpless  ;  but  the  shock  had  brought  him  to  his 
senses.  The  horse  looked  at  him  as  he  lay  on  the  ground,  and  stooping, 
laid  hold  of  the  brim  of  his  hat,  and  raised  his  head  a  little;  but  the  hat 
coming  otF,  he  fell  again.  The  animal  then  laid  hold  of  the  collar  of  liia 
coat,  and  raised  liim  by  it  so  far  from  the  ground,  that  he  was  enabled 
to  draw  liis  foot  out  of  the  stirrup.  After  resting  awhile,  he  regained 
the  saddle,  and  reached  his  home.  Grateful  to  his  preserver,  the  man 
did,  what  every  good  feeling  bid  him, — he  cherished  the  animal  until  it 
died  of  old  age. 

The  Iceland  Horse,  is  small,  strong,  and  swift.  The  island  abounds 
in  troops  of  horses,  which  live  upon  the  mountams,  where  they  obtain 
only  a  scanty  living.  A  few  are  usually  kept  in  the  staole,  but  vvhen  the 
peasant  wants  more,  he  catches  as  many  as  he  needs,  and  shoes  them 
himself,  and  that  sometimes  with  a  sheep's  horn. 

The  Flemish  and  Dutch  Horses  are  large,  and  strongly  and  beauti- 
fully formed.  The  Enghsh  are  indebted  to  them  for  sojne  of  the  best 
blood  of  their  draught  horses. 

The  French  Horse.  France  contains,  like  England,  numerous 
breeds  of  horses,  and  considerable  attention  has  lately  been  paid  to  their 
improvement ;  but  they  are  far  inferior,  it  is  said,  to  the  English,  in 
beauty,  fleetness,  and  strength.  The  provinces  of  Auvergne  and  Poitou, 
produce  good  ponies  and  galloways  ;  but  the  best  French  horses  are  bred 
in  Limousin  and  Normandy. 

The  Spanish  Horse.  Spain  was  early  celebrated  for  her  breed  of 
horses.  The  Andalusian  charger  and  the  Spanish  jennet  are  familiar  to 
all  readers  of  romance.  The  subjugation  of  so  great  a  portion  of  the 
peninsula  to  the  Moorish  sway,  by  introducing  so  nuich  of  the  liarbary 
blood,  mainly  contributed  to  the  undisputed  excellence  of  the  Spanish 
horse.  One  breed,  long  in  the  limbs,  and  graceful  in  all  its  motions,  was 
the  favorite  war  horse  of  the  knight ;  while  another  race,  carrying  the 
esquire,  although  inferior  in  elegance,  possessed  far  more  strength  and 
endurance.  The  Spanish  horse  of  the  present  day  is  not  much  unlike 
the  Yorkshire  half-breed;  perhaps  with  flatter  legs  and  better  feet,  but  far 
inferior  figure. 

The  Italian  Horses  were  once  in  high  repute,  particularly  the  Nea- 
politans ;  but  like  every  thing  else  in  those  mismanaged  countries,  they 
have  sadly  degenerated.  One  circumstance  has  mainly  contributed  to 
this  falling  off  in  reputation  and  value,  viz.  that  the  breed  has  been  kept 
up  by  occasional  intermixture  not  of  Eastern  but  of  European  blood.  A 
few  of  the  Neapolitan  horses,  from  their  superior  size  and  stateliness,  are 
well  adapted  for  the  carria^ge. 

The  English  Horse.  The  earliest  record  of  the  horse  in  Great 
Britain,  is  contained  in  the  history  given  by  Julius  Caesar  of  his  invasion 
of  that  island.  The  British  army  was  accompanied  by  numerous  war- 
chariots,  drawn  by  horses.     What  kind  of^liorse  the   Britons  then 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 61 

ENGLISH  HORSE. 

possessed,  it  would  be  useless  to  enquire  ;  but  from  the  cumbrous  struc- 
ture of  the  car,  and  the  fury  with  which  it  was  driven,  they  must  have 
been  both  active  and  powerful.  By  the  introduction  of  the  Roman 
cavalry,  the  English  horse  received  its  first  cross.  Several  centuries 
passed  by  and  we  have  no  record  of  the  value  or  character,  improvement 
or  deterioration  of  the  animal. 

Soon  after  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great,  some  attention  appears  to 
have  been  paid  to  the  improvement  of  the  horse,  by  Athelstan,  his  son, 
and  the  second  in  succession  to  him.  This  was  about  the  year  930.  In 
A.  D.  1000,  it  was  decreed,  and  from  tliis  decree  something  may  be  gath- 
ered of  the  relative  value  of  the  horse,  that  if  a  horse  were  destroyed  or 
negligently  lost,  the  compensation  should  be  at  thirty  shillings ;  a  mare 
or  colt,  twenty  shillings  ;  a  mule  or  young  ass,  twelve  shillings ;  an  ox, 
thirty  pence ;  a  cow,  twenty-four  pence ;  a  pig,  eight  pence ;  and  it 
strangely  follows,  a  man,  one  pound. 

About  this  time,  or  a  little  before,  laws  were  passed,  which  fixed  the 
value  of  a  foal,  not  fourteen  days  old,  at  fourpeuce  ;  at  one  year  and  a 
day,  it  is  estimated  at  forty-eight  pence,  and  at  three  years  sixty  pence. 
It  was  then  to  be  tamed  with  the  bridle,  and  brought  up  either  as  a 
palfrey  or  a  serving  horse ;  when  its  value  became  one  hundred  and 
twenty  pence ;  and  that  of  a  wild  unbroken  mare,  sixty  pence. 

In  those  days  the  buyer  was  allowed  time  to  ascertain  whether  the 
horse  was  free  from  three  diseases.  He  had  three  nights  to  prove  him 
for  the  staggers :  three  months  to  prove  the  soundness  of  his  lungs  ;  and 
one  year  to  ascertain  whether  he  was  infected  with  the  glanders.  For 
every  blemish  discovered  after  the  purchase,  one  third  of  the  money  was 
to  be  returned  except  it  should  be  a  blemish  of  the  ears  or  tail. 

It  was  also  decreed,  "  whoever  shall  borrow  a  horse,  and  rub  the  hairs 
so  as  to  gall  the  back,  shall  pay  four-pence  ;  if  the  skin  is  forced  into  the 
flesh,  eight  pence  ;  if  the  skin  be  forced  to  the  bone,  sixteen  pence." 

With  WilUam  the  Conquerer,  about  A.  D.  1050,  came  a  marked  im- 
provement in  the  British  horse.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  A.  D.  1121, 
the  first  Arabian  horse,  or  at  least  the  first  on  record,  was  introduced. 
Forty  years  afterwards,  Smithfield  was  celebrated  as  a  horse  market. 
From  this  time,  until  Henry  VIII.,  the  English  horse  advanced,  but  it 
was  by  slow  degrees. 

In  the  time  of  this  last  monarch,  an  English  treatise  on  the  management 
of  horses  and  cattle  was  written  by  Sir  A.  Fitzherbert,  Judge  of  the  Com- 
mon Pleas,  and  was  the  first  of  the  kind  produced.  The  learned  Judge 
shared  the  common  fate  of  those  who  have  to  do  with  the  horse.  He 
thus  writes :  "  Thou  grasyer,  that  mayst  fortune  to  be  rayne  opinion  or 
condytion  to  love  horses,  and  young  coltes  and  foles  to  go  among  tliy 
cattle  ;  take  heed  that  thou  be  not  beguiled  as  I  have  been  an  hundred 
tymes  and  more.  And  first,  thou  shalt  know  that  a  good  horse  has 
54  properties  ;  viz.  Sofa  man,  2  of  a  badger,  4  of  a  lion,  9  of  an  ox,  9  of 
a  hare,  9  of  a  fox,  9  of  an  asse,  and  10  of  a  woman."  Later  writers  have 
pirated  from  Sir  A.,  but  have  not  improved  upon  him.  The  following 
description  of  the  horse  is  well  known.  "  A  good  horse  should  have 
three  qmUities  of  a  woman;  a  broad  breast,  round  hips  and  a  long  mane 
— three  of  a  lion;  countenance,  courage,  and  fire — three  of  a  bullock; 
the  eye,  the  nostril,  and  joints — three  of  a  sheep  ;  the  nose,  gentleness, 
and  patience — three  of  the  mule ;  strength,  constancy,  and  foot — three 
of  a  deer ;  head,  legs,  and  short  hair — three  of  a  wolf,  throat,  neck,  and 


62 


FAMILY 


ENGLISH  HORSE. 


hearing — three  of  a  fox ;  ear,  tail,  and  trot — three  of  a  serpent ;  memory, 
sight,  and  turning — and  three  of  a  hare,  or  cat ;  running,  walking,  and 
suppleness." 

The  tyrannical  edicts  of  Henry  VIII.  caused  the  number  of  horses  to  be" 
much  diminished,  and  for  a  long  time  little  improvement  of  the  breed  was 
made.  Aboutthe  time  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  a  South-Eastern  horse  was 
brought  into  England.  This  beautiful  animal  was  called  the  White 
Turk,  and  his  name,  and  that  of  his  keeper  will  long  be  remembered. 
Shortly  afterwards  appeared  the  Helmsley  Turk,  introduced  by  Villiers, 
the  first  Duke  of  Buckingham.  He  was  followed  by  Fairfax's  Morocco 
barb.  These  horses  speedily  effected  a  considerable  change  in  the  charac- 
ter of  the  English  breed,  so  that  Lord  Harleigh,  one  of  the  old  school, 
complained  that  the  great  horse  was  fast  disappearing,  and  that  horses 
were  now  bred  Ught  and  fine,  for  the  sake  of  speed  only. 

At  the  Restoration,  a  new  impulse  was  given  to  the  cultivation  of 
the  horse,  by  the  inclination  of  the  court  to  patronize  gaiety  and  dissi- 
pation. The  races  at  Newmarket  were  restored,  and  as  an  additional 
spur  to  emulation,  royal  plates  were  now  given  at  each  of  the  principal 
courses.  Charles  II.  sent  his  master  of  the  horse  to  the  Levant  to  purchase 
brood  mares  and  stallions.    These  were  principally  Barbs  and  Turks. 


Terms  commonly  rnadc  use  cfto  denote  the  external  parts  of  the  Horse. 

From  that  period  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  system  of  im- 
provement was  zealously  pursued;  every  variety  of  Eastern  blood  was 
occasionally  engrafted  on  the  English,  and  the  superiority  of  the  engraft- 
ed, above  the  very  best  of  the  original  stock,  began  to  be  evident.  Still 
some  imagined  that  the  speed  and  stoutness  might  possibly  be  increased ; 
and  Mr.  Dariey,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  had  re- 
course to  the  discarded  and  despised  Arabian.     He  had  much  prejudice 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


63 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HORSE. 


to  contend  with,  and  it  was  some  time  before  the  Darley  Arabian  attract- 
ed notice.  At  length  the  vahie  of  his  stock  produce  began  to  be  recog- 
nized, and  to  him  the  Enghsh  are  greatly  indebted  for  a  breed  of  horses 
of  unequalled  beauty,  speed  and  strength. 

This  last  improvement  now  furnishes  all  that  can  be  desired ;  nor  is 
this  true  of  the  thorough-bred  or  turf  horse  only ;  it  is,  to  a  very  mate- 
rial degree,  the  case  with  every  description  of  horse.  By  a  judicious 
admixture  and  proportion  of  blood,  the  English  have  rendered  their 
hunters  and  hackneys,  their  coach,  nay,  even  their  cart  horses,  much 
stronger,  more  active  and  more  enduring  than  they  were  before  the  in- 
troduction of  the  race  horse. 

For  a  better  understanding  of  our  future  observations,  we  give  on  the 
previous  page  an  outline  of  the  horse  with  the  terms  commonly  made  use 
of  to  denote  his  external  parts. 

EXTERNAL  STRUCTURE  OF  THE  HORSE. 


•      • 


64  FAMILY 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  HORSE. 


A  The  Head. 

a    The  posterior  maxillary  or  under  jaw. 

b  The  superior  maxillary  or  Tipper  jaw.  Opposite  to  the  latter  is  a 
foramen  through  which  pass  the  nerves  and  blood-vessels  which 
chiefly  supply  the  lower  part  of  the  face. 

c    The  orbit,  or  cavity  containing  the  eye. 

d    The  nasal  bones,  or  bones  of  the  nose. 

e  The  suture  dividing  the  parietal  bones  below,  from  the  occipital  bones 
above. 

/    The  inferior  maxillary  bone  containing  the  upper  incisor  teeth. 

B  The  Seven  Cervical  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  neck. 

C  The  Eighteen  Dorsal  Vertebne,  or  bones  of  the  back. 

D  The  Six  Lumbar  Vertebree,  or  bones  of  the  loins. 

E  The  Five  Sacral  Vertebra;  or  bones  of  the  haunch. 

F  The  Caudal  Vertebrae,  or  bones  of  the  tail,  generally  about  fifteen. 

G  The  Scapula,  or  shoulderblade. 

H  The  Sternum  or  fore-part  of  the  chest. 

I  The  Costae  or  ribs,  seven  or  eight  articulating  with  the  sternum,  and 
called  the  true  ribs,  and  ten  or  eleven  united  together  by  cartilage, 
called  the  false  ribs. 

J    The  Humerus,  or  bone  of  the  arm. 

K  The  Radius,  or  bone  of  the  fore-arm. 

L  The  Ulna,  or  elbow.     The  point  of  the  elbow  is  called  the  Olecranon. 

M  The  Carpus  or  knee,  consisting  of  seven  bones. 

N  The  metacarpal  bones.  The  larger  metacarpal  or  cannon  or  shank 
in  front,  andthe  smaller  metacarpal  or  splent  bone  behind. 

g  The  fore  pastern  and  foot,  consisting  of  the  Os  Suffraginis,  or  the  up- 
per and  larger  pastern  bone,  with  the  sessamoid  bones  behind  arti- 
culating with  the  cannon  and  greater  pastern ;  the  Os  Coronae,  or 
lesser  pastern;  the  Os  Pedis  or  coffin  bone;  and  the  Os  Naviculare^ 
or  navicular,  or  shuttle-bone,  not  seen,  and  articulating  with  the 
smaller  pastern  and  coffin  bones. 

h    The  corresponding  bones  of  the  hind-feet. 

O  The  Haunch,  consisting  of  three  portions,  the  Ilium,  tlie  Ischium,  and 
the  Pubis. 

P  The  Femur  or  thigh. 

Q,  The  stifle  joint  with  the  Patalla. 

R  The  Tibia,  or  proper  leg  bone — behind  is  a  small  bone  called  the  fibula. 

S  The  Tarsus  or  hock,  composed  of  six  bones.     The  prominent  part  is 

the  Os  Calcis  or  point  of  the  hock. 
T  The  Metatarsals  of  the  hind  leg. 

English  writers  describe  several  varieties  of  the  horse  which  are  found 
in  Great  Britain.     We  shall  briefly  notice  the.se,  and  begin  with  the 

RoAnsTER  or  Hackney.  This  horse  is  used  by  the  farmer  to  ride  over 
his  grounds,  and  by  the  man  of  business  on  his  journies.  The  following 
cut  represents  the  old  English  hackney  or  road  horse. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


65 


THE  ROAD  HORSE. 


THE  ROAD  HORSE. 

The  present  road  horse  is  said  to  be  a  much  superior  animal  to  the 
portrait  here  given.  In  describing  a  good  road  horse,  the  Editors  of  the 
Library  of  Useful  Knowledge  dwell  with  much  emphasis  upon  the  im- 
portance of  the  manner  in  which  he  brings  down  his  feet  to  the  ground. 
He  should  not,  indeed,  carry  his  legs  too  high,  say  they,  but  the  main 
question  is,  does  he  dig  his  toe  into  the  ground?  if  the  shoe,  after  having 
been  on  a  week  or  a  fortnight,  is  not  unnecessarily  worn  at  the  toe,  and 
you  feel  him  put  his  foot  flat  on  the  ground,  do  not  scruple  to  buy  hira^ 
nay,  esteem  him  a  "  choice  gifted  hackney." 

Every  horse,  however,  is  liable  to  fall,  and  therefore  comes  the  golden 
rule  of  riding,  "  never  trust  to  your  horse.'"  Always  feel  his  mouth  lightly. 
You  will  thus  be  able  to  give  the  animal  assistance  immediately,  before  he 
is  too  much  off  his  centre,  and  when  a  little  check  will  save  him.  By 
this  constant  gentle/ce/i«^,  you  will  hkewise  induce  him  to  carry  his  head 
well,  than  which  few  things  are  more  conducive  to  the  beautiful,  safe  and 
easy  going  of  a  horse. 

The  hackney  should  be  a  hunter  in  miniature,  with  these  exceptions. 
His  height  should  rarely  exceed  fifteen  hands  and  an  inch.  He  will  be 
sufficiently  strong  and  more  pleasant,  for  general  work,  below  that  stand- 
ard. He  should  be  of  a  more  compact  form  than  the  hunter :  more  bulk 
according  to  his  height,  for  he  has  not  merely  to  stand  an  occasional, 
although  severe  burst,  but  a  great  deal  of  every-day  work. 

It  is  of  essential  consequence  that  the  bones  beneath  the  knee  should  be 
deep  and  flat,  and  the  tendon  not  tied  in. 

The  pastern  should  be  short,  and  although  oblique  or  slanting,  yet  far 
less  so  than  that  of  the  race  horse,  and  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
hunter.  There  should  be  obliquity  enough  to  give  pleasant  action,  but 
not  enough  to  render  the  horse  incapable  of  the  wear  and  tear  of  constant, 
and  sometimes  hard  work. 

The  foot  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  consequence  in  a  hackney.  It 
f2 


66  FAMILY 


FARMER  S  HORSE. 


should  be  of  a  size  corresponding  wilh  the  bulk  of  the  animal,  neither 
too  hollow,  nor  too  flat ;  open  at  the  heels ;  and  free  from  corns  and 
thrushes. 

The  fore  legs  should  be  perfectly  straight.  There  needs  not  a  mo- 
ment's consideration  to  be  assured  that  a  horse,  with  his  knees  bent, 
will,  from  a  slight  cause,  and  especially  if  he  be  over-weighted,  come 
down. 

The  back  should  be  straight  and  short ;  yet  sufficiently  long  to  leave 
comfortable  room  for  the  saddle  between  the  shoulders  and  the  huck  with- 
out pressing  on  either.  Some  persons  prefer  a  hollow-backed  horse. 
It  is  generally  an  easy  one  to  go.  It  will  canter  well  with  a  lady ;  but  it 
will  not  carry  a  heavy  weight,  or  stand  much  hard  work. 

The  road  horse  should  be  high  in  the  forehead,  round  in  the  barrel. 
and  deep  in  the  chest ;  the  saddle  will  not  then  press  too  iorward,  but 
the  girths  will  remain,  -without  crupper,  firmly  fixed  in  their  proper  place. 

The  points  of  shape  essential  to  be  attended  to  in  the  choice  of  a 
hackney,  are — the  shoulders,  and  the  fore  legs  and  feet :  because  a  horse 
whose  shoulders  are  properly  formed  and  placed,  is  not  liable  to  fall 
down ;  and  because  his  soundness  depends  chiefly  upon  his  legs  and  feet. 
The  shoulders  should  not  be  too  upright,  but  should  slope  backwards  from 
the  shoulder  points  to  the  withers.  It  is  desirable,  if  the  horse  is  intend- 
ed to  carry  a  man  of  much  w^eight,  that  the  shoulders  should  be  rather 
thick  than  thin ;  but  it  is  essential  that  they  should  not  be  too  large  at  the 
points.  A  horse  whose  shoulders  are  good,  stands,  when  in  his  natural 
position,  with  his  fore  legs  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  ground  ;  it  is 
therefore  very  desirable  that  the  purchaser  should  see  him  in  the  stable, 
and  before  he  has  been  moved ;  for  he  will  then  find  him  in  his  natural 
position,  in  which  it  may  be  diflicult  to  place  him  after  he  has  been  once 
disturbed.  Another  mode  of  ascertaining  whether  the  shoulders  are 
properly  placed  is,  by  allowing  the  horse  to  walk  past  you,  and  to  ob- 
serve whether  he  places  his  fore  foot  more  forward  than  the  shoulder 
point  when  he  puts  it  on  the  ground.  A  horse  whose  shoulders  are 
properly  formed,  will  always  do  so;  one  whose  shoulders  are  upright, 
cannot.  The  fore  quarters  of  a  horse  intended  to  be  used  as  a  hackney, 
constitute  an  essential  point ;  his  carcass  should  be  round,  and  his  ribs 
deep.  A  horse's  fore  leg,  of  the  proper  form,  should  be  flat,  and  as  large 
under  the  knee  as  it  is  just  above  the  fetlock.  The  pastern  should  be  so 
joined  to  the  leg  at  the  fetlock,  that  the  horse  should  neither  turn  his  feet 
out  or  in ;  but  it  is  less  objectionable  that  a  horse  should  turn  his  feet  a 
little  outwards,  provided  it  is  not  so  much  as  to  make  iiim  hit  his  fetlocks, 
than  that  he  should  turn  them  inwards. 

The  FARMER'S  HORSE  is  an  animal  of  all  work;  to  be  ridden 
occasionally  to  market  or  for  pleasure,  but  to  be  principally  employed 
for  draught.  He  should  be  higher  than  the  road-horse ;  about  fifteen 
hands  and  two  inches  may  be  taken  as  the  best  standard.  A  horse  witli 
a  shoulder  thicker,  lower,  or  less  slanting  than  would  be  chosen  in  a 
hackney,  will  better  suit  the  collar;  and  collar-work  will  be  chiefly 
required  of  him.  A  stout  compact  horse  should  be  selected,  yet  not  a 
heavy  cloddy  one.  Some  blood  will  be  desirable,  but  the  half-bred 
horse  will  generally  best  suit  the  farmer's  purpose.  He  should  have 
weight  enough  to  throw  into  the  collar,  and  sufficient  activity  to  get  over 
the  ground. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 67 

COACH  HORSE. DRAUGHT  HORSE. 

The  COACH  HORSE.  This  animal  has  fully  shared  in  the  progress 
of  improvement,  and  is  as  difterent  from  what  he  was  fifty  years  ago,  as 
is  possible  to  conceive.  The  clumsy-barrelled,  cloddy-shouldered,  round- 
legged,  black  family  horse,  neither  a  coach  nor  a  dray-horse,  but  some- 
thing between  both,  as  fat  as  an  ox,  and,  with  all  his  pride  and  prancing 
at  first  starting,  not  equal  to  more  than  six  miles  an  hour,  and  knocking 
up  with  one  hard  day's  work,  is  no  more  seen :  and  we  have,  instead 
of  him,  an  animal  as  tall,  deep-chested,  rising  in  the  withers,  slanting  in 
the  shoulders,  flat  in  the  legs,  with  even  more  strength,  and  with  treble 
the  speed. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  deception,  however,  eVen  in  the  best  of  these 
improved  coach-horses.  They  prance  it  nobly  through  the  streets ;  and 
they  have  more  work  in  them  than  the  old  clumsy  sluggish  breed  ;  but 
they  have  not  the  endurance  that  could  be  wished, — and  a  pair  of  poor 
post  horses  would,  at  the  second  day,  beat  them  hollow. 

The  knee-action,  and  high  lifting  of  the  feet  in  the  carriage-horse  is 
deemed  an  excellence,  because  it  adds  to  the  grandeur  of  his  appear- 
ance; but,  as  has  already  been  stated,  it  is  necessarily  accompanied 
by  much  wear  and  tear  of  the  legs  and  feet,  and  this  is  \ery  soon  appa- 
rent. 

The  principal  points  of  the  coach-horse  are,  substance  well  placed,  a 
deep  and  well  proportioned  body,  bone  under  the  knee,  and  sound,  open, 
tough  feet. 

Heavy  Draught  Horses.  The  Cleveland  horses  have  been  known 
to  carry  more  than  seven  hundred  pounds,  sixty  miles  in  tvventy-tbur 
hours,  and  to  perform  this  journey  four  times  in  a  week  ;  and  mill  horses 
have  carried  nine  hundred  and  ten  pounds  two  or  three  miles. 

Horses  for  slower  draught,  and  sometimes  even  for  the  carriage,  are 
produced  from  the  Suffolk  Punch,  so  called  from  his  round  punchy 
make,  and  descended  from  the  Norman  stallion  and  the  Suffolk  cart- 
mare.  The  true  Sutfolk,  like  the  Cleaveland,  is  now  nearly  extinct.  It 
stood  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  high,  of  a  sorrel  color ;  was  large 
headed,  low  shouldered  and  thick  on  the  top ;  deep  and  round  chested  ; 
long  backed ;  high  in  the  croup ;  large  and  strong  in  the  quarters ;  full  in 
the  flanks  ;  round  in  the  legs ;  and  short  in  the  pasterns.  It  was  the 
very  horse  to  throw  his  whole  weight  into  the  collar,  with  suflicieut 
activity  to  do  it  effectually,  and  hardihood  to  stand  a  long  day's  work. 


FAMILY 


HEAVY  DRAUGHT  HORSE. 


r     J^: 


CLEAVELAND  BAYS.— SUFFOLK  PUNCH. 

The  present  breed  possesses  many  of  the  peculiarities  and  good  quali- 
ties of  its  ancestors.  It  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  a  sorrel  color ;  it  is  a 
taller  horse ;  higher  and  finer  in  the  shoulders ;  and  is  a  cross  with  tlie 
Yorkshire  half  or  three-fourths  bred. 

The  excellence,  and  a  rare  one,  of  the  old  Suffolk,  (the  new  breed  has 
not  quite  lost  it,)  consisted  in  niinbleness  of  action,  and  the  honesty  and 
<;ontinuance  with  which  he  will  exert  himself  at  a  dead  pull.  Many  a 
good  draught  horse  knows  well  what  he  can  effect ;  and  after  he  has  at- 
tempted it  and  failed,  no  torture  of  the  whip  will  induce  him  to  strain  his 
])owers  beyond  their  natural  extent.  The  Suffolk,  however,  would  tug 
ut  a  dead  pull  until  he  dropped.  It  was  beautiful  to  see  a  team  of  true 
Suffolks,  at  a  signal  from  the  driver,  and  without  the  whip,  down  on 
their  knees  in  a  moment,  and  drag  every  thing  before  them.  Brutal  wa- 
gers were  frequently  laid  as  to  their  power  in  this  respect,  and  many  a 
good  team  was  injured  and  ruined.  The  immense  power  of  the  Suffolk 
is  accounted  for  by  the  low  position  of  his  shoulders,  which  enables  him 
to  throw  so  much  of  his  weight  into  the  collar. 

Although  the  Punch  is  not  what  he  was,  and  the  Suffolk  and  Norfolk 
farmer  can  no  longer  boast  of  ploughing  more  land  in  a  day  than  any  one 
else,  this  is  undoubtedly  a  valuable  breed. 

The  Duke  of  Richmond  obtained  many  excellent  carriage  horses,  with 
Htrength,  activity,  and  figure,  by  crossing  the  Suffolk  with  one  of  his  best 
hunters.  The  Suffolk  breed  is  in  great  reauest  in  the  neighboring  coun- 
ties of  Norfolk  and  Essex.  Mr.  Wakefield,  of  Bamhara  in  Essex,  had 
a  utallion  for  which  he  was  offered  four  hundred  guineas. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BLACK  HORSE. —  DRAY  HORSE. CAVALRY  HORSE. 

The  Clydesdale  is  a  good  kind  of  draught  horse,  and  particularly  for 
farming  business  and  in  a  hilly  country.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
district  on  the  Clyde,  in  Scotland,  where  it  is  principally  bred.  The 
Clydesdale  horse  owes  its  origin  to  one  of  the  Dukes  of  Hamilton,  who 
crossed  some  of  the  best  Lanerk  mares  with  stallions  which  he  had 
brought  over  from  Flanders.  The  Clydesdale  is  larger  than  the  Suf- 
folk, and  has  a  better  head,  a  longer  neck,  a  lighter  carcass,  and  deeper 
legs  ;  strong,  hardy,  pulling  true,  and  rarely  restive. 

The  Heavy  black  Horse,  is  the  last  variety  it  may  be  necessary  to 
notice.  It  is  bred  chiefly  in  the  midland  counties,  from  Lincolnshire  to 
Staffordshire.  Many  are  bought  up  by  the  Surry  and  Berkshire  farm- 
ers at  two  years  old, — and  being  worked  moderately,  until  they  are  four, 
earning  their  keep  all  the  while,  they  are  then  sent  to  the  London  mar- 
ket, and  sold  at  a  profit  of  ten  or  twelve  per  cent. 

The  Dray  Horse  should  have  a  broad  breast,  and  thick  upright 
shoulders,  (the  more  upright  the  collar  stands  on  him  the  better ;)  a  low 
forehead,  deep  and  round  barrel ;  loins  broad  and  high,  ample  quarters, 
thick  fore-arms  and  thighs,  short  legs,  round  hoofs,  broad  at  the  heels^ 
and  soles  not  too  flat.  The  great  fault  of  the  large  dray-horse  is  his 
slowness. 


THE  DRAY  HORSE. 

The  Cavalry  Horse.  The  English  cavalry  horses  were  formerly 
large  and  heavy ;  but  a  considerable  change  has  taken  place  in  the  cha- 
racter of  their  war-horses — lightness  and  activity  have  succeeded  to  bulk 
and  strength  ;  and  for  skirmishing  and  sudden  attack  the  change  is  an 
improvement.  It  is  particularly  found  to  be  so  in  long  and  rapid  marches, 
which  the  lighter  troops  scarcely  regard,  while  the  heavier  horses,  with 
their  more  than  comparative  additional  weight  to  carry,  are  knocked  up. 
There  was,  however,  some  danger  of  carrying  this  too  far ;  for  it  was 
found  that  in  the  engagements  previous  to,  and  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
the  heavy  household  troops  alone  were  able  to  repulse  the  formidable 
charge  of  the  French  guard. 


70 


FAMILY 


RACE  HORSE. DARLEY  ARABIAN. 

The  Race  Horse.  There  is  much  dispute  with  regard  to  the  origin 
of  the  thorough  bred  horse.  By  some,  he  is  traced  through  both  sire  and 
dam,  to  Eastern  parentage :  others  believe  him  to  be  the  native  horse, 
improved  and  perfected  by  judicious  crossing  with  the  Barb,  the  Turk, 
or  the  Arabian. 


RACE  HORSE. 
Wliatever  may  be  the  truth  as  to  the  origin  of  the  race-horse,  the 
strictest  attention  has  for  the  last  fifty  years  been  paid  to  pedigree.     In 
the  descent  of  almost  every  modern  racer,  not  the  slightest  flaw  can  be 
discovered. 

The  racer  is  generally  distinguished  by  his  beautiful  Arabian  head ; 
his  fine,  and  finely-set  on  neck  ;  his  oblique,  lengthened  shoulders ; — 
well  bent  hinder  legs  ;  his  ample,  muscular  quarters  ;  his  flat  legs,  rather 
ehort  from  the  knee  downwards,  although  not  always  so  deep  as  they 
should  be :  and  his  long  elastic  pastern. 

The  racer,  however,  with  the  most  beautiful  form,  is  occasionally  a 
very  sorry  animal.  There  is  sometimes  a  want  of  energy  in  an  appa- 
rently faultless  shape,  for  which  tliere  is  no  accounting ;  but  there  are 
two  points  among  tho.se  just  enumerated,  which  will  rarely  or  never  de- 
ceive—a well  placed  shoulder,  and  a  well-bent  hinder  leg. 

The  D4RI.EY  Arabian  was  the  parent  of  our  be.st  racing  stock.  He 
was  purchased  by  Mr.  Darley's  brother,  at  Aleppo,  and  was  bred  in  the 
neighboring  desert  of  Palmyra.  The  figure  here  given  of  him  is  sup- 
posed to  be  an  accurate  delineation.  It  contains  every  point,  without 
»»uch  shew,  which  could  be  desired  in  a  turf  horse. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


71 


DARLEY  ARABIAN. — FLYING  CHILDERS. 


THE  DARLEY  ARABIAN. 

The  immediate  descendants  of  this  invakiable  horse,  were  the  Devon- 
shire or  Flying  Childers ;  the  Bleeding  or  Bartlett's  Childers,  who  was 
never  trained ;  Almanzor  and  others. 

The  two  Childers  were  the  means  through  which  the  blood  and  fame 
of  their  sire  were  widely  circulated,  and  from  them  descended  another 
Childers,  Snap,  Sampson,  Eclipse,  and  a  host  of  excellent  horses. 

The  Devonshire,  or  Flying  Childers,  so  called  from  the  name  of 
his  breeder,  Mr  Childers  of  Carr-House,  and  the  sale  of  him  to  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  was  the  fleetest  horse  of  his  day.  The  following  is  said 
to  present  a  true  portrait  of  him. 


FLYING  CHILDERS. 


72  FAMILY 


ECLIPSE. 


He  was  at  first  trained  as  a  hunter,  but  the  superior  speed  and  cour- 
age which  he  discovered,  caused  him  to  be  soon  transferred  to  the  turf. 
Common  report  affirms  that  he  could  run  a  mile  in  a  minute,  but  there 
is  no  authentic  record  of  this.  Childers  ran  over  the  round  course  at 
Newmarket  (three  miles,  six  furlongs  and  ninety -three  yards,)  in  six 
minutes  and  forty  seconds ;  and  the  Bacon  course,  (four  miles,  one  fur- 
long and  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  yards,)  in  seven  minutes  and 
thirty  seconds. 

Eclipse  was  got  by  Mask,  a  grandson  of  Bartlett's  Childers.  Of  the 
beauty,  yet  peculiarity  of  his  form,  much  has  been  said.  The  very  great 
size,  obliquity,  and  lowness  of  his  shoulders  were  the  objects  of  general 
remark — with  the  shortness  of  his  fore-quarters;  his  ample  and  finely 
proportioned  quarters,  and  the  swelling  muscles  of  his  fore  arm  and 
thigh.  Of  his  speed  no  correct  estimate  can  be  formed,  for  he  never  met 
with  an  opponent  sufficiently  fleet  to  put  it  to  the  test. 


ECLIPSE. 

He  was  bred  by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  sold  at  his  death  to 
Mr.  Wildman,  a  sheep  salesman,  for-seventy  five  guineas.  Col.  OKel- 
\y  purchased  a  share  of  him  from  Wildman.  In  the  spring  of  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when  the  reputation  of  this  wonderful  animal  was  at  its 
height,  O'Kelly  wished  to  become  the  sole  owner  of  him,  and  bought  the 
remaining  share  for  one  thousand  pounds. 

Eclipse  was  what  is  termed  a  thick  winded  horse,  and  puffed  and 
roared  so,  as  to  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance.  For  this  or  some 
other  cause  he  was  not  brought  on  the  turf,  until  he  was  five  years  old. 

O'Kelly  aware  of  his  horse's  powers,  had  backed  him  freely  on  his  first 
race,  in  May  1769.  This  excited  curiosity,  or  perhaps,  roused  suspi- 
cion, and  some  persons  attempted  to  watch  one  of  his  trials.  Mr,  John 
Lawrence  says  that  "  tliey  were  a  little  too  late,"  but  they  found  an  old 
woman  who  gave  them  all  the  information  they  wanted.  On  enquiring, 
whether  she  had  seen  a  race,  she  replied  "that  she  could  not  tell  wheth- 
er it  was  a  race  or  not ;  but  that  she  had  just  seen  a  horse  with  white 
legs  running  awa^j  at  a  monstrous  rate,  and  another  horse  a  great  way 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


WELLESLEY    ARABIAN. 


behind  him,  trying  to  run  after  him ;  but  she  was  sure  he  would  never 
catch  the  white  legged  horse,  if  he  ran  to  the  world's  end." 

The  first  heat  was  easily  won,  when  O'Kelly  observing  that  the  rider 
had  been  pulling  at  Eclipse  during  the  whole  race,  otfered  a  wager  that 
he  would  distance  the  horses  in  the  next  heat.  This  seemed  a  thing  so 
highly  improbable,  that  he  immediately  had  bets  to  a  large  amount. 
Being  called  on  to  declare,  he  replied  "  Eclipse  first,  and  the  rest  no 
where!"  The  event  justified  his  prediction:  all  the  others  were  dis- 
tanced by  Eclipse  with  the  greatest  ease,  or,  in  the  language  of  the  turf, 
they  had  no  place. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  he  beat  Mr.  Wentworth'.s  Buce- 
phalus, who  had  never  before  been  conquered.  Two  days  afterwards, 
he  distanced  Mr.  Strode's  Pensioner,  a  very  good  horse ;  and  in  August 
of  the  same  year  he  won  the  greatest  subscription  at  York.  No  horse 
daring  to  enter  against  him,  he  closed  his  short  career  of  seventeen 
months,  by  walking  over  the  Newmarket  course  for  the  king's  plate,  on. 
October  the  I8th,  1770.  He  was  never  beaten,  nor  ever  paid  forfeit, 
and  won  for  his  owner  more  than  twenty-five  thousand  pounds. 


THE  WELLESLEY  ARABL\N. 

Wellesley  Arabian.  This  is  the  very  picture  of  a  beautiful  wild 
horse  of  the  desert,  his  precise  country  was  never  determined,  although 
it  is  known  that  he  was  a  horse  of  foreign  extraction.  He  is  evidendy 
neither  a  perfect  Barb,  nor  a  perfect  Arabiiui,  but  from  a  neighbouring 
province,  where  both  the  Barb  and  Arabian  would  expand  to  a  more 
perfect  fullness  of  form.  This  horse  has  been  erroneously  selected  a« 
the  pattern  of  a  superior  Arabian,  and  therefore  we  have  introduced 
him ;  few,  however,  of  his  produce  were  trained  who  can  add  much  to 
his  reputation. 

It  has  been  imagined  that  the  breed  of  racing  horses  has  lately  ver^ 
considerably  degenerated.  This  is  not  the  case.  Thorough-bred  norse;* 
were  formerly  fewer  in  number  and  their  performances  created  greater 

G 


FAMILY 


HUNTER. — GALLOWAYS    AND   PONIES. 

wonder.  The  breed  has  now  hicreased  twenty  fold,  and  superiority  is 
not  so  easily  obtained  among  so  many  competitors.  If  one  circumstance 
could  more  than  any  other,  produce  this  degeneracy,  it  would  be  the 
absurd  and  cruel  habit  of  bringing  out  horses  too  soon,  and  the  frequent 
failure  of  their  legs  before  they  have  come  to  their  full  power,  Child- 
ers  and  Eclipse  did  not  appear  until  they  were  five  years  old  ;  but  ma- 
ny of  our  best  horses  and  those,  perhaps,  who  would  have  shown  equal 
excellence  with  the  most  celebrated  racers,  are  foundered  and  destroyed 
before  that  period. 


THE  HUNTER. 

The  Hunter,  is  derived  from  horses  of  entire  blood,  or  such  as  arc 
but  little  removed  from  it,  uniting  with  mares  of  substance,  correct 
form,  and  good  action.  In  some  instances  hunters  are  derived  from 
large  mares  of  the  pure  breed  propagating  with  powerful  stallions  of 
the  old  English  road  horse.  This  favorite  and  valuable  breed  is  a  happy 
combination  of  the  speed  of  the  Arabian,  with  the  durabihty  of  the  na- 
tive horse.  More  extended  in  form,  but  framed  on  the  same  principles, 
he  is  able  to  carry  a  considerable  weight  through  heavy  grounds  with  a 
swiftness  equalled  only  by  the  animal  he  pursues,  and  with  a  persever- 
ance astonishing  to  the  natives  of  every  other  country.  Hence  the  ex- 
treme demand  for  this  breed  of  horses  in  every  European  country,  the 
Enghsh  racing  stallions  being  now  sent  to  propagate  in  the  eastern 
climes,  from  whence  some  of  them  were  originally  brought. 

Galloways  and  Ponies.  A  horse  between  thirteen  and  fourteen 
hands  in  height  is  called  a  Galloway,  from  a  beautiful  breed  of  little 
horses  once  found  in  the  south  of  Scotland,  on  the  shore  of  the  Solway 
Frith,  but  now  sadly  degenerated,  and  almost  lost,  from  the  attempts  of 
the  farmers  to  obtain  a  larger  kind,  and  better  adapted  to  the  purpose  of 
agriculture. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 75 

GALLOWAYS  AND  PONIES. 


GALLOWAYS  AND  PONIES. 

Dr.  Anderson  thus  describes  the  Galloway :  There  was  once  a  breed 
of  small  elegant  horses  in  Scotland,  similar  to  those  of  Iceland  and  Swe- 
den, and  which  were  known  by  the  name  of  Galloways ;  the  best  of 
which  sometimes  reached  the  height  of  fourteen  hands  and  a  half  One  , 
of  this  description  I  possessed,  it  having  been  bought  for  my  use  when  a 
boy.  In  point  of  elegance  of  shape  it  was  a  perfect  picture;  and  in  dis- 
position was  gentle  and  compliant.  It  moved  almost  with  a  wish,  and 
never  tired.  I  rode  this  little  creature  for  twenty-five  years,  and,  twice 
in  that  time  I  rode  an  hundred  and  fifty  nnles  at  a  stretch,  without  stop- 
ping except  to  bait,  and  that  for  not  above  an  hour  at  a  time.  It  came  in 
at  the  last  stage  with  as  much  ease  and  alacrity  as  it  travelled  the  first. 
I  could  have  undertaken  to  have  perfbrmed  on  this  beast,  when  it  was  in 
its  prime,  sixty  miles  a  day  for  a  twelve  month  running,  without  any 
♦jxlraordinary  exertions. 

The  Wet.sh  Poxey  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  little  animals  that  can 
be  imagined.  He  has  a  small  head,  high  withers,  deep  yet  round  barrel, 
short  joints,  flat  legs,  and  good  round  feet.  He  will  live  on  any  fare,  and 
ran  never  be  tired  out. 

The  Highland  Poney  is  far  inferior  to  the  Galloway.  The  head  is 
large,  he  is  low  before,  long  in  the  back,  short  in  the  legs,  upright  in  the 
pasterns,  rather  slow  in  his  paces,  and  not  pleasant  to  ride,  except  in  the 
canter.  His  habits  make  him  hardy,  for  he  is  rarely  housed  in  the  sum- 
mer or  the  winter.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hall,  in  his  Travels  in  Scotland,  says, 
"that  when  these  animals  come  to  any  boggy  piece  of  ground,  they  first 
put  their  nose  to  it,  and  then  pat  on  it  in  a  peculiar  way  with  one  of  their 
fore  feet,  and  from  the  sound  and  feel  of  the  ground,  they  know  whether 
it  will  bear  them.  They  do  the  same  with  ice,  and  determine  in  a  minute 
whether  they  will  proceed." 


FAMILY 


SHETLAND  PONEY. 


SHETLAND  PONEY. 


Tlie  Shetland  PoxKVr  called  in  Scotland  Sheltie,  an  inhabitant  of  tlie 
extreme  northern  Scottish  isles,  is  a  vury  diminutive  animal,  sometimes 
not  seven  hands  and  a  half"  in  height,  and  rarely  exceeding  nine  and  a 
half.  He  is  often  exceedingly  beautiful,  with  a  small  head,  good  temper- 
ed countenance,  a  short  neck,  fine  towards  the  throttle,  shoulders  low 
and  thick,  (in  so  little  a  creature  far  from  being  a  blemish,)  back  short, 
quarters  expanded  and  powerful,  legs  flat  and  fine,  and  pretty  round  feet. 
They  possess  immense  strength  for  their  size,  will  fatten  on  any  thing, 
JUid  are  perfectly  docile.  One  of  them  nine  liands,  or  three  feet  in  height, 
carried  a  man  of  twelve  stone,  forty  miles  in  one  day. 

The  IrasH  Horse  is  generally  smaller  than  the  English.  He  is  stinted 
in  his  growth,  fur  the  poverty  and  custom  of  the  country  have  imposed 
u))on  him  much  hard  work,  at  a  time  when  he  is  unfit  for  labor  of  any 
kind.  For  this  reason,  too,  the  Irish  horse  is  deficient  in  speed,  "i'here 
is,  however,  another  explanation  of  this.  The  Irish  thorough-bred  hor.se 
is  not  equal  to  the  English.  He  is  comparatively  a  weedy,  leggy,  worth- 
less animal,  and  very  little  of  him  enters  into  the  composition  of  the 
liunter  or  the  liackney. 

For  leaping,  the  Irish  horse  is  unrivalled.  It  is  not,  however,  the  leap- 
ing of  the  English  horse,  striding,  as  it  were,  over  a  low  fence,  and  stretch- 
ed at  his  full  length  over  a  higher  one ;  it  is  the  ])roper  jm/w;>  of  the  deer, 
beautiful  to  look  at.difficult  to  sit,  and  both  in  height  and  extent  unequalled 
by  the  English  horse. 

There  are  very  few  horses  in  the  agricultural  districts  of  Ireland  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  draught.  The  minute  division  of  iJie  farm  renders  it 
impossible  for  them  to  be  kept.  The  occupier  even  of  a  tolerable  sized 
Irish  farm,  wants  a  horse  that  shall  carry  him  to  market,  and  draw  his 
.small  car,  and  perform  e\  ery  kind  of  drudgery — a  horse  of  all  work ; 
therefore  the  thorough  draft  horse,  whether  Leicestershire  or  Suffolk,  is 
rarely  found. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 77 

AJVIERICAN  HORSE. 

The  American  Horse.  In  the  extensive  territory  and  varied  climate 
of  the  Western  Continent,  several  breeds  of  horses  are  found.  Our  Umits 
will  permit  us  to  notice  briefly,  only  the  following. 

Wild  Horse.  Troops  of  wild  horses  which  are  of  Spanish  descent,  are 
found  in  several  parts  of  South  America.  Some  of  these  troops  are 
supposed  to  contain  several  thousands.  They  appear  to  be  under  the 
command  of  a  leader,  the  strongest  and  boldest  of  the  herd,  and  whom 
they  implicitly  obey.  In  the  thinly  inhabited  parts  of  South  iVmerica,  it 
is  dangerous  to  fall  in  with  any  of  their  troops. 

The  manner  in  w  hich  these  horses  are  taken,  is  interesting  and  curi- 
ous. This  is  generally  accomplished  by  the  Guacho,  or  native  inhabitant 
of  the  plahis,  who  uses  for  this  purpose  the  lasso,  a  strong  plaited  thong, 
of  ecpial  thickness,  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  forty  feet  long;  made 
of  many  stripes  of  green  hide,  plaited  like  a  whip-thong,  and  rendered 
supple  by  grease.  It  has  at  one  end  an  iron  ring,  above  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  tlirough  winch  the  thong  is  passed,  and  this  forms  a 
running  noose. 

When  the  Guacho  wishes  to  take  a  wild  horse,  he  mounts  one  that  has 
been  used  to  the  sport  and  gallops  over  the  plain.  One  end  of  his  lasso 
is  affixed  to  his  saddle-girth ;  the  remainder,  he  coils  carefully  in  his  left 
hand,  leaving  about  12  feet  belonging  to  the  noose  end  in  a  coil,  and  a 
half  of  which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand.  He  then  swings  this  long  noose 
horizontally  around  his  iiead,  the  weight  of  the  iron  ring  at  the  end  of  the 
)ioose  assistbig  in  giving  it  by  a  continued  circular  motion,  a  sufficient 
Ibrce  to  project  it  tiie  whole  length  of  the  line. 

Thus  equipped,  the  Guacho,  as  we  have  remarked,  gallops  over  the 
plain.  As  soon  as  he  comes  sufficiently  near  his  prey,  the  lasso  is 
thrown  round  the  two  hind  legs,  and  as  the  Guacho  rides  a  little  on  one 
side,  the  jerk  pulls  the  entangled  horse's  feet  laterally  so  as  to  throw 
him  on  his  side,  without  endangerhig  his  knees,  or  his  face.  Before 
the  horse  can  recover  the  shock,  the  rider  dismounts,  and  snatching  his 
ponclio,  or  cloak,  from  his  shoulders,  wraps  it  round  the  prostrate  ani- 
mal's head.  He  then  forces  into  his  mouth  one  of  the  powerful  bridles 
of  the  country,  straps  a  saddle  on  his  back,  and  bestriding  him,  removes 
the  poncho  ;  upon  which  the  astonished  horse  springs  on  his  legs,  and 
endeavors  by  a  thousand  vain  efforts,  to  disencumber  himself  of  his 
new  master,  who  sits  quite  composedly  on  his  back,  and  by  a  discipline 
which  never  fails,  reduces  the  horse  to  such  complete  obedience,  that  he 
is  soon  trained  to  lend  his  whole  speed  and  strength  to  the  capture  of  his 
companions. 

Canadian  Horse.  This  horse  is  found  principally  in  Canada  and  the 
northern  states.  He  is  supposed  to  be  of  French  descent,  and  many 
of  the  celebrated  American  trotters  are  of  this  breed.  This  species  of 
horse  is  generally  small,  but  remarkably  compact.  He  will  keep  in  good 
condition,  and  even  grow  fat  on  indifferent  fare. 

Conestoga  Horse.  This  horse  is  found  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  mid- 
dle States.  He  is  generally  long  in  the  leg,  and  light  in  the  carcass, — 
-sometimes  rising  seventeen  hands,  used  principally  for  the  carriage ; 
but  when  not  too  high,  and  with  sufficient  substance,  useful  for  hunting 
and  the  saddle. 

English  Horse  in  the  United  States.  The  horses  generally  found  in  the 
United  States,  are   the  descendants    of  English   importation.     Untif 


78 


FAMILY 


AMERICAN  ECLIPSE. 


within  a  few  years  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  raising  of  first 
rate  horses.  This  is  particularly  true  of  New  England.  A  deeper  in- 
terest, however,  is  beginning  to  be  felt  on  this  important  subject,  and 
many  valuable  horses  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  More 
attention  has  for  years  been  paid  to  the  rearing  of  good  horses  in  Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky,  and  other  southern  states.  Importations  of  the  best 
Enghsh  blood  have  at  different  times  been  made  which  has  been  diligent- 
ly and  purely  preserved. 

Our  limits  forbid  even  the  mention  of  the  names  of  distinguished 
horses,  which  from  time  to  time  have  been  imported  into  the  countrj-, 
and  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  the  finest  horses  of  the  present  day. 
Nor  shall  we  attempt  an  enumeration  of  the  valuable  horses  which  have 
been  bred  in  our  own  country ;  but  content  ourselves  with  present- 
ing to  our  readers  the  following  portrait  of  the  celebrated  American 
Eclipse,  named  after  his  English  ancestor  Eclipse,  when  only  five 
months  old,  from  the  promise  which  he  then  gave  of  peculiar  strength 
and  speed. 


AMERICAN  ECLIPSE. 


This  was  a  sorrel  horse,  with  a  star,  and  the  near  hind  foot  white,  fif- 
teen hands  three  inches  high,  possessing  a  large  share  of  bone  and  muscle, 
and  excelling  all  horses  of  his  day  in  the  three  great  essentials  of  speed, 
stoutness,  and  ability  to  caiTy  weight.  He  was  foaled  in  the  year  1814. 
His  pedigree  is  traced  through  the  celebrated  English  horse.  Messenger, 
Eclipse;  up  to  the  distinguished  Godolphin  Arabian,  of  which  we  have 
given  a  particular  account,  in  a  previous  page. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


79 


BELLFOUNDER. 


BELLFOUNDER. 

This  celebrated  horse  is  a  bright  bay,  with  bhick  legs,  standing  15 
hands  high ;  his  superior  blood,  symmetry  and  action  excel  those  of 
every  other  trotting  stallion.  He  is  allowed  by  the  best  judges  in 
Norfolk  [Eng.]  to  be  the  fastest  and  best  bred  horse  eVer  sent  out  of  that 
country.* 


CRITERIA,  AGE,  «&C.  OF  HORSE.?. 


The  general  criteria  of  the  qualities  of  the  horse,  observes  Loudon,  are 
derived  from  inspection  and  trial.  His  outward  appearance  among 
judges  affords  a  pretty  just  criterion  of  his  powers,  and  a  moderate  trial 
usually  enables  the  same  judgment  to  decide  on  the  disposition  to  exercise 
such  powers. 

Color  as  a  criterion  of  mental  and  personal  qualities,  is  laid  much 
stress  on  by  many  persons :  and  notwithstanding  the  adage,  that  **  a  good 
horse  cannot  be  of  a  bad  color;"  long  exi^erience  has  shown  that,  iu 
general  cases,  certahi  tints  are  usually  accompanied  by  certain  qualities 
of  person  or  disposition.  As  a  general  rule,  dark  colored  horses  are 
certainly  the  best ;  but  black,  as  the  darkest  of  all,  seems  to  form  an  ex- 
ception to  this  rule.  Light  shades  appear  unfavorable  to  strength  and. 
durability ;  they  are  also  accompanied  frequently  with  iritability,  and 
perverseness  of  temper.  Something  like  a  general  law  in  the  animal 
economy  seems  to  prevail  to  make  white  a  distinctive  mark  of  weakness. 
Ag.",  which  is  the  parent  of  weakness,  brings  with  it  white  hairs,  both  in 
man  and  in  horses,  and  most  other  quadrupeds.  The  hair  formed,  after 
a  wound  has  robbed  a  part  of  its  original  covering,  is  often  white,  be- 

*  Bellfounder  now  stands  on  Long  Island. 


80  FAMILY 


CRITERIA,  AGE,  &C.  OF  HORSES. 

cause  the  new  Ibrrued  surface  is  yet  in  a  state  of  debility.  It  is  likewise 
u  fact,  well  known  among  the  observant,  that  the  legs  and  feet  when 
white,  are  more  obnoxious  to  disease,  than  those  of  a  darker  tone.  The 
Arabs  remark  that  light  chesnut  horses,  have  soft  tender  feet.  It  is  the 
ol)servance  of  these  peculiarities,  tiiat  has,  at  length,  guided  our  taste  and 
formed  our  judgment  of  beauty.  With  the  English,  much  white  on  the 
legs  is  considered  as  a  deformity,  and  is  expressively  called,  foul  marked ; 
whereas  pied  ninrkings  in  other  parts  are  reckoned  beautiful.  In 
Africa,  however,  Capt.  Lyon  iuform.s  us,  a  superstitious  dependence  is 
placed  on  horses  witn  legs  and  feet  stockined  with  white.  It  does  not 
appear  that  climate  has  tlie  same  inttueuce  on  the  color  of  horses,  as  on 
other  domesticated  animals.  In  all  latitudes,  in  which  the  horse  can 
live,  he  is  black  or  white,  indiscriminately  ;  but  as  he  cannot  endure  ex- 
U-eme  rigour,  it  is  not  necessary  he  should  vary. 

The  criteria  of  action  are  derived  from  a  due  consideration  of  the  fomi 
generally,  and  of  the  limbs  particularly  ;  as  well  as  from  seeing  the  horise 
perform  his  paces  in  hand. 

The  criteria  of  hardihood  are  derived  from  the  form  of  the  carcass,  which 
should  be  circular  or  barrelled  ;  by  which,  food  is  retained,  and  strength 
gained,  to  perform  what  is  required.  Such  horses  are  also  generally 
good  feeders. 

The  criteria  of  spirit,  vigor,  or  mettle,  as  it  is  termed,  are  best  deriv- 
ed from  trial.  It  should  always  be  kept  in  mind,  that  a  hot  fiery  horse 
is  as  objectionable  as  a  horse  of  good  courage  is  desirable.  Hot  horses 
may  be  known  by  their  disinclination  to  stand  still ;  by  their  mettle  being 
raised  by  the  slightest  exercise,  especially  when  in  company.  Such 
horses  seldom  last  long,  and  under  accident  are  impetuous  and  frighten- 
ed in  the  extreme.  A  good  couraged  horse,  on  the  contrary,  moves 
with  readiness  as  well  alone  as  in  company :  he  carries  one  ear  forward 
and  one  backward  ;  is  attentive  and  cheerful,  loves  to  be  talked  to,  and 
(jaressed,  even  while  on  his  journey  ;  and  if  in  double  harness,  will  play 
with  his  mate.  Good  couraged  horses  are  always  the  best  tempered, 
and,  under  difficulties,  are  by  far  the  most  quiet,  and  least  disposed  to 
do  mischief. 

The  criteria  of  a  horse  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  labors  of  agriculture,  are 
thus  given  by  Culley.  His  head  should  be  as  small  as  the  jjroportion 
of  the  animal  will  admit ;  his  nostrils  expanded,  and  muzzle  fine;  his 
eyes  cheerful  and  prominent ;  his  ears  small,  upright,  and  placed  near 
together;  his  neck,  rising  out  from  between  his  shoulders  with  an  easy 
lajjering  curve,  must  join  gracefully  to  the  head ;  his  .'jhoulders,  being 
well  thrown  back,  must  also  go  into  his  neck  (at  what  is  called  the  points) 
unperceived,  which  perhaps  facilitates  the  going  nuich  more  than  the 
narrow  shoulder ;  the  arm,  or  fore  thigh  should  be  muscular,  and  taper- 
ing from  the  shoulder,  to  meet  a  fine,  strait,  sinewy,  and  bony  leg ;  the 
•  hoof  circular,  and  wide  at  the  heel;  his  che.st  deep,  and  full  at  the  girth; 
his  loins  or  fillets  broad  and  straight,  and  body  round  ;  his  hips  or  hook.s 
by  no  menus  wide,  but  quarters  long,  and  the  tail  set  on  so  as  to  be  near- 
ly in  the  same  right  line  as  his  back ;  his  thighs  strong  and  muscular  ; 
liis  legs  clean  and  line  boned ;  the  leg-bones  not  round,  but  what  is  called 
lathy  or  flat." 

The  criteria,  relative  to  the  age  and  the  essential  characteristics  of  a 
good  hor^e,  may  not  improperly  form  a  part  of  the  present  outline.    In 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 81 

CRITERIA,  AGE,   &C.  OF  HORSES. 

old  horses,  the  eye-pits  are  generally  deep  ;  though  this  mark  is  very 
uncertain,  as  it  also  occurs  in  young  horses  that  are  descended  from 
aged  stallions.  But  the  most  certain  criterion  is  thai  derived  from  the 
teeth,  the  number  of  which  amounts  to  forty ;  namely,  twenty-four 
grinders  or  doable  teeth,  (which  in  fact  afford  no  certain  guide,)  and 
sixteen  others,  viz.  four  tushes  or  tusks,  and  twelve  fore-teeth :  these 
last  are  the  surest  guides  for  discovering  the  age  of  a  horse.  As  mares 
usually  have  no  tusks,  their  teeth  are  only  thirty-six.  A  colt  is  foaled 
without  teeth;  in  a  few  days  he  puts  out  four,  which  are  called  pincers, 
or  nippers ;  soon  after  appear  the  four  separaters,  next  to  the  pincers  ; 
it  is  sometimes  three  or  four  months  before  the  next,  called  corner  teeth, 
puf^li  forth.  These  twelve  colt's  teeth,  in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  con- 
tinue, without  alteration,  till  the  colt  is  two  years  or  two  years  and  a  half 
old,  which  makes  it  diliicult,  without  great  care,  to  avoid  being  imposed 
on  during  that  interval,  if  the  seller  find  it  his  interest  to  make  the  colt 
pass  for  either  younger  or  older  than  he  really  is :  the  only  rule  you  have 
then  to  judge  by  is  histioat,  and  the  hairs  of  his  mane  and  tail.  A  colt 
of  one  year  has  a  supple,  rough  coat,  resembling  that  of  a  water- 
spaniel,  and  the  hair  of  his  mane  and  tail  feels  like  flax,  and  hangs  like  a 
rope  untwisted:  whereas  a  colt  of  two  years  has  a  flat  coat,  and  straight 
ears  like  a  grown  horse. 

At  about  two  years  and  a  half  old,  sometimes  sooner,  sometimes  later, 
according  as  he  has  been  fed,  a  horse  begins  to  change  his  teeth..  The 
pincers  which  come  the  first,  are  also  the  first  that  fall ;  so  that  at  three 
years  he  has  four  horse's  and  eight  colt's  teeth,  which  are  easily  known 
apart,  the  former  being  larger,  flatter,  and  yellower,  than  the  other,  and 
streaked  from  the  end  quite  into  the  gums. 

These  four  horse  pincers  have  in  the  middle  of  their  extremities,  a 
black  hole,  very  deep  ;  whereas  those  of  the  colt  are  round  and  white. 
When  the  horse  is  coming  four  years  old,  he  loses  his  four  separaters,  or 
middle  teeth,  and  puts  forth  four  others,  which  follow  the  same  rule  as 
the  pincers.  He  has  now  eight  horse's  teeth  and  four  colt's.  At  five 
years  old  he  sheds  the  four  corner,  which  are  his  last  colt's  teeth,  and  is 
called  a  horse. 

During  this  year,  also,  his  four  tusks  (which  are  chiefly  peculiar  to 
horses)  come  behind  the  others ;  the  lower  ones  often  four  months  be- 
fore the  upper;  but  whatever  may  be  the  common  opinion,  a  horse  that 
h;is  the  two  lower  tusks,  if  he  has  not  the  upper,  may  be  judged  to  be 
under  five  years  old,  unless  the  other  teeth  show  the  contrary  ;  for  some 
horses  that  live  to  be  very  old  never  have  any  tusks  at  all.  The  tw(i 
lower  tusks  are  one  of  the  most  certain  rules  that  a  horse  is  coming  fivo 
years  old,  notwithstanding  his  colt's  teeth  may  not  be  all  gone. 

It  is  not  an  unfrequeut  practice  of  jockies  and  breeders,  in  order  to 
make  their  colts  seem  rive  years  old,  when  they  are  but  four,  to  pull  out 
their  last  colt's  teeih  ;  but  if  all  the  colts  teeth  be  gone,  and  no  tusks  ap- 
pear, the  purchaser  may  be  certain  this  trick  has  been  played :  another 
artifice  they  use  is  to  beat  the  bars  every  day  with  a  wooden  mallet,  in 
the  place  where  the  tusks  are  to  appear,  in  order  to  make  them  seem 
hard,  as  if  the  tusks  were  just  ready  to  cut. 


82 


FAMILY 


CRITERIA,  AGE,   &C.  OF  HORSES. 

Figure  1  of  the  annexed  engravings  of  the  horse's  teeth,  represents 
them  at  2  years  and  and  a  half  old ;  fig.  2,  at  3  years  old  ;  fig.  3,  at  4  years ; 
fig.  4,  at  5  years  ;  and  fig.  5,  at  6  years. 

No.l.  No.  2.  No.S. 


When  a  horse  is  coming  six  years  old,  the  two  lower  pincers  fill  up,  and 
instead  of  the  holes  above  mentioned,  show  only  a  black  spot.  Betwixt 
six  and  seven  the  two  middle  teeth  fill  np  in  the  same  manner;  and  be- 
tween seven  and  eight  the  corner  teeth  do  the  like ;  after  which  it  is  said 
to  be  impossible  to  know  certainly  the  age  of  a  hor.se,  he  having  no  longer 
any  mark  in  the  mouth.  In  this  case  recourse  can  only  be  had  to  tlie 
tusks,  and  the  situation  of  the  teeth. 

With  respect  to  the  tusks,  the  purchaser  must  with  his  finger  feel  the 
inside  of  them  from  the  point  quite  to  the  gum.  If  the  tusk  be  pointed 
flat,  and  have  two  little  channels  within  side,  he  may  be  certain  the  horse 
is  not  old  and  at  the  utmost  only  coming  ten.  Between  eleven  and 
twelve  the  two  channels  are  reduced  to  one,  which  after  twelve  entirely 
disaj)pears,  and  the  tusks  are  as  round  within  as  they  are  without;  he 
has  no  guide  then  but  the  situation  of  the  teeth.  The  longest  teeth  are 
not  always  a  sign  of  the  greatest  age,  but  their  hanging  over  and  pushing 
forward,  as  also  their  nieeting  perpendicularly,  is  a  certain  token  of 
youth. 

Many  persons,  whilst  they  see  certain  little  holes  in  the  middle  of  the 
teeth,  imagine  that  such  horses  are  but  in  their  .seventh  year,  without 
regard  to  the  situation  the  teeth  take  as  they  grow  old. 

When  horses  are  young,  their  teeth  u)eet  perpendicularly,  but  grow 
longer  and  push  forward  with  age  ;  besides,  the  mouth  of  a  young  horse 
is  very  fleshy  within,  in  the  palate,  and  his  lips  are  firm  and  hard:  on 
the  contrary,  the  in.side  of  an  old  horse's  mouth  is  lean  both  above  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 83 

CRITERIA,  AGE,   &C.   OF  HORSES. 

below,  and  seems  to  have  only  the  skin  upon  the  bones.     The  lips  are 
soft  and  easy  to  turn  up  with  the  hand. 

All  horses  are  marked  in  the  same  manner,  but  some  naturally  and 
others  artificially.  The  natural  mark  is  called  begue  ;  and  some  igno- 
rant persons  imagine  such  horses  are  marked  all  their  hves ;  because 
for  many  years  they  find  a  little  hole,  or  a  kind  of  void  in  the  middle  of 
the  separaters  and  corner  teeth  ;  but  when  the  tusks  are  grown  round, 
as  well  within  as  without,  and  the  teeth  point  forward,  there  is  room  to 
conjecture,  in  proportion  as  they  advance  from  year  to  year,  what  the 
horse's  age  may  be,  without  regarding  the  cavity  above  mentioned. 

This  artificial  manner  is  made  use  of  by  dealers  and  jockies,  who 
mark  their  horses  after  the  age  of  being  known,  to  make  them  appear 
only  six  or  seven  years  old.  They  do  it  in  this  manner  :  they  throw 
down  the  horse  to  have  him  more  at  command,  and,  with  a  steel  graver, 
like  what  is  used  for  ivory,  hollow  the  middle  teeth  a  little,  and  the  cor- 
ner ones  somewhat  more  ;  then  fill  the  holes  with  a  little  rosin,  pitch, 
sulphur,  or  some  grains  of  wheat,  which  they  burn  in  with  a  bit  of  hot 
wire,  made  in  proportion  to  the  hole.  This  operation  they  repeat  from 
time  to  time,  till  they  give  the  hole  a  lasting  black,  in  imitation  of  nature : 
but  notwithstanding  this  fraudulent  attempt,  the  hot  iron  makes  a  little 
yellowish  circle  round  the  holes  like  that  which  it  would  leave  upon 
ivory  ;  they  have  therefore  another  trick  to  prevent  detection,  which  is 
to  make  the  horse  foam  from  time  to  time,  after  having  rubbed  his 
mouth,  lips,  and  gums  with,  salt,  and  crumbs  of  bread  dried  and  pow- 
dered with  salt.     This  foam  hides  the  circle  made  by  the  iron. 

Another  thing  which  they  cannot  accomphsh,  is  to  counterfeit  young 
tusks,  it  being  out  of  their  power  to  make  those  two  crannies  above  men- 
tioned, which  are  given  by  nature ;  with  files  they  make  them  shorter  or 
flatter,  but  then  they  take  away  the  shining  natural  enamel,  so  that  one 
may  always  know,  by  these  tusks,  horses  that  are  past  seven,  till  they 
come  to  twelve  or  thirteen.  The  figures  prefixed  to  these  remarks  on 
horse's  teeth,  will  illustrate  the  preceding  hints ;  being  drawn  from  the 
teeth  themselves,  at  the  various  ages  therein  specified. 

With  regard  to  the  circumstances  indicating  a  sound  horse,  it  may  be 
observed,  that  where  a  horse  is  free  from  blemish,  the  legs  and  thighs  are 
well  shaped ;  the  knees  straight ;  the  skin  and  shanks  thin ;  the  back 
sinews  strong  and  firm.  The  pastern  joints  should  be  small  and  taper, 
and  the  hock  lean,  dry,  and  not  puffed  up  witli  wind.  With  respect  to 
the  hoof  itself,  the  coronet  ought  to  be  thick,  without  any  tumour  or 
swelling ;  the  horn  bright,  and  of  a  grayitih  color.  The  fibres  of  a 
strong  foot  appear  very  distinctly,  running  in  a  direct  line  from  the 
coronet  to  the  toe,  Hke  the  grain  of  wood.  Such  a  foot,  however,  ought 
to  be  kept  moist  and  pliable,  as  it  is  subject  to  fissures  and  cracks,  by 
which  the  hoof  is  sometimes  cleft  through  the  whole  length  of  the  cor- 
onet. A  narrow  heel  is  likewise  a  great  defect ;  and,  if  it  do  not  exceed 
two  fingers  in  breadth,  it  forms  an  imperfect  foot.  A  high  heel  often 
causes  a  horse  to  trip  or  stumble:  while  a  low  one  with  long  yielding 
pasterns,  is  apt  to  be  worn  away  on  a  long  journey.  On  the  oUier  hand. 
a  foot  disproportionately  large,  renders  the  animal  weak  and  clumsy  in 
its  gait. 

The  head  of  a  horse  ought  to  be  small,  and  rather  lean  than  fleshy ; 
his  ears  should  be  erect,  thin,  sprightly,  and  pointed ;  the  neck  arched 


m  FAMILY 


NICKING  HORSES. 


towards  the  middle,  tapering  gradually  towards  the  head ;  the  shoulders 
rather  long;  the  withers  thin,  and  enlarged  by  degrees  as  they  extend 
downwards,  yet  so  as  to  render  his  braast  neither  too  gross  nor  too  nar- 
row. Such  are  the  principal  marks  by  which  the  best  form  and  propor- 
tion of  that  useful  animal  may  be  determined,  without  reference  to  the 
deviations  from  those  general  rules  which  characterize  the  cart-horse, 
and  which  have  been  already  noticed. 

Nicking  is  an  operation  performed  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  horse 
carry  an  elegant  artificial  tail.  To  such  an  operation  some  farmers  have 
a  strong  objection,  on  account  of  the  suffering  it  causes  to  the  animal, 
and  a  belief  of  its  injurious  eftects,  especially  in  relaxing  the  muscles 
about  the  hinderparts.  The  former  objection  has  more  weight  than  the 
latter;  since  those  tendons,  muscles,  nerves,  arteries  &c.  which  are  sepa- 
rated in  nicking,  are  always  cut  in  docking,  an  operation  often  made, 
and  never  to  the  permanent  injury,  or  weakening  of  the  horse. 

Several  methods  for  nicking  horses  have  been  adopted  by  different 
persons.  The  following,  however,  it  is  believed  has  the  sanction  of  the 
most  experienced.* 

Having  provided  a  convenient  stall,  pulleys,  halter  and  manger,  you 
may  proceed  to  secure  the  horse,  by  putting  a  twitch  on  his  upper  lip, 
but  not  so  high,  as  to  prevent  his  breathing ;  next  make  a  cord  fast  to 
the  fet-lock  of  one  of  his  hind  legs,  and  carry  it  thence,  and  fasten  it  to 
the  fore  leg,  above  the  knee.  Thus  confined,  the  horse  can  do  no  injury 
to  the  operator,  and  his  attendants.  The  tail  of  the  horse  is  now  to  be 
closely  and  neatly  platted  from  the  root  to  the  end,  at  which  point  it  shouki 
be  dubbed  or  turned  over  a  small  stick,  and  securely  tied  \  'th  a  waxed 
string.  Being  now  provided  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  a  crooked  iron,  or 
buck's  horn,  turn  the  tail  up  in  a  direct  line  with  the  back  bone,  and  make 
a  transverse  incision,  immediately  across  the  tail,  one  and  a  half  inches 
from  the  root,  and  deep  enough  to  separate  the  tendons  on  each  side  of 
the  under  part  of  the  tail,  which  will  be  found  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
from  the  hair  on  the  outer  edge  ;  the  incision  in  the  middle  may  be  shal- 
low. Should  the  horse  bleed  beyond  two  gallons,  the  flow  of  blood  may 
be  checked  by  putting  him  in  the  pulleys,  or  by  wrapping  the  tail  u]) 
moderately  tight  with  a  linen  rag  from  the  root  to  the  end.  Next,  at 
the  distance  of  two  or  two  and  a  half  inches  from  the  transverse  iiicision 
make  two  longitudinally,  about  three  inches  in  length,  which  will  expose 
the  .large  tendons  on  each  side.  Make  two  other  incisions  of  the  same 
kinc^ommencing  about  one  inch  from  the  second,  and  in  length  running 
within  about  two  inches  of  the  end  of  the  tail.  IMake  a  transverse  incis- 
ion within  half  an  inch  of  the  termination  of  the  longitudinal  incisions, 
pretty  deep.  With  the  buck's  horn,  or  crooked  iron  take  up  the  large 
tendons  in  the  second  incision,  and  draw  the  ends  out  ol  the  first ; 
take  up  those  in  the  third,  and  draw  the  ends  out  of  the  second  ;  and 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  wound  cut  off  the  tendons  even  and  smooth. 
Now  strain  up  the  tail  opposite  the  second  incisions,  until  the  bone  shps 
or  breaks ;  serve  the  tail  opposite  the  third  incisions  in  the  same  manner ; 
also  the  fourth  and  last,  which  should  be  made  across,  / 

The  operation  being  thus  performed,  the  tail  of  the  horse  should  be 
washed  in  strong  salt  and  water,  after  which  he  may  be  put  in  a  stall, 
or  turned  to  pasture  lor  two  or  three  days. 


*  Mason's  Farmer  Improved, 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 85 

FATTENING  HORSES. 

At  the  end  of  this  time,  wash  the  wound  and  tail  with  strong  soap 
suds,  and  place  the  horse  in  the  pulleys,  where  he  should  remain  about 
three  weeks,  or  until  his  wounds  have  healed.  Abstract  half  a  gallon  of 
blood  each  week ;  and  double  that  quantity  should  the  tail  be  much  in- 
flamed. Keep  the  parts  clean,  by  frequently  washing  with  soap  suds. 
Twice  a  week  take  the  tail  from  the  pulleys,  and  let  it  remain  down  du- 
ring the  night.  Before  putting  it  up  again,  the  horse  may  be  rode  a  few 
hundred  yards. 

Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  have  the  weights  equal,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  tail  from  permanently  twisting,  as  this  would  ruin  the  animal 
in  appearance.  During  the  continuance  of  the  horse  in  the  pulleys,  hi<! 
diet  should  be  light,  and  if  practicable  consist  of  green  food.  His  legs 
should  be  frequently  washed  or  bathed  with  pot-liquor,  in  which  bacon 
has  been  boiled.  Vinegar,  sweet  oil,  or  lard  and  spirits  may  be  substi- 
tuted. Occasionally  the  wounds  may  be  washed  in  copperas  water, 
which  will  accelerate  the  process  of  healing. 

Pricking.  This  operation,  which  consists  in  simply  dividing  the 
great  tendons  of  the  tail,  is  now  generally  abandoned,  having  setdoni 
been  found  to  accomplish  the  desired  effect. 

Foxing.  This  consists  in  depriving  a  horse  of  a  portion  of  his  ears, 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  his  looks.  An  easy  mode  of  performing 
the  operation  is  to  take  a  small  paint  brush,  and  with  paint  in  contrast 
to  the  color  of  the  horse,  mark  the  ears  of  the  length  and  shape  desired : 
then  place  a  switch  on  the  horse's  nose,  at  the  same  time  holding  up  a 
forefoot;  with  a  sharp  knife  cut  the  ears  in  the  hne  made  by  the  paint. 
Wash  the  wound  with  salt  and  water,  once  a  day  for  a  week,  after  which 
apply  sweet  oil  until  healed.  Those  horses  only,  which  have  small,  thin, 
delicate  heads,  are  improved  by  foxing. 

Docking.  To  perform  this  operation  safely,  put  a  svvitch  on  the 
upper  lip  of  the  horse,  and  hold  one  of  his  fore  legs  up  well  nigh  his 
body.  Tie  a  waxed  string  tight  round  the  tail  above  where  it  is  to  be 
cut  off.  Lay  the  tail  on  a  smooth  block  of  wood,  and  with  a  sharp  knife, 
and  mallet,  you  may  easily  sever  it  at  a  single  blow.  When  this  has 
been  eftected,  place  a  little  rosin  on  the  wound,  and  sear  it  moderately 
with  a  hot  iron-  In  '«•  few  days  remove  the  waxed  string,  and  to  the 
wound  apply  occasionally  a  little  fresh  butter  or  sweet  oil. 

Fattening.  To  fatten  a  horse  in  a  short  space  of  time,  is  justly  con- 
sidered a  desirable  art.  Should  the  animal  which  you  wish  to  fatten  be 
quite  poor,  commence  by  subtracting  one  quart  of  blood — to  be  repeat- 
ed once  in  eight  or  ten  days.  If  he  be  in  tolerable  condition,  the  bleed- 
ings may  consist  of  two  quarts  at  a  time.  Commence  also  giving  at 
the  same  time,  the  following  mash,  to  be  repeated  every  eight  days :  tlax 
seed,  one  pint,  boiled  to  a  strong  tea  of  one  quart;  powdered  brimstone, 
one  table  spoonfull ;  saltpetre,  one  tea  spoonfuU  ;  bran,  one  and  a  half 
gallons,  scalding  the  bran  with  the  tea.  After  the  mash,  the  horse  should 
not  drink  cold  water  for  eight  or  ten  hours.  It  is  important  also  to  take 
of  assafoetida  half  an  ounce,  which  being  wrapped  in  a  clean  rag  is  to 
be  nailed  to  the  bottom  of  the  manger,  where  the  animal  is  fed,  and  of 
which  in  a  few  days  he  will  become  remarkably  fond.  Caution  is  to  be 
exercised  in  feeding  an  extremely  poor  horse,  lest  you  produce  a  foun- 
der or  some  other  injury ;  but  at  the  expiration  of  three  or  four  days  thf^ 
danger  wiU  be  passed,  and  the  horse  may  be  full  fed.     It  will  be  well  to 

H 


86  FAMILY 


EXCESSIVE  FATIGUE. 


moisten  his  food  occasionally  with  strong  sassafras  tea,  which  tends  to 
enrich  the  blood,  and  open  the  bowels.  A  handfull  of  salt  two  or  three 
times  a  week  thrown  into  his  water  will  prove  grateful,  and  serve  to 
increase  his  appetite.  Should  the  object  be  to  fatten  a  horse  in  the 
shortest  possible  space,  he  should  not  be  rode,  nor  even  led  out  of  the 
stable  :  but  if  sohdity  of  flesh  be  desired,  moderate  exercise  once  in  three 
days  will  be  of  service.  Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  his  hoofs 
cleaned  every  morning  and  evening,  and  stuffed  with  clay  and  salt,  or 
fresh  cow  manure,  to  keep  the  feet  cool,  and  prevent  the  swelling  of  the 
legs.  It  is  indispensible  that  the  curry-comb  and  brush  should  be  used 
upon  him  every  day,  until  he  be  quite  clean.  A  blanket,  as  a  covering, 
will  add  to  his  comfort,  and  assist  in  improving  his  appearance  and 
condition. 

Excessive  Fatigue.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  require  a  horse  to 
undergo  great  fatigue.  To  accomplish  this,  without  injury,  requires 
some  preparation.  Previous  to  entering  him  on  his  journey,  a  writer* 
remarks,  he  should  be  ied  plentifully  on  solid  old  food,  such  as  corn, 
fodder,  hay,  or  oats,  and  exercised  from  five  to  ten  miles  a  day.  He 
should  be  well  rubbed  two  or  three  times  every  twenty -four  hours,  which 
wDl  have  the  effect  of  making  his  flesh  not  only  firm,  but  hard. 

Experience  has  proved,  that  rainy  or  drisly  weather,  is  more  favorable 
to  the  performance  of  an  excessive  hard  ride,  than  a  day  that  is  fair  or 
sultry  with  sunshine  ;  rain  having  the  eftect  of  keeping  a  horse  cool,  ren- 
dering his  limbs  supple,  of  moistening  and  refreshing  him. 

On  the  night  previous  to  his  engaging  in  this  laborious  undertaking, 
the  same  writer  recommends  to  feed  the  horse  six  quarts  of  oats  or  four 
of  com,  with  as  much  good  hay  as  he  can  eat ;  in  the  morning  to  feed  one 
quart  of  oats  or  corn  only,  and  ofler  some  salt  and  water,  of  which  a 
horse  is  apt  to  drink  but  httle.  At  a  distance  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  miles 
give  him  a  bucket  of  salt  and  water,  with  two  handfuls  of  corn  meal 
thrown  therein,  and  one  quart  of  oats  or  corn;  at  twelve  o'clock,  and  at 
dinner  time  feed  and  w  ater  him  in  the  same  manner.  Your  horse  will 
require  nothing  more  till  night. 

The  day's  ride  being  performed,  turn  him  into  a  lot  to  cool  and  wal- 
low; after  which  let  him  be  placed  in  a  stall  on  a  good  bed  of  straw. 
1st.  Offer  him  a  bucket  of  water.  2ud.  Remove  all  dirt  and  dust  irom 
his  legs  and  ancles  with  soap  and  warm  water.  3d.  Bathe  him  from  his 
belly  to  his  hoofs  with  equal  parts  of  vinegar  and  spirits,  to  which  add  a 
little  sweet  oil,  fresh  butter,  or  hog's  lard,  stewing  them  all  together,  and 
make  use  of  the  mixture  as  warm  as  the  hand  can  bear  it.  4th.  He  must 
be  well  curried,  brushed,  and  finally  polished  with  a  sheep  skin  or 
woolen  cloth.  5th.  His  feet  should  be  nicely  cleaned  out  and  stuffed 
with  clay  and  salt,  or  fresh  cow  manure.  6th.  He  should  be  fed  with 
one  gallon  of  old  corn,  or  one  and  a  half  gallons  of  oats,  and  six  bundles 
of  old  fodder.  Your  horse  being  now  in  possession  of  every  attention 
and  comfort  you  could  offer  him,  will  soon  be  refreshed,  forget  his  hard 
Bervice,  and  be  again  prepared,  by  the  next  morning,  to  obey  yo?i, 
whither  you  may  direct  his  footsteps.  If  you  have  more  than  one  day's 
journey  to  perform  with  great  rapidity,  observe  the  same  rules  of  feeding, 
waterhig  and  attention,  as  directed  for  the  first  day,  except  the  feeding  at 
twelve  o'clock,  which  quantity  must  be  doubled.     Many  elegant  and 

*Mason. 


^ ENCYCLOPEDIA. 87 

TREATMENT  ON  A  JOURNEY. 

high  spirited  horses  have  been  ruined  and  rendered  useless,  by  persons 
wanting  experience  on  the  above  subject,  who  were  disposed  to  treat 
those  faithful  animals  with  every  kindness  in  their  power ;  yet,  being 
under  the  necessity  of  performing  a  long  journey  in  a  Umited  time,  and 
not  knowing  that  the  will  of  a  heated  and  fatigued  horse  should  be  con- 
trolled, they  have  permitted  him  to  eat  as  much  as  he  pleased,  or  when 
heated  to  drink  as  much  cold  pond  or  branch  water,  as  his  great  thirst 
would  induce  him,  which  have  often  been  the  means  of  producing  cholic, 
founder  and  other  diseases,  that  too  frequently  prove  fatal  in  the  hands  of 
a  common  farrier,  to  which  title  every  ostler  blacksmith,  and  every 
blockhead  of  a  servant,  who  does  not  even  understand  the  currying  of  a 
horse,  have  pretensions.  The  loss  of  two  or  three  quarts  of  blood  to  a 
liorse  that  has  undergone  excessive  fatigue,  will  remove  the  soreness 
and  stiffness  of  his  hmbs,  the  natural  consequence  of  violent  exertion. 

Treatment  on  a  journey.  To  perform  a  long  journey  with  comfort 
and  ease  to  a  horse,  requires,  as  in  the  case  of  excessive  fatigue,  several 
days  previous  preparation.  A  horse  which  has  been  kept  only  at  grass, 
or  which  is  uncommonly  fat,  or  unaccustomed  to  exercise  and  fatigue, 
is  quite  unfit  to  perform  a  journey.  A  horse  about  half  fat  is  in  the  best 
condition  to  bear  the  fatigue  and  labor  of  a  journey,  especially  if  for  eight 
or  ten  days  previous  to  setting  out,  he  be  fed  with  old  corn,  oats,  or  hay, 
and  be  moderately  exercised.  Thus  prepared,  the  following  mode  of 
treatment  is  recommended  upon  the  authority  of  Mason,  in  his  "  Farrier 
Improved." 

•'  1st.  Never  permit  your  horse,  while  travelling,  to  drink  cold  branch, 
well,  or  pond  water,  or  more  than  is  necessary  to  wet  or  moisten  his 
mouth.  2nd.  Every  time  you  stop  to  feed,  (which  will  be  morning, 
breakfast,  and  dinner  time,)  give  him  a  bucket  of  water  made  a  little  salt, 
with  about  tv<^o  handfuls  of  corn  meal  stirred  in  it ;  he  will  very  soon 
grow  fond  of  it,  and  indeed  prefer  it  to  every  other  drink ;  it  cools  the 
I'ystem,  relieves  thirst,  and  contains  considerable  nutriment.  3d.  When- 
ever you  stop  for  the  purpose  of  breakfasting,  let  your  horse  cool  about 
ten  minutes;  then  feed  with  half  a  gallon  of  oats  or  corn  and  two  bun- 
dles ot' fodder,  not  forgetting  to  offer  him  again  the  water,  meal  and  salt. 
4lh.  At  dinnertime  observe  the  same  treatment,  as  directed  at  breakfast, 
nth.  At  night  (having  arrived  at  the  place  you  intend  stopping  at)  have 
your  horse  turned  into  a  lot,  for  the  purpose  of  wallowing,  coohng,  &c. 
lull.  With  soap  and  water  have  all  dirt  rei^i^ed  from  his  legs.  7th.  Have 
him  placed  on  a  good  bed  of  straw,  then  take  of  spirits  of  any  kind  half  a 
pint,  of  vinegar  half  a  pint,  mix  them  together,  and  let  his  legs  be  washed 
with  the  mixture  until  they  are  dry.  8th.  Let  him  be  well  curried,  brush- 
ed, and  rubbed  with  straw.  9th.  Water  him  plentifully.  10th.  Feed 
him  with  two  gallons  of  oats,  or  one  and  a  half  gallons  of  corn  or  homi- 
ny, and  eight  or  ten  bundles  of  fodder.  11th,  Let  his  hoofs  be  nicely 
cleaned  out  and  stuffed  with  fresh  cow  manure ;  this  application  keeps 
them  tGugh,  moist,  and  cool.  r2th.  Change  your  food  as  often  as  possi- 
ble, carefully  avoid  eating  any  that  is  new,  or  just  gathered.  Observe 
the  above  rules  to  your  journey's  end,  except  your  horse  should  prove  a 
great  feeder,  and  in  that  case  you  may  indulge  him  a  httle ;  but  the  quan- 
«iity  I  have  here  recommended,  is  enough  for  any  common  horse  when 
travelling.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  remind  the  young  traveller,  to  inspect 
his  horses  shoes  once  a  day,  and  whatever  appears  amiss  about  them  to 
iwve  immediately  rectified.     It  frequently  happens  that  the  skin  pf 


88  FAMILY 


REARING  AND  TRAINING  OF  COLTS. 


young  horses,  unaccustomed  to  travel,  is  chafed  and  scaldecl  by  the  frie- 
iionof  the  girth ;  the  part,  washed  and  cleaned  with  a  little  soap  and 
water,  and  then  washed  with  a  little  salt  and  water,  will  imnaediately 
cure  and  toughen  the  skin." 


ON  THE  REARING  AND  TRAINING  OF  COLTS. 

During  the  first  summer,  the  foals  may  be  allowed  to  run  with  their 
dams  until  September  or  October,  if  the  weather  continue  open  and 
mild.  They  should  then  be  weaned  and  kept  in  fold-yards,  or  paddocks,, 
containing  open  sheds,  with  low  racks  and  mangers  for  receiving  their 
food  ;  which  ought,  at  first,  to  be  the  sweetest  hay  that  can  be  procured. 
Where  rowen  can  be  commanded,  it  will  furnish  a  succulent  and  in- 
vigorating article ;  but,  both  with  hay  and  rowen,  bran  or  oats  should  be 
given  in  due  proportions,  which  indeed  can  only  be  ascertained  by  expe- 
rience. When,  however,  oats  form  a  part  of  the  food,  it  has  been  recom- 
mended to  bruise  or  crush  them  previously  in  a  mill ;  which  necessary 
precaution  will  prevent  the  distention  of  the  lower  jaw  veins,  which 
would  otherwise  attract  the  blood  and  humors  down  into  the  eyes,,  and 
thus  occasion  blindness.  Further ;  by  feeding  young  colts  witii  oats,  in 
conjunction  with  other  articles,  their  limbs  become  better  knit  than  when 
they  are  fed  only  with  bran  and  hay ;  while  they  will  also  be  enabled  to 
endure  greater  severity  of  weather,  and  to  acquire  the  vigor  requisite  to 
their  future  improvement.  It  may,  indeed,  be  assumed  as  an  axiom, 
that  there  is  no  greater  error  in  breeding  any  animals,  than  that  too  com- 
mon one  of  stinting  them  during  the  early  period  of  their  growth.  It  is 
then  that  they  require  the  greatest  nourishment ;  and  if  it  be  withheld, 
they  will  be  injured  in  their  constitution,  and  consequently  in  their  value, 
to  a  far  greater  extent  than  any  saving  that  can  be  effected  in  their  food  ; 
but  to  no  animal  does  this  remark  apply  more  strongly  than  to  the  horse. 

It  is  a  common  practice,  on  wcanivg  foals,  to  put  them  into  warm  sta- 
bles during  the  following  winter ;  from  a  notion  that  they  are  not,  at  that 
early  age,  able  to  support  the  cold  of  an  open  shed.  Whether  this  may 
be  judicious  with  regard  to  the  more  tender  breeds  of  blood  cattle,  it  is  not 
our  present  object  to  enquire  ;  but  with  respect  to  the  cart  species,  it  is 
unquestionably  wrong.  These,  from  the  nature  of  their  future  employ- 
ment, must  necessarily  be  exposed  to  every  vicissitude  of  weather;  and 
they  cannot  be  too  early  inured  to  a  certain  degree  of  hardship.  The\ 
should,  indeed,  be  carefully  kept  from  lying  out,  in  the  wet,  at  night: 
but  during  the  day,  they  cannot  be  too  much  abroad;  and  dry  hovels  are 
f:ir  to  be  preferred  to  warm  stables  for  their  nightly  shelter.  It  has  been 
even  found  that  young  colts,  which  had  shown  symptoms  of  disease  while 
kept  with  all  the  care  usually  bestowed  on  hunters,  have  recovered  when 
removed  to  a  paddock,  and  that  weaned  foals  have  thriven  better  when 
only  sheltered  in  a  rick  yard  than  when  housed. 

Coli3,  thus  treated,  will  liave  acquired  sufficient  strength  and  hardihood 
before  the  second  winter,  to  be  enabled  to  brave  the  inclemency  of  the 
season,  without  any  other  food  than  hay,  or  any  other  covering  than  that 
with  which  nature  has  provided  them.  The  largest  dray  horses  are  thus 
reared  in  the  Lincolnshire  marshes,  in  England :  yet  if  they  can  be  allow- 
ed the  shelter  of  a  straw-yard,  with  the  addition,  to  their  hay,  of  unthrash- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


REARING  AND  TRAINING  OF  COLTS. 

ed  oat-straw,  or  some  of  the  succulent  roots,  but  especially  carrots,  it 
will  be  of  material  benefit;  but  they  should  be  daily  turned  out  into  a 
field,  as  exercise  is  not  merely  conducive  to  their  general  health  and 
growth,  but  particularly  requisite  in  strengthening  the  sinews  of  their 
limbs,  and  giving  firmness  to  their  feet.  This,  indeed,  is  attended  with 
additional  trouble  ;  for,  in  severe  seasons,  or  when  the  pasture  is  quite 
bare,  it  becomes  necessary  to  feed  them  in  the  pasture  to  which  they  are 
turned. 

The  following  summer  the  colts  should  be  allowed  the  range  of  the  best 
pastures,  though  they  are  too  frequently  turned  on  the  worst ;  and  in 
autumn  they  should  be  taken  in,  for  the  purpose  of  being  broke  to  labor. 

The  process  of  training  horses  for  the  saddle  is  one  of  considerable  nice- 
ty :  for  those  intended  for  the  plough,  it  is  much  more  simple  ;  but  for 
both,  the  chief  and  best  means  are,  gentleness  and  patience.  The  horse 
is  an  animal  of  much  observation ;  capable  of  great  attachment,  and  of 
equally  strong  resentment ;  if  treated  with  kindness  he  becomes  docile  ; 
but  severity  generally  fails  of  its  object,  and  renders  him  intractable. 
There  is  certainly  much  ditFerence  in  their  natural  temper,  some  requir- 
ing much  more  care  and  time  to  reduce  them  to  obedience  than  others ; 
but  even  the  most  restive  may  be  rendered  manageable  by  mild  usage. 

From  the  moment  of  its  being  weaned,  the  foal  should  he  accustomed 
to  the  halter,  and  to  be  wisped  over  and  occasionally  tied  up  ;  but  this 
should  be  done  by  the  same  person  who  feeds  it,  and  that  care  should 
never  be  entrusted  to  lads,  who  will  probably  teaze  the  animal  and  teach 
it  tricks,  or  to  any  hasty,  ill-tempered  man,  who  would  be  likely  to  ill- 
treat  it.  The  colt  will  thus  early  become  accustomed  to  be  handled,  and 
will  consequently  occasion  much  less  trouble,  than  if  he  had  been  previ- 
ously neglected.  After  being  a  day  or  two  in  the  stable,  a  bridle  should 
be  put  on ;  but  with  a  small  bit  at  first,  instead  of  the  large  one  usually 
employed  by  horse  breakers,  and  which  by  the  horse's  champing  on  it 
with  impatience,  sometimes  occasions  the  mouth  to  become  callous.  He 
should  then  be  led  about,  and  accustomed  to  obey  the  rein  in  turning  and 
stopping,  which  he  will  very  soon  learn  ;  and,  after  a  few  days  he  should 
be  completely  harnassed,  and  ]iut  into  a  team  among  steady  cattle.  Care 
should,  however,  be  taken,  neither  to  whip  him  nor  to  force  him  to  draw, 
but  leave  fiim  quietly  to  walk  with  the  other  horses,  and  in  a  very  short 
time  he  will  imitate  them  and  begin  to  pull.  It  may  then  be  as  well  to  let 
some  one  mount  him,  even  if  he  should  not  be  intended  to  be  commonly 
ridden,  as  it  will  render  him  the  more  docile ;  but  this  had  better  be  done 
while  he  is  in  the  team,  as  the  other  horses  will  prevent  him  from  plung- 
ing. Let  no  violence  be  used  ;  for  such  is  his  power  of  observation,  that 
while  he  will  readily  learn  every  thing  that  he  is  taiight,  he  will  also  re- 
collect many  things  that  might  be  wished  forgotten  :  thus,  if  flogged  for 
starting  at  any  particular  object,  he  will  only  start  the  more  on  meeting  it 
again,  for  he  will  remember  the  chastisement  it  occasioned ;  and  if  hurt 
in  shoeing,  or  on  any  other  occasion,  he  will  never  forget  the  pain  it  occa- 
sioned, and  will  never  suffer  a  repetition  of  the  same  without  impatience. 

Castration  is  commonly  performed  when  the  colt  is  twelve  or  eighteen 
months  old :  some  defer  it  longer,  thinking  that  the  later  the  operation  is 
performed,  the  more  strength  and  spirit  he  will  have  acquired ;  but  it  is 
attended  with  greater  danger  at  that  period;  and  it  is  much  to  be  doubt- 
ed whether  it  may  not  even  be  prejudicial  to  his  temper.  It  is,  besides, 
to  be  observed,  that  the  severity  of  the  operation  occasions  a  check  to  his 

h2 


90  FAMILY 


BREEDING,  REARING,  &C.  OF  SHEEP. 

growth,  which  is  more  felt  and  of  more  consequence  at  an  advanced  pe- 
riod, than  when  he  is  quite  young.  It  is  also  worthy  of  consideration,  iu 
a  pecuniary  view  that  the  older  the  animal  is  the  greater  will  be  the  loss, 
in  case  he  should  die ;  and  therefore  perhaps  the  most  prudent  time  will 
be,  during  the  summer  the  foal  is  sucking.  Fears  are  sometimes  enter- 
tained of  performing  the  operation  in  hot  weather,  lest  inflammation  take 
place ;  but  extreme  heat  may  be  avoided,  and  there  is  even  less  danger 
from  that  than  from  cold,  and  the  exercise  of  running  with  the  mare  will 
promote  the  suppuration,  which  will  also  be  assisted  by  the  warmth  of  her 
milk.  At  a  more  advanced  age,  the  colt  should  be  guarded  from  wet.  and 
not  allowed  to  drink  cold  water  till  the  suppuration  is  complete. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  BREEDING,  REARING,  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP. 

Among  the  various  animals  giv^en  by  the  benevolent  hand  of  Provi- 
dence, for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  there  is  none,  perhaps,  of  greater  utili- 
ty than  the  sheep :  which  not  only  supplies  us  with  food  and  clothing,  but 
also  affords  constant  employment  to  numerous  indigent  families,  in  the 
various  branches  of  the  woollen  manufacture  ;  and  thu.s  contributes,  in 
jv-j  small  proportion,  to  the  productive  labor,  and  commercial  prosperity, 
and  opulence  of  a  people. 

In  a  wild,  or  natural  state,  the  sheep  is  a  vigorous  animal,  lively,  and 
capable  of  supporting  fatigue  ;  when  domesticated,  indeed,  it  loses  these 
properties,  but  amply  compensates  for  the  absence  of  them,  by  the  supe- 
rior advantages,  arising  from  the  rearing  of  this  sort  of  cattle.  In  fact, 
sheep  constitute  a  material  part  of  a  farmer's  live  stock  and  profits  :  and 
u.s  particular  attention  has  of  late  years  been  bestowed  on  the  improve- 
ment of  the  respective  breeds,  we  shall  first  present  the  reader  with  an 
introductory  view  of  them;  which  will,  we  trust,  convey  an  adequate 
idea  of  the  principal  varieties,  together  with  their  specific  characters,  and 
the  peculiar  advantages  they  respectively  possess.  The  general  manage- 
ment of  these  animals  will  afterwards  form  a  subject  of  discussion. 

The  sheep  is  an  inhabitant  of  every  part  of  the  globe,  from  Iceland 
to  the  regions  of  the  torrid  zone.  According  to  Linnaeus,  they  are.  the 
hornless,  homed,  black-faced,  Spanish,  many-horned,  African,  Guinea, 
broad-tailed,  fat-rumped,  Bucharian,  long-tailed.  Cape,  bearded,  and 
morvant ;  to  which  some  add  the  Siberian  sheep,  cultivated  in  Asia,  Bar- 
bary,  and  Corsica,  and  the  Cretan  sheep,  which  inhabits  the  Grecian 
islands,  Hungary,  and  Austria. 

The  principal  countries,  in  which  special  attention  has  been  paid  to 
.sheep,  are  Spain,  parts  of  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain,  and  the 
United  States.  The  present  article  will  relate  principally  to  the  different 
breeds  of  sheep  raised  in  Great  Britain,  as  these  embrace  the  principal 
varieties  to  be  found  in  the  countries  already  alluded  to. 

The  following  synopsis  will  give  the  reader  not  only  a  knowledge  of 
the  different  breeds  of  sheep  in  Great  Britain,  but  many  interesting  par- 
ticulars concerning  them. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


91 


SYNOPSIS  OP  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  IN  G.  BRITAIN. 


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92 


FAMILY 


LINTON,  SHORT,  OR  FOREST  SHEEP. 


LINTON,  SHORT,  OR  FOREST  SHEEP. 

I.  Tlie  Heath,  Linton,  Short,  or  Forest  Sheep  depicted  above, 
^ire  nauies  indiscriminately  given  to  the  several  varieties  of  the  same 
»»reed,  which  is  found  in  the  north-western  counties  of  England,  and 
Thence  forward  to  the  western  highlands  of  Scotland. 

Tfie  specific  characters  of  this  race  are,  large  spiral  horns;  faces  black 
or  mottled,  and  legs  black;  eyes  wild  and  fierce ;  carcass  short  and  firm  ; 
wool  long,  open,  coarse  and  shaggy ;  fleece  averaging  about  three  pounds 
;ind  a  half  at  ibur  years  and  a  half  They  are  of  a  hardy  constitution, . 
admirably  calculated  for  elevated,  heathy,  and  exposed  districts;  and, 
judging  from  this  aptitude  to  support  the  hardships  of  constant  exposure 
in  a  wild  pasturage  country,  as  well  as  from  the  form  of  the  horns,  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  animal  in  its  unimproved  state,  it  may  be  not  im- 
probably inferred,  that  they  are  directly  descended  from  the  parent 
stock  of  the  kingdom.  The  true  black-faced  breed  is  said  to  be  distin- 
guished by  a  lock  of  white  wool  on  the  forehead,  termed  the  snow-lock. 

The  other  ttotncd  breeds  of  English  sheep  are 

n.  The  ExMooR  and  the  Dartmoor,  which  derive  their  names  from 
the  districts  in  the  northern  and  western  parts  of  Devonshire,  where  they 
are  chiefly  found.  They  are  long-woolled,  with  white  legs  and  faces,  and 
are  delicately  formed  about  the  head  and  neck ;  they  make  very  finely 
flavoured  mutton;  and  arrive  when  fatted,  at  two  and  a  half  to  three 
years  old,  to  fourteen  and  sixteen  pounds  weight  per  quarter. 

HL  The  Norfolk  Breed  is  indigenous  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk.  The  horn^are  large  and  spiral ;  bodies  long  ;  loins  narrow, 
with  a  high  back  and  thiri  chine;  the  legs  long,  black,  or  gray ;  of  a  roving, 
wild  disposition,  and  not  easily  confined  within  any  but  strong  inclosures. 
The  wool  is  short,  weighing  about  two  pounds  per  fleece,  and  the  flesh  is 
well  flavored,  and  of  a  fine  grain,  but  only  fit  for  consumption  in  cold 
weather. 

IV.  The  Wiltshire  Breed  are  distinguished  by  large  spiral  horns 
bending  downwards,  close  to  the  head ;  they  are  perfectly  white  in  their 
faces  and  legs ;  have  long  Roman  noses,  with  large  open  nostrils ;  are 
wide  and  heavy  in  their  hind  quarters,  and  light  in  the  fore  quarter  and 
offal,  but  with  little  or  no  wool  on  their  beUies.  The  quality  of  the  fleece 
is  that  of  clothing  wool  of  moderate  fineness,  averaging  about  two 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. m 

LEICESTER  SHEEP. 

pounds  and  a  half  in  weight ;  and  the  carcasses  of  the  wethers  when  fat, 
usually  weigh  from  G51bs.  to  lOOlbs. :  the  mutton  good :  they  sometimes, 
however,  reach  much  higher  and  maybe  considered  as  our  largest  breed 
of  finewooUed  sheep. 

V.  The  Dorset  Breed  have  small  horns  with  white  faces  and  legs  : 
their  wool  is  of  an  intermediate  kind,  between  long  and  short,  and  of 
middling  fineness,  weighing  from  three  and  a  half  to  five  pounds  per 
fleece ;  and  the  carcass  averaging  eighteen  pounds  per  quarter,  of  excel- 
lent mutton.  They  are  a  hardy  race,  being  chiefly  bred  on  open  downs, 
and  inured  to  the  fold;  but  their  principal  value  consists  in  the  peculiar  for- 
wardness of  the  ewes,  which  take  the  ram  at  a  much  earlier  period  than 
any  other  species,  and  are  therefore  much  sought  for,  and  command  high 
prices  for  the  purpose  of  producing  house-lamb  for  winter  consumption. 

The  polled  sheep  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — the  long,  and  the 
short  wooUed — the  peculiar  merits  of  which  have  for  many  years  formed 
a  subject  of  discussion  among  agriculturalists.  Each  has  valuable  pro- 
perties, and  eftbrts  have  been  made  to  blend  them  by  crosses,  but  with- 
out complete  success :  nature  seems  to  have  intended  them  for  different 
soils,  and  the  short  woolled  breeds,  which  thrive  upon  the  bleakest  hills, 
degenerate  when  removed  into  rich  pastures,  which  are  alone  capable  of 
niaintaining  the  long  woolled  species. 


THE  LEICESTER  SHEEP. 

VI.  The  Leicester  sheep  take  the  lead  among  the  long-woolled  kind ; 
and  of  these  there  are  three  nearly  distinct  species: — 1.  The  Forest 
sheep;  2.  The  Old  Leicester;  3.  The  New  Leicester  or  Dishley  Breed — 
portrayed  above — which  are  an  improved  kind  of  the  latter  species. 
Their  forms  are  handsome ;  color  white.  Their  heads  are  clean  and 
small,  their  necks  short,  and  their  breasts  full ;  their  bodies  are  round, 
with  broad,  straight  backs,  but  the  bellies  rather  light,  or  tucked  up ; 
their  legs  and  the  whole  bone  are  fine  and  particularly  small  in  propor- 
tion to  their  size  ;  their  pelts  thin,  and  the  wool  long  and  fine  of  its 
kind,  generally  averaging  seven  pounds  to  the  fleece.  They  are  of  a 
quiet  disposition,  fatten  early  and  kindly,  and  are  capable  of  being 
brought  to  a  great  weight,  on  a  smaller  proportion  of  ibod  than  other 
breeds  of  the  same  size,  the  fat  wethers  generally  weighing  (when  shear- 


94  FAMILY 


ROMNEY  MARSH  SHEEP. 


hogs)  twenty-five  pounds  per  quarter,  and  the  ewes  twenty-two  pounds : 
the  flesh  is  fine  grained  and  well  flavored,  but  too  fat  to  please  most 
palates. 

VII.  The  Lincolnshire  Breed  so  nearly  resemble  the  old  Leicester, 
that  they  require  little  further  description.  They  have  white  faces  and 
legs,  the  bones  large,  and  the  carcass  coarse  ;  the  back  long  and  hollow, 
with  flat  ribs,  but  good  loins,  and  a  deep  belly ;  forward  loose  shoulders, 
a  heavy  head,  with  a  large  neck,  and  sinking  dewlap ;  the  hind  quarter 
broad,  the  legs  standing  wide  apart,  and  a  large  dock.  The  pelt  is  par- 
ticularly thick,  and  the  fleece  consists  of  very  long  combing  wool,  of  a 
rather  coarse  quality,  but  weighing  generally  from  twelve  to  fourteen 
pounds  on  the  wethers,  and  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  on  the  ewes. 

VIII.  The  Teeswater  Breed,  differ  from  the  Lincolnshire  in  their 
wool  not  being  so  long  and  heavy  ;  in  standijig  upon  liigher,  though  finer 
boned  legs,  supporting  a  thicker,  firmer,  heavier  carcass,  much  wider 
upon  their  backs  and  sides ;  and  in  affording  a  fatter  and  finer-grained 
carcass  of  mutton ;  the  two  year  old  wethers  weighing  from  25  to  35 
lbs.  per  quarter.  Some  particular  ones  at  four  years  old  have  been  fed 
to  55  lbs.  and  upwards.  There  is  little  doubt  that  the  Teeswater  sheep 
were  originally  bred  from  the  same  stock  as  the  Lincolnshire  ;  but  by 
attending  to  size  rather  than  wool,  and  constantly  pursuing  that  object, 
they  have  become  a  diflierent  variety  of  the  same  original  breed.  The 
present  fashionable  breed  is  considerably  smaller  than  the  original  spe- 
cies; but  they  are  still  considerably  larger  and  fuller  of  tone  than  the 
midland  breed.  They  bear  an  analogy  to  the  short-horned  breed  of  cat- 
tle, as  tiiose  of  the  midland  counties  do  to  the  long-horned.  They  are 
not  so  compact,  nor  so  complete  in  their  form,  as  the  Leicestershire 
sheep  ;  nevertheless,  the  excellence  of  their  flesh  and  fatting  quality  is 
not  doubted,  and  their  wool  still  remains  of  a  superior  staple.  For  any 
rich,  fat  land,  they  are  singularly  excellent. 

IX.  The  Romney  Marsh  Sheep  have  existed  immemorially  on  that 
rich  tract  of  grazing  land,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  counties  of  Kent 
and  Sussex,  from  which  they  take  their  name.  In  their  pure  state,  they 
are  distinguished  by  white  faces,  a  considerable  thickness  and  length  of 
head,  and  a  broad  forehead,  with  a  tuft  of  wool  upon  it ;  a  long  and  thin 
neck,  and  flat-sided  carcass.  They  are  wide  on  the  loin,  but  have  a  sharp 
chine,  and  the  breast  is  narrow,  and  not  deep  ;  the  belly  large  ;  a  good 
cleft;  the  thigli.  full  and  broad,  carrying  the  chief  weight  in  the  hind 
quarUir;  the  tail  thick,  long,  and  coarse;  the  legs  thick,  with  large  feet, 
the  muscle  coarse,  and  the  bone  large.  The  wool  is  a  good  combing 
quahty ;  the  fleece  of  fattening  wethers  weighing  from  eight  to  nine 
pounds  ;  the  mutton  is  equal  to  that  of  any  of  the  large  polled  breeds,  and 
their  proof  being  good,  they  are  favorites  with  the  butchers.  When  fat, 
the  wethers  usually  average  from  ten  to  twelve  stone  each,  and  the  ewes 
from  nine  to  eleven.  They  are  very  hardy;  are  bred  with  little  care,  on 
wet  -and  exposed  land,  requiring,  after  the  first  year,  when  they  are  win- 
tered on  the  uplands,  no  other  food  in  the  severest  situation,  than  occa- 
sionally a  little  hay,  in  addition  to  their  pasture;  and  are  fattened entirelj 
on  grass. 

X.  The  Devonshire  polled  aheep  form  two  distinct  varieties  of  the  . 
i^ame  breed: — 

L  The  South  Devon  or  Dim-faced  Nott,  with  brown  face  and  legs;  a 
crooked-backed,  flat-sided,  coar.sely-boned  and  woolled  animal,  carrying  a 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


95 


THE  SOUTH-DOWN    SHEEP. 


fleece  of  10  lbs.  average  weight,  and  averaging  22  lbs.  per  quarter  of 
good  mutton,  at  thirty  months  old. 

2.  The  Bampton  Nott,  with  white  face  and  legs,  though  in  other  re- 
spects nearly  resembling  the  former  in  appearance ;  but  the  wethers  will, 
at  twenty  months  old,  average  as  much  weight  of  carcass  as  the  others 
at  thirty  ;  and  if  kept  on  for  another  year,  will  reach,  when  fat,  as  much 
as  28  lbs.  per  quarter:  they  are  not,  however,  equally  productive  of  wool; 
for  at  tlie  first  period  they  only  yield  about  6i  lbs.,  and  at  the  latter  9  lbs. 

Another  variety  of  long-wooUed  sheep  is  found  on  the  Cotsicold  Hills 
to  which  most  of  the  remarks  already  made  on  the  Devon  breeds  will 
equally  apply. 

The  chief  of  the  short-wooUcd  polled  breeds,  are — 


THE  SOUTH-DOWN  SHEEP. 

XI.  The  South-down,  of  which  the  specific  characters  are, — Faces 
and  legs  gray  ;  bones  fine ;  head  clean ;  neck  long  and  small ;  low  before ; 
shoulder  wide ;  light  in  the  fore  quarter ;  sides  and  chest  deep ;  loin 
broad ;  back  bone  rather  too  high :  thigh  full,  and  twist  good ;  wool  very 
fine  and  short,  (the  staple  being  from  two  to  three  inches  in  length.) 
weighing  an  average  of  two  pounds  and  a  half  per  fleece,  when  killed  at 
two  years  old.  Flesh  fine  grained,  and  of  excellent  flavor ;  quick  feed- 
ers ;  constitution  hardy  and  vigorous.  They  are  round  in  the  general 
appearance  of  the  barrel ;  and,  from  standing  wide  on  their  hind  legs, 
and  being  shut  well  in  the  twist,  the  leg  of  down  mutton  is  remarkably 
round  and  short,  not  only  cutting  handsomely  for  the  table,  but  weigh- 
ing heavier  than  common  in  proportion  to  the  fore  quarter  ;  which  are 
material  advantages  to  the  butcher,  as  they  command  a  ready  sale,  at  an 
advance  of  a  penny  per  pound  over  the  other  joints.  Fat  wethers  usual- 
ly average  about  eighteen  pounds  per  quarter. 

These  sheep  have  been  bred  for  ages  past  on  the  chalky  soils  of  the 
South  Downs,  in  Sussex  ;  and  on  such  short  pasture,  and  in  such  expos- 
ed situations,  they  are  perhaps  the  most  valuable  breed  in  the  kingdom : 
but  they  are  spreading  fast,  not  only  into  similar  districts,  but  into  coun- 
ties better  calculated  for  long  wooUed  and  larger  sheep.  The  figure  above 
delineated,  is  from  a  South-down  ewe  bred  by  Mr.  EUman,  of  Glynde. 

Xn.  The  Cannock  He.\th  sheep  are  bred  upon  an  e.xtensive  waste, 


96  FAMILY 


SOUTH-DOWN  SHEEP. 


<o  named,  in  Staffordshire ;  they  are  very  generally  grey  faced  ;  without 
horns ;  bear  fine  wool ;  and  from  many  points  of  similitude  between  them 
and  the  South-down  breed,  it  has  been  thought  that  they  were  originally 
derived  from  the  same  stock.  The  bone,  however,  is  coarser ;  nor  do 
they  possess  the  same  beauty  and  compactness  as  the  downs ;  but  tliese 
defects  probably  arise  from  mattention  on  the  part  of  the  former  breed- 
ers, which  the  present  Hock-masters  are  making  efforts  to  rectify  ;  and  to 
counterbalance  them,  the  carcass  is  heavier,  and  the  mutton  equally  good. 

XIII.  The  Ryeland  Breed,  is  so  called  from  a  district  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Ross,  in  Herefordshire.  They  are  small,  white  faced,  and 
hornless ;  the  wool  growing  close  to  their  eyes ;  are  light  in  the  bone ; 
have  small,  clean  legs;  and,  when  proper  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
breeding  stock,  possess  great  compactness  and  symmetry.  The  ewes 
weigh  from  nine  to  twelve  and  fourteen  pounds,  and  the  wethers  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  per  quarter,  when  fatted,  at  three  to  four  years 
old,  and  their  flesh  is  equal  to  any  mutton  in  the  kingdom.  The  fleece 
does  not  average  more  than  two  pounds ;  but  the  quality  of  the  wool  is 
unrivalled  by  that  of  any  of  our  native  stock. 

A  cross  has  been  made  between  this  breed  and  the  Spanish  sheep,  the 
produce  of  which  are  termed  Merino  Ryelands,  and  the  wool  Anglo  merino. 

In  some  of  the  neighboring  counties  to  Herefordshire,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  there  is  a  breed  of  sheep  very  much  resembluig  the 
Ryelands,  known  as  the 

Shropshire  morf.  They  bear  wool  of  a  fine  quality :  generally  have 
white  laces  and  legs,  though  sometimes  a  little  freckled;  are  tight  in  the 
bone,  and  have  small  clean  limbs.  There  are  two  species,  which,  from 
inattention  to  the  breeds,  are  often  blended.  The  one  polled,  the  other 
liaving  small,  light,  crooked  horns, — a  still  smaller  variety,  bred  on  the 
mountains,  and  in  high  estimation  for  the  table,  but  which  is  generally 
known  under  the  common  denomination  of  fVelsh. 

XIV.  The  Cheviot  Sheep  were  originally  bred  upon  the  hilly  dis- 
tricts in  the  north-west  part  of  Northumberland,  but  have  since  spread 
over  many  of  the  mountainous  tracts  in  the  neighboring  counties,  and 
have  even  nearly  superseded  the  horned  breed  of  black-faced  sheep  in 
some  parts  of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland.  They  are  hornless,  and  their 
faces  and  legs  are  in  general  white,  though  formerly  the  prevaihng  color 
was  black.  The  best  breeds  have  an  open  countenance,  with  lively 
prominent  eyes  ;  long  bodies,  but  wanting  depth  in  the  breast,  and  on  the 
chine;  and  fine,  clean,  small-boned  limbs.  They  are  seldom  slaughtered 
until  they  have  attained  the  age  of  four  to  four  and  a  half  years,  when 
the  fat  wethers  will  average  from  12  lbs.  to  18  lbs.  per  quarter,  fattening 
kindly,  and  producing  mutton  of  excellent  quality.  The  wool  is  inferior 
to  that  of  most  other  of  the  short-woolled  polled  breeds,  and  appears  to 
have  been  injured  by  some  late  attempts  to  improve  the  carcass. 

The  Sheep  known  as  the  Herdwick  breed,  though  smaller  than  the 
Cheviot,  and  only  found  in  one  rocky  and  mountainous  district  at  the 
head  of  the  Duddon  and  Esk  rivers,  in  Cumberland,  (Eng.)  appear  to 
be  only  a  variety  of  the  same  race. 

Another  variety,  termed  the  Dun-faced  breed,  is  found  in  the  exposed 
northern  districts  of  England.  The  faces  of  the  sheep  are  of  a  dun,  or 
tawny  color ;  the  animals  are  smaller  in  size  ;  have  short  tails ;  and  are 
not  so  hardy  as  the  preceding  sort.     The  wool  is  variously  streaked  with 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


97 


MERINO,  OR  SPANISH  SHEEP. 


black,  red,  brown  or  dun,  and  partly  of  a  fine  texture,  weighing  about  a 
pound  and  a  half  per  fleece,  when  killed  at  four  years  and  a  half  Flesh 
finely  grained,  and  of  excellent  flavor. 

The  Shetland  breed,  a  nearly  similar  race,  derives  its  name  from  the 
islands  on  the  north  coast  of  Scotland,  where  these  sheep  are  reared. 
The  wool  is  very  fine  and  soft,  fit  for  the  finest  manufactures ;  the  fleece 
weighs  upon  an  average  from  one  to  three  pounds.  The  Shetland  sheep 
are  very  hardy,  but  too  wild  to  be  confined. 


MERINO,  OR  SPANISH  SHEEP. 

XV.  The  IMerixo,  or  Spanish  sheep,  a  wether  ff  which  breed  is  here 
delineated — have  horns  of  a  middle  size,  of  which  the  ewes  are  some- 
times destitute;  faces  white ;  legs  of  the  same  hue  and  rather  long ;  shape 
not  very  perfect,  having  a  piece  of  loose  skin  depending  from  the  neck ; 
bone  fine  ;  pelt  fine  and  clear. 

The  wool  of  the  Merino  sheep  is  uncommonly  fine,  and  weighs,  upon 
an  average,  about  three  pounds  and  a  half  per  fleece.  The  best  Merino 
fleeces  have  a  dark  brown  tinge  on  their  surface,  almost  amounting  to 
black,  which  is  formed  by  dust  adhering  to  the  greasy,  yolky  properties 
of  its  pile;  and  there  is  a  surprising  contrast  between  it'and  the  rich 
white  color  within,  as  well  as  the  rosy  hue  of  the  skin,  which  peculiarly 
denotes  high  proof.  The  Merinos  are  natives  of  the  northern  provinces 
of  Spain,  tmd  were  first  introduced  into  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1787; 
but  it  was  not  until  1792  that  any  effectual  measures  were  adopted  to- 
wards improving  the  English  breeds  by  a  Spanish  cross.  In  the  last- 
mentioned  year  the  late  king  of  England  received  several  rams  of  tiie 
Negretti  breed ;  but  so  great  was  the  force  of  prejudice,  that  notwith- 
standing the  manufacturers  confessed  the  wool  of  the  Anglo  Spanish 
cross  to  be  of  prime  quality,  yet  not  one  individual  bid  for  it  a  price  at  all 
equal  to  what  they  paid  for  good  Spanish  wool.  From  these  sheep  im- 
ported by  the  king,  and  from  the  great  exertions  of  the  late  Lord  Somer- 
ville,  (who  at  an  immense  expense  imported  a  flock  of  choice  Merinos,) 
great  benefit  has  been  derived  to  the  wool,  by  crossing  this  sort  with  tho 

I 


FAMILY 


MERINO,  OR  SPANISH  SHEEP. 


best  British  breeds  ;  although  the  produce  of  the  cross  has  not  been  im- 
proved in  shape.  The  most  successful  cross  has  been  with  the  Hereford- 
shire, the  fleece  of  which  is  heavier,  in  proportion  to  the  carcass,  than 
that  of  any  other  known  breed  in  Europe ;  the  average  weight  of  the 
fleeces  of  two  shear-ewes  being  estimated  at  four  pounds  and  a  half 
avoirdupois,  in  an  unwashed  state  ;  and  the  fleece  of  a  fat  wether  of  the 
same  age  will  be  from  five  to  seven  pounds. 

In  Spain,  the  sheep  from  which  these  flocks  have  been  obtained,  are 
bred  in  the  northern  provinces  of  the  kingdom  of  Leon,  and  of  Segovia 
and  Soria,  in  Old  Castile,  and  the  district  of  Buitrago,  in  New  Castile  ; 
from  whence  after  being  shorn  they  are  driven  southward  at  the  approach 
of  winter,  and  dispersed  over  the  plains  of  Estremadura,  La  Manchaand 
Andalusia,  until  the  return  of  summer,  when  they  travel  back  to  their  na- 
tive pastures  ;  and  whether  from  instinct  or  habit,  they  are  said  to  display 
symptoms  of  restlessness  as  the  time  approaches  for  their  ch;uige  of  pas- 
ture. They  are  in  consequence  termed  Trashumante  ^ocks  ;  and  there  is 
a  code  of  regulations,  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  law,  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  shepherds  during  these  periodical  migrations.  The  ancient 
pasturages  in  the  south  are  secured  to  them  at  a  fixed  rate.  A  strip  of 
land,  of  considerable  width,  is  left  in  pasture  at  each  side  of  the  road  for 
tlieir  accommodation,  without  which  they  could  not  travel  with  conven- 
ience ;  and  the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  secure  these  privileges.  By  thus 
removing  them  at  the  dift'erent  seasons  from  north  to  south,  and  back  again, 
they  are  kept  in  a  nearly  equal  temperature,  and  it  probably  is  to  that  ad- 
vantage that  the  superiority  of  the  wool  of  the  Trashumante  flocks  is  to  be 
attributed  ;  that  from  those  which  remain  stationary,  being  far  inferior ; 
a^  a  proof  of  which  the  Cacercs,  or  Estremaduran  wool,  grown  in  one  of 
tlie  central  provinces,  commands  little  more  than  half  the  price  of  the 
Leonesa.  It  must,  however,  be  admitted,  that,  in  Spain,  it  is  a  disputed 
point  whether  the  travelling  flocks  are  really  benefited  by  the  equality  of 
climate  thus  obtained;  some  stationary  flocks  in  the  province  of  Segovia 
being  said  to  produce'as  fine  wool  as  any  of  the  Trashumante. 

If  the  supposition  that  the  change  of  pasture  be  correct,  it  must  follow 
that  these  sheep,  when  exposed  to  the  variable  climate  of  this  country, 
will  necessarily  change  the  quality  of  their  fleece;  upon  which  climate  is 
known  to  have  the  greatest  influence.  It  may,  indeed,  be  said,  that  the 
change  might  even  then  be  advantageous ;  for  a  certain  degree  of  cold  is 
rather  favorable  than  otherwise  to  the  growth  of  fine  wool ;  and  its  im- 
provement in  Saxony,  into  which  country  the  Spanish  breeds  were  intro- 
duced about  half  a  century  ago,  might  be  adduced  as  an  instance  in  point. 
But  in  Germany,  these  sheep  are  regularly  housed  during  the  wmter ; 
they  are  also  kept,  during  that  season,  on  dry  fodder,  which  may  be  sup- 
posed to  have  a  material  effect  on  the  fleece,  for  the  Spanish  sheep  are 
kept  on  bare,  and  generally  burnt-up  pasture,  without  even  tasting  arti- 
ficial food  ;  and  our  own  finest  wooUed  flocks  are  maintained  on  the  scan- 
ty herbage  of  the  downs. 

In  France, — where  the  royal  flock  of  Rambouillet,  picked  from  the 
best  in  Spain,  was  introduced  in  1765, — the  sheep  suffered  greatly  by 
the  cold  until  housed;  and  although  the  Merino  breed  has  been  since  na- 
turalized in  that  country,*  and  still  retains  the  fineness  of  the  texture  of 
the  wool,  yet  it  loses  in  softness  and  in  strength  of  staple. 

*  By  a  treaty  made  between  France  and  Spain,  during  the  French  Revolution,  5000 
ewes  and  500  rams,  of  the  b«bt  Spanish  breeds,  were  placed  at  tho  disposal  of  the  French 
Government. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA, 99 

MERINO,  OR  SPANISH  SHEEP. 

The  Trashumante  flocks  have  existed  from  a  very  early  period  in  Spain. 
There  is  an  ancient  tradition  that  the  original  stock  was  obtained  from  this 
country;  but  it  has  not  been  traced  to  any  authentic  source.  In  the  six- 
tenth  century,  they  were  calculated  at  seven  millions;  but  their  numbers 
have  since  much  diminished,  and  they  are  now  supposed  not  to  exceed  five. 

The  chief  flocks  are  those  ofPflttZar,  which  belong  to  a  richly  endowed 
monastery  of  that  name  in  Segovia — of  Negretti,  the  property  of  the  Mar- 
quess of  Campo  d'Alauge — of  the  Escurial,  formerly  belonging  to  the 
crown;  and  those  owned  by  the  Duke  de  1'  Infanlado,  the  Marquess  d' 
Iranda,  and  Perales,  and  Count  San  Rafael;  each  of  which  consists  of 
from  40,000  to  60,000,  and  the  average  weight  of  the  fleece  is  estimated 
at  5  lbs. 

In  respect  to  the  sheep  at  the  present  day,  found  in  the  United  States, 
it  cannot  be  necessary  to  enlarge,  since  few  probably  are  unacquainted 
witli  the  breeds  of  their  native  country. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe,  however,  that  before  the  introduction  of 
the  merino  breed,  there  were,  besides  the  common  and  coarse  woolled 
aheep  of  the  country,  three  kinds  of  sheep,  which,  for  a  time,  attracted 
some  attention,  viz.  the  Otter,  the  Arlington,  and  the  Smith's  island  sheep. 

The  Otter  sheep,  it  is  said,  were  first  discovered  on  some  island  on  our 
eastern  coast.  This  sheep  is  distinguished  for  the  extreme  shortness  of 
its  legs,  which  are  also  turned  out,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  them 
ricketty.  They  appear,  observes  a  writer,  as  if  their  legs  had  been  bro- 
ken, and  set  by  an  awkward  surgeon.  They  have  not  been  extensively 
propagated  among  us. 

The  Arlington  long-woolled  sheep  were  derived  from  the  stock  kept  by 
Washington  at  Mount  Vernon.  They  appear  to  have  been  derived  from 
a  Persian  ram,  intermixed  with  the  Bakewell  or  New  Leicestershire  breed. 

The  origin  of  the  Smith's  island  sheep  (an  island  which  lies  in  the 
Atlantic  ocean,  immediately  at  the  eastern  cape  of  Virginia)  cannot  be 
precisely  ascertained;  but  they  are  supposed  to  be  the  indiginal race  of 
the  country,  discovered  somewhat  less  than  half  a  centur)*  since,  and 
improved  by  the  hand  of  nature.  The  wool  of  this  sheep  is  said  to  be 
soft,  white,  and  silky ;  but  not  so  fine  as  the  merino  wool. 

The  introduction  of  the  merino  sheep  forms  an  era  in  the  history  of 
agriculture,  and  we  may  add  of  manufactures  in  our  country.  The  first 
merino  sheep,  ever  imported  into  the  United  States,  were  two  pairs 
sent  into  the  country  in  the  spring  of  1802,  from  France,  by  Robert  R. 
Livingston. 

Shortly  after,  a  much  greater  number  were  introduced  by  the  late 
Col.  Humphreys,  directly  from  Spain. 

Since  that  period,  importations  of  Merinos,  Saxony,  South  Down, 
&c.  &c.  have  been  frequent. 

It  cannot  be  doubted  from  the  experiments  already  made  that  the 
United  States  of  America,  particularly  the  country  which  lies  north  of 
the  Chesapeake,  is  well  adapted  to  the  breeding  of  sheep,  not  only  from 
the  fine  herbage  which  every  where  crowns  our  hills,  and  furnishes  that 
sort  of  pasture,  which  is  especially  adapted  to  sheep:  but  also  from  the 
singular  exemption  of  our  sheep  from  most  of  the  diseases,  which  so 
frequently  diminish  the  flocks  of  Europe. 

So  much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  the  breeding,  rearing  and 


100  FAMILY 


REARING    SHEEP. 


management  of  sheep,  to  which  probably  most  of  our  readers  have  access, 
that  we  deem  it  unnecessaiy  to  notice  this  subject  otherwise  than  to  se- 
lect from  the  best  writers  the  results  of  their  experience  touching  a  few 
of  the  most  important  items,  which  will  naturally  claim  the  attention  of 
The  wool  grower. 

Essential  requisites  to  a  good  ram. 

'•  His  head  should  be  fine  and  small ;  his  nostrils  wide  and  expanded  : 
his  eyes  prominent,  and  rather  bold  and  daring:  ears  thin;  his  collar  ful» 
I'rom  his  breast  and  shoulders,  but  tapering  gradually  all  the  way  to  where 
the  neck  and  head  join,  which  should  be  very  fine  and  graceful,  being 
perfectly  free  from  any  coarse  leatlier  hanging  down ;  the  shoulders  broad 
and  full,  which  must  at  the  same  time  join  so  easy  to  the  collar  forward, 
and  chine  backward,  as  to  leave  not  the  least  hollow  in  either  place ;  the 
mutton  upon  his  arm,  or  fore-thigh,  must  come  quite  to  the  knee ;  his 
legs  upright,  with  a  clean,  fine  bone,  being  equally  clear  from  superflu- 
ous skin,  and  coarse  hairy  wool  from  the  knee  and  hough  downwards  ; 
the  breast  broad  and  well  forward,  which  will  keep  his  fore  legs  at  a  pro- 
per wideness;  his  girth,  or  chest,  full  and  deep,  and,  instead  of  a  hollow 
behind  the  shoulders,  that  part,  by  some  called  the  fore-flank,  should  hi 
quite  full ;  the  back  and  loins  broad,  flat,  and  straight,  from  which  tli- 
ribs  must  rise  with  a  fine  circular  arch  ;  his  belly  straight ;  the  quarter- 
long  and  full,  with  the  mutton  quite  down  to  the  hough,  which  should  nei 
tlier  stand  in  nor  out ;  his  ttcist(i.  e.  the  junction  of  the  inside  of  the  thighs) 
deep,  wide,  and  full,  which  with  the  broad  breast,  will  keep  his  fore-legs 
open  and  upright ;  the  whole  body  covered  with  a  thin  pelt ;  and  that  with 
fine,  bright,  soft  wool. 

ot«iiw  «/(?  h^althv  ?hQcn,  These  are  a  rather  wild  or  lively  briskness ; 
a  bnlliant  ciearne^  in  the  eye ;  a  florid  ruddy  color  on  the  inside  of  the 
eyelids,  and  what  are  termed  the  eyestrings  as  well  as  in  the  gums ;  a 
fastness  in  the  teeth ;  a  sweet  fragrance  in  the  breath ;  a  dryness  of  the 
nose  and  eyes  ;  breatliing  easy  aud  regular ;  a  coolness  in  the  feet :  dung 
properly  fo'rmed;  coat  or  fleece  firmly  attached  to  the  skin,  and  unbroken; 
the  skin  exhibiting  a  florid  red  appearance,  especially  upon  the  brisket. 
Where  there  are  discharges  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  it  indicates  their 
having  taken  cold  and  should  be  attended  to  by  putting  them  in  dry  shel- 
tered situations. 

Sians  of  the  age  of  sJieep.  The  age  of  sheep  is  detennined  by  tlie  state 
of  tiieir  teeth.  In  their  second  year  they  have  two  broad  teeth  ;  in  their 
tiiird  year,  four  broad  teeth  ;  in  their  fourth  year,  six  broad  teeth ;  and  in 
tlieir  fifth  year,  eight  broad  teeth  before.  After  which  none  can  tell  how 
old  a  sheep  is  while  their  teeth  remain,  except  by  their  being  worn  down 
About  the  end  of  one  year,  rams,  wethers,  and  all  young  sheep,  lose  tw. 
fore-teeth  of  the  lower  jaw ;  aud  they  are  known  to  want  the  mcisivb 
teeth  in  tlie  ui)per  jaw.  At  eighteen  months,  the  two  teeth  joining  to 
the  former,  also  fall  out ;  and  at  three  years,  being  all  unplaced,  they  are 
even  and  pretty  white.  But  as  these  aninuds  advance  in  age,  the  teeth 
becomo  loose,  blunt,  and  afterwards  black.  The  age  of  the  ram,  and  all 
homed  sheep,  may  also  be  known  by  their  horns,  which  show  themselves 
in  their  very  first  vear,  and  often  at  the  birth,  and  continue  to  grow  a 
ring  annually  to  tfie  last  period  of  their  lives. 

Time  ofpuTcIuising  sheep.  With  respect  to  the  time,  or  proper  age  for 
purchasing  sheep  intended  for  breeding,  there  is  a  diflerence  of  opinion: 
but  the  most  experienced  breeders  recommend  them  to  be  procured  a 


. ENCYCLOPEDIA. 101 

MANAGEMEiNT  OF  SHEEP. 

short  time  previously  to  shearing,  from  the  farmer,  grazier,  or  owner's 
house  ;  because  they  will  then  be  seen  in  their  natural  state,  and  the  real 
depth  of  the  staple  may  also  be  easily  ascertained  without  the  possibility 
of  any  fraud  or  imposition  being  practised  on  the  buyer  by  the  vender. 

Breeding  of  Euxs.  Ewes  generally  breed  at  the  age  of  fifteen  or  eight- 
een months,  though  many  experienced  breeders  never  admit  the  ram  till 
they  are  two  years  old.  Much,  however,  depends,  in  this  respect  on  the 
goodness  of  the  food,  as  well  as  on  the  forward  or  backward  state  of  the 
breed.  The  choice  of  ewes,  therefore,  ought  to  be  made  witli  care  and 
discrimination,  not  only  as  to  the  characteristic  marks,  which  ought  to  be 
the  same  as  those  of  the  ram,  but  also  with  regard  to  the  breed;  for,  with 
sheep,  as  with  other  cattle  stock,  no  certain  degree  of  excellence  can  be 
attained,  unless  the  female  possesses  an  equal  degree  of  blood  with  the  male.  In 
particular,  a  purchaser  should  see  that  the  animals  be  sound ;  and,  in  order 
to  ascertain  this  point,  it  will  be  advisable  to  examine  whether  the  teeth  are 
white,  the  gums  red,  the  breath  not  fetid,  the  eyes  hvely,  the  wool  firm, 
and  the  feet  cool;  qualities  these  which  atFord  a  certain  criterion  of  health 
or  disease. 

During  the  period  of  gestation,  ewes  require  great  attention,  lesl  any 
accident  should  occasion  them  to  slip  their  lambs ;  and,  if  that  should  tak« 
place,  it  will  be  proper  to  separate  them  instantly  from  the  rest  of  the  flock. 
It  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  keep  them  in  the  same  manner  as  cows, 
while  going  with  calf,  namely,  upon  a  moderate  or  tolerably  good  shelr 
tered  pasture,  where  no  object  can  disturb  them  ;  though,  if  this  should 
fail,  it  will  be  advisable  to  give  them  turnips,  or  similar  green  food,  under 
the  like  precautions,  till  within  the  last  two  or  three  weeks  before  their 
yeaning.  In  the  breeding  of  cattle,  indeed,  it  is  a  maxim  which  ought 
to  be  steadily  kept  in  mind,  that  nothing  can  be  more  prejudicial  to  the 
females  than  to  fatten  them  during  gestation ;  and  with  respect  to  ewes 
in  particular,  this  rule  should  be  more  carefully  observed  than  with  re- 
gard to  any  other  animal ;  for  if  they  be  fed  too  high  while  they  are  going 
with  lamb,  they  will  undergo  great  difliculty  and  pain  in  yeaning ;  where- 
as, unless  they  are  put  into  a  little  heart  before  that  period  arrives,  they 
will  not  only  be  deficient  in  strength  at  the  critical  moment,  but  also  be 
destitute  of  a  sutficieut  supply  of  milk  for  the  support  of  the  lamb,  and 
consequently  both  the  dam  and  her  progeny  must  be  greatly  weakened, 
if  they  do  not  actually  perish  from  such  mismanagement. 

Otcning  of  Larnbs.  It  often  happens,  says  Mr.  Grove,  that  ewes  will 
not  own  their  lambs,  particularly  the  first  they  bear ;  and  in  this  case  I 
would  advise  to  the  sprinkling  a  little  salt  on  the  lamb  ;  which  induces 
the  ewe  to  lick  it  after  which  she  will  generally  allow  it  to  suck.  If  not, 
the  ewe  with  her  lamb  should  be  placed  in  a  separate  enclosure  (of  which 
several  should  be  previously  prepared)  and  fed  with  the  most  nutritious 
fodder,  particularly  with  nourishing  liquids,  that  the  udder  may  be  un- 
comfortably distended ;  and  if  this  be  not  siiflicient  she  must  be  tied  by 
the  legs,  till  the  lamb  has  been  once  suckled ;  after  which  there  will  be 
no  farther  difficulty. 

Weaning  Lambs.  This  depends  upon  various  circumstances.  If  the 
parent  ewe  is  broken  mouthed,  or  so  faulty  in  wool,  or  in  shape,  as  to 
render  it  desirable  to  get  rid  of  her,  the  lamb  must  be  weaned  early,  so 
as  to  admit  of  her  being  fattened  in  season ;  if  she  is  admitted  to  the'ram 
as  soon  as  she  is  disposed  to  take  him,  the  earUer  she  will  fat.  If  the  ob- 
ject is  to  render  the  lambs  as  large  as  possible,  and  they  are  of  such  a 
I  2 


102  FAMILY 


MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP. 


stock,  as  to  make  the  ewes  of  comparatively  less  value,  it  will  be  best  to 
let  the  lambs  run  with  them,  till  they  wean  themselves  ;  because  they  un- 
doubtedly grow  the  more  rapidly  for  it.  This  mode,  therefore,  I  would 
recommend,  when  a  merino  flock  is  to  be  engrafted  upon  a  common  one. 
But  if  the  ewes  are  valuable,  it  certainly  will  be  best  to  wean  the  lambs 
so  early,  as  to  give  the  ewes  some  respite,  before  they  take  the  ram  again ; 
and  indeed,  if  early  lambs  are  preferred,  early  weaning  is  absolutely  ne- 
cessary, as  the  ewe  will  seldom  take  the  ram  when  exhausted  by  nursing. 
In  Spain,  they  leave  the  lambs  with  the  ewe  till  they  wean  themselves. 
In  France,  and  generally  in  England,  they  are  weaned  at  tliree  and  four 
months  old.  In  order  to  prevent  the  lambs  from  falling  otf,  when  they 
are  weaned,  they  should  be  j^ut  into  a  piece  of  young  tender  grass,  with 
an  old  quiet  ewe  or  wether  to  direct  their  movements;  they  should  also 
be  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  their  mothers,  that  they  may  the  sooner  for- 
get each  other.  If  the  keeping  them  apart  be  inconvenient,  they  may 
be  brought  together  at  the  end  of  a  fortnight.  Some  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  ewes  for  the  first  week,  in  order  to  prevent  their  suffering  by 
a  too  great  flow  of  milk,  which  should  be  taken  from  them  every  day  or 
two ;  and  perhaps  it  would  be  best,  till  their  milk  is  dried  up,  to  keep 
them  in  scanty  pastures. 

Winter  management.  It  is  recommended  to  give  ewes  with  lamb,  a 
somewhat  more  than  ordinary  quantity  of  food,  for  a  month  or  six  weeks 
before  they  are  expected  to  yean.  Not  enough,  however  to  make  them 
fat,  as  dangerous  consequences  might  attend  their  being  in  very  high 
condition  at  that  period.  Turnips  are  said  to  be  injurious  to  ewes  with 
lamb,  but  may  be  well  given  them  after  they  have  yeaned.  If  your 
sheep,  whether  store  sheep  or  ewes  with  lamb,  have  good  hay,  about  a 
quart  of  potatoes  a  day  to  each  will,  it  is  said,  be  very  beneficial,  and  an 
ample  allowance.  Potatoes,  besides  their  use  as  food  for  sheep,  are  said 
to  be  very  serviceable  as  an  article  of  diet,  which  usually  supersedes  the 
necessity  o^ medicine.  They  have,  when  given  raw,  an  opening  or  purga- 
tive quality,  which  is  thought  to  be  of  use,  and  answer  a  similar  purpose 
with  sheep,  which  is  effected  with  swine  by  brimstone  and  antimony. 
Potatoes,  baked,  steamed  or  boiled,  will  furnish  more  nutriment  than  those 
which  are  raw. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  place  in  the  stable  small  tubs  or  troughs  of  water 
for  the  sheep  to  drink  in.  They  will  do  very  well  in  the  summer  without 
water,  as  they  feed  when  the  dew  is  on;  but  they  need  water  in  winter,  es- 
pecially if  fed  mostly  on  dry  food.  When  sheep  have  colds,  and  discharge 
mucus  from  the  nose,  good  feeding,  together  with  pine  boughs,  given  oc- 
casionally, will  cure  them:  or  tar, spread  over  a  board,  over  which  a  little 
fine  salt  is  strewed,  will  induce  sheep  to  lick  up  the  tar,  and  this  will  cure 
a  cold.  Half  a  gill  of  Indian  corn  a  day,  given  to  each  sheep  during  winter, 
13  recommended  as  keeping  them  in  good  heart,  preventing  the  wool  from 
falling  oflf,  and  enabling  the  ewes  to  rear  their  young  better,  than  they 
would  if  fed  altogether  on  food  of  a  less  substantial  nature. 

Quantity  of  food.  Writers  do  not  agree  on  the  quantity  of  food,  which 
a  given  number  of  sheep  will  consume  to  advantage  in  a  given  time.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Lawrence,  a  sheep  will  eat  twenty  pounds  of  turnips  in 
twenty  four  hours;  but  that  one  gallon  of  potatoes  will  generally  suffice. 
The  size  of  the  sheep  he  does  not  give.  The  same  writer  also  states  that 
the  quantity  of  food  required  by  a  sheep,  compared  with  an  ox,  is  as  one  to 
eight  or  nine.    Daobenton,  a  celebrated  French  agriculturalist,  gives  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  103 


MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP. 


following  as  the  result  of  an  experiment  which  he  made  on  this  subject. 
"  I  confined,"  says  he  "  in  a  small  space,  two  sheep,  about  twenty  inches 
high,  (the  height  of  most  woolled  animals  in  France. )  By  way  of  experi- 
ment, I  caused  tiie  sheep  to  be  fed  during  eight  days,  solely  on  grass  new- 
ly cut,  and  weighed  before  placed  in  their  rack.  Care  was  taken  to  pick 
up.  and  place  back  again,  all  that  the  sheep  let  fall,  and  to  weigh  that  which 
they  would  not  eat,  in  consequence  of  its  being  too  tough,  or  because  it 
possessed  some  bad  quality.  From  this  trial,  frequently  repeated,  it  ap- 
peared that  a  sheep  of  the  middle  stature  eats  about  eight  pounds  of  grass 
in  a  day.  The  same  experiments,  conducted  with  the  same  preciseuess. 
in  regard  to  the  fodders  of  hay  or  straw,  have  proved  that  a  sheep  of 
raiddlmg  height  likewise  eats  daily  two  pounds  of  hay,  or  two  pounds  and 
a  half  of  straw. 

In  order  to  ascertain  how  many  pounds  of  grass  go  to  one  pound  of 
hay,  I  caused  the  grass  to  be  weighed  as  soon  as  cut ;  it  was  then  spread 
on  cloths  exposed  to  the  sun,  so  that  none  might  be  lost,  though  at  the 
same  time  well  dried.  Being  thus  converted  into  hay,  I  found  its  weight 
reduced  to  one  fourth ;  eight  pounds  of  grass  had  given  only  two  pounds 
of  hay. 

Manner  of  feeding.  "  One  thing,  (says  Mr.  Tessier)  cannot  be  too  much 
recommended,  which  is  to  place  the  hay  in  the  racks  while  the  sheep  are 
out  of  the  house  ;  by  this  precaution  the  dust  will  not  fall  upon  the  flee- 
ces." Dr.  Draw  observes  that  the  rack  in  which  the  hay  is  put  should 
be  upright,  so  that  in  feeding,  the  seeds,  chaff,  &c.  should  not  fall  into 
the  wool,  about  their  necks.  Under  the  racks  should  be  a  trough  for 
catching  the  seeds  of  the  hay,  and  feeding  the  sheep. 

Salt.  With  regard  to  giving  salt  to  sheep  writers  have  disagreed.  It 
is  believed  to  be  better  not  to  give  them  any,  than  to  allow  them  too  great 
a  quantity.  M.  Tessier  says,  "  sheep  have  been  known  to  be  attended 
with  long  and  troublesome  looseness  in  consequence  of  having  taken  too 
much  salt ;  which  has  induced  the  belief  that  sea-water  is  poisonous  to 
them  ;  and  that  his  sheep  had  always  been  healthy  though  he  had  never 
given  them  any  salt.  But  he  states  that  it  may  be  indispensably  necessa- 
ry in  wet  countries."  And  Dr.  Cooper,  editor  of  the  last  edition  of  the 
Domestic  Encyclopedia,  recommends  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  a  day,  as  a 
proper  quantity  for  sheep.  Mr.  Grove  likewise  says,  "  salt  is  required 
by  sheep,  at  intervals,  during  the  whole  year ;  but  it  is  often  given  in 
too  great  quantities,  and  almost  forced  upon  the  sheep ;  which  is  often 
injurious,  and  often  injures  the  digestion,  so  that  the  best  grain  will  pass 
through  tliem  unaltered.  The  best  mode,  where  rock  salt  is  to  be  had,  is 
to  attach  pieces  here  and  there  in  the  stable  or  pasture,  and  let  them  lick 
it  as  they  wish.  The  usual  calculation  is  from  one  to  two  pounds  yearly, 
per  head  :  but  I  have  usually  found  that  something  less  than  one  pound 
was  quite  sufficient,  and  more  than  this  is  not  given  in  Saxony  to  the 
best  managed  flocks." 

Folding.  Cotting  or  folding  of  sheep,  is  a  practice  more  or  less  exten- 
sively foUowed  with  particular  breeds,  and  in  particular  districts  ;  but 
now  generally  on  the  decline.  It  was  formerly  thought  to  be  indispen- 
sably necessary  to  the  success  of  the  farmer  in  different  districts;  but  of 
late  a  different  opinion  has  prevailed,  except  in  particular  cases,  and  it  is 
considered  as  merely  enriching  one  field  at  the  expense  of  another. 
The  object  is  to  enrich  the  arable  land ;  but  as  this  is  done  at  the  expense 
of  the  pasture,  it  is  truly  as  Bakewell  expresses  it,  "robbing  Peter  to  pay 
Paul." 


104  FAMILY 


DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  SWINE. 

Marking.  An  English  writer  gives  the  following : — Mark  on  either 
side  oftliewoscof  the  sheep,  the  initials  of  the  owner's  name,  and  on  the 
opposite  side  any  number  by  which  he  may  choose  to  designate  the  par- 
ticular sheep,  by  means  of  a  small  iron  letter  or  figure  about  an  inch  long; 
which  being  dipped  in  common  oil  colors,  mixed  with  turpentine  to  dry 
them  niore  readily,  is  placed  on  the  part  described,  and  will  continue 
until  the  next  shearing  season.  The  process  is  easy,  and  will  give  the 
animal  no  pain ;  the  marks  cannot  be  readily  obliterated,  which  is  not 
the  ease  with  tattooing  or  cauterizing. 


SECTION  V. 


ON  THE  BREEDING,  REARING,  AND  FATTENING  OF  SWINE. 

It  is  the  remark  of  a  writer,  that  those  animals  which  are  most  essen- 
tial to  the  comfort  of  man,  have  been  most  widely  ditfused,  by  a  kind 
providence.  Among  these  animals  we  must  certainly  rank  swine.  They 
are  to  be  found  in  all  latitudes,  between  the  frozen  regions,  on  the  north 
and  south.  Of  domestic  stock,  few  varieties  are  more  profitable  to  the 
breeder,  than  swine.  While  the  number  kept  on  a  fann  is  proportioned 
to  the  quantity  of  otfal  on  the  premises,  especially  as  the  attendance  they 
require,  is,  when  compared  with  that  of  others,  very  trifling,  and  the 
benefit  arising  from  their  manure  more  than  counterbalances  the  expense 
of  such  attendance. 

The  characteristic  marks  of  a  good  hog  are,  a  moderate  length,  as  to 
the  carcass  in  general ;  the  head  and  cheek  being  plump  and  full ;  and 
the  neck  thick  and  short;  bone  fine;  quarters  full ;  the  carcass  thick  and 
full;  his  bristly  hide  fine  and  thin;  the  symmetry  or  proportion  of  the 
whole  well  adapted  to  the  respective  breeds  or  varieties ;  and  above  all, 
a  kindly  disposition  to  fatten  early. 


DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  SWINE. 


Swine  differ  greatly  in  different  countries,  in  respect  to  size,  color, 
&c.  &c.  In  Piedmont  they  are  universally  black,  and  this  color  obtains 
so  generally  throughout  Italy,  that  swine's  flesh  is  often  called,  in  the 
language  of  that  country,  nerOf  or  black.  In  Normandy  their  color  is 
white,  but  in  the  neighboring  country  of  Bavaria,  it  is  reddish  brown. 
In  Hungary  and  Sweden  swine  are  often  found  with  solid  hoofs,  although 
in  other  countries  they  are  universally  cloven  footed. 

The  parent  stock  of  the  domestic  swine  of  Europe,  is  doubtless,  the 
wild  boar,  which  is  still  found  in  some  of  the  forests  of  France,  Germany, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  those  of  Persian  India. 

Wild  boars  usually  live  in  families  and  are  hunted  as  an  amusement 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  which  they  are  found.  The  flesh  of  the  wild 
animals,  if  they  are  not  old,  is  said  to  be  much  superior  to  that  of  our 
domestic  swine.  That  of  the  young  ones  is  peculiarly  delicate.  Of  an 
old  wild  boar  the  head  only  is  at  all  eatable. 

Considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  swine  in  England^  where  al- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


105 


CHINESE  BREED. 


most  every  county  has  its  peculiar  breed.  These  varieties  are  in  part, 
it  is  said,  the  eflecls  of  crossing  the  European  variety  with  the  Chinese, 
some  account  of  which  we  shall  here  give. 


CHINESE  BREED. 

I.  The  Chinese  Breed,  of  the  general  appearance  of  wliicli  the  above 
is  a  tolerably  correct  delineation,  when  fat,  were  originally  obtained,  as 
their  name  imports,  I'rom  China.  Of  these  there  are  two  nearly  disUnct 
kinds:  the  white,  and  the  black;  both  are  small;  and,  although  of  an 
extraordinary  disposition  to  fatten,  will  seldom  arrive  to  a  greater  weight 
than  sixteen  or  eighteen  stone  of  fourteen  pounds  at  two  years  of  age. 
The  former  are  better  shaped  than  the  latter ;  but  they  are  less  hardy, 
and  less  prolific.  They  are  both  very  small  limbed ;  round  in  the  car- 
cass ;  thin  skinned,  and  fine  bristled ;  and  have  the  head  so  bedded  in  the 
neck,  that  when  quite  fat,  the  end  only  of  the  snout  is  perceptible.  They 
are  tender  and  difficult  to  rear,  and  the  sows  are  bad  nurses;  yet,  from 
their  early  aptitude  to  fatten  they  are  in  great  esteem  with  those  who 
only  rear  young  porkers.  Their  flesh  is  rather  too  delicate  for  ])acon ; 
it  is  also  deficient  in  lean;  and  their  hind  quarters  being  small,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  body,  they  cut  up  to  disadvantage  :  they. however,  possess  the 
valuable  properties  of  being  very  thrifty,  and  of  fattening  on  a  compara- 
tively small  quantity  of  food. 

There  is  also  amired  breed  of  this  kind,  being  white  variously  patched 
with  black;  some  of  which  have  prick  ears,  like  the  true  breed,  which 
they  otherwise  resemble  in  form,  and  others  have  the  ears  round  at  the 
»'nds,  and  hanging  downwards. 


106 


FAMILY 


BEUKSHIIIE  BREED. 


BERKSHIRE  BREED. 

II.  Berkshire  Breed,  is  distinguished  by  being  in  general  of  a  tawny, 
white,  or  reddish  color;  spotted  with  black;  large  ears,  hanging  over 
the  eyes  ;  thick,  close,  and  well  made  in  the  body ;  legs  short ;  small  in 
the  bone  ;  having  a  disposition  to  fatten  qnickly  ;  and  when  well  fed  the 
flesh  is  fine.  Berkshire  has  been  long  famous  for  its  breed  of  swine, 
which,  as  it  now"  stands,  is,  in  the  third  class,  in  point  of  size,  excellent  in 
all  respects,  but  particularly  as  a  cross  for  heavy,  slow  feeding  sorts.  It 
has  extended  itself  from  the  district  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  over 
most  parts  of  England ;  it  is  the  sort  mostly  fatted  at  the  distilleries ; 
feeds  to  a  great  weight ;  is  good  for  either  pork  or  bacon  ;  and  is  suppo- 
sed by  many  to  be  the  most  hardy,  both  in  respect  to  its  nature  and  the 
food  on  which  it  will  thrive. 

III.  The  Essex  Half  Black  pigs,  are  apparently  descended  from  the 
Berkshire  stock,  and  may  be  reckoned  among  the  finest  breeds  in  Eng- 
land. They  are  black  and  white,  short  haired,  fine  skinned,  smaller 
heads  and  ears  than  the  Berkshire  ;  but  the  latter  are  feathered  with  in- 
side hair,  which  is  a  distinctive  mark  of  both ;  short,  snubby  noses,  very 
fine  bone,  broad  and  deep  in  the  belly,  full  in  the  hind  quarters,  but  light 
in  the  bone  and  offal;  the  sows  are  good  breeders,  and  bring  litters  from 
eight  to  twelve  ;  but  they  also  have  the  character  of  being  bad  nurses. 

Mr.  Western  describes  them,  as  feeding  remarkably  quick,  growing 
fa.st,  and  being  of  an  excellent' quality  of  meat ;  and  he  considers  them 
at  least  equal,  upon  a  fair  comparison  of  age,  food  and  weight,  to  any 
other  sort  whatever. 

The  Sussex  Breed,  is  either  a  variety  of  the  Essex,  just  described,  or, 
as  some  assert,  the  original  stock.  It  is  smaller  than  the  Berkshire,  and 
of  a  very  handsome  form,  the  general  size,  when  full  grown,  seldom  ex- 
ceeding eighteen  or  twenty  stone  of  fourteen  pounds.  The  bone  is  not 
particularly  small,  but  it  is  clean  ;  the  animal  is  of  a  Kindly  disposition 
to  fatten,  and  arrives  at  maturity  sooner  than  any  other  kind. 

The  Dishley  Breed,  which  were  at  one  time  as  celebrated  as  all  the  other 
kinds  of  Mr.  Bakevvell's  stock,  are  remarkably  fine  boned,  and  delicate, 
and  are  supposed  to  be  partly  descended  from  crosses  of  the  Berkshire 
and  Chinese.  They  are  certainly  carried  to  great  perfection,  and  have 
reached  to  considerable  weight,  m  a  very  small  compass,  being,  when 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 107 

WOBURN  OR  BEDFORD  BREED. 

fat,  nearly  equal  in  height,  length,  and  thickness,  their  bellies  nearly 
touching  the  ground,  and  their  eyes  scarcely  to  be  seen  for  fat;  the 
whole  carcass  appearing  a  solid  mass  of  flesh. 

The  form  of  these  pigs  possesses  considerable  beauty,  and  is  well  cal- 
culated to  lay  on  a  large  quantity  of  meat  compared  with  their  bone  and 
offal.  They  also  keep  themselves  in  good  condition,  on  a  moderate 
quantity  of  food,  and  are  easily  fattened. 


WOBURN,  OR  BEDFORD  BREED. 

IV.  The  WoBURN  Breed,  of  which  the  animal  portrayed  above  wa» 
exhibited  at  Lord  Somerville's  Cattle  Show,  in  1806,  is  a  new  variety  in- 
troduced by  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  They  are  of  various  colors,  well 
formed,  hardy,  very  prolific,  kindly  disposed  to  fatten,  and  have  attained 
to  nearly  twice  the  weight  of  some  other  hogs  witliin  the  same  given 
period  of  time. 

Besides  these,  there  are  : — 

The  Hampshire,  the  specific  characters  of  which  are — color  chiefly 
white ;  neck  and  carcass  long,  and  the  body  not  so  well  formed  as  the 
Berksliire  pigs ;  but  they  fatten  kindly  to  a  very  great  size  and  weight, 
and  malie  excellent  bacon. 

The  Northampton,  which  are  also  white,  with  very  short  legs,  ears 
enormously  large,  often  sweeping  the  ground ;  size  lar^e,  w  ith  coarse 
bone  and  hair,  and  many  bristles.  They  fatten  to  a  great  size,  but  not 
very  kindly,  and  are  reared  chiefly  in  the  county  of  Northampton. 

The  Shropshire,  which  appear  to  be  a  variety  of  the  Northampton  race, 
to  whose  characteristics  they  bear  a  great  resemblance  ;  fattening  to  a 
large  size,  but  not  so  kindly  disposed  as  the  Berkshire ;  yet  they  are  both 
favorites  with  the  distillers,  who  seem  to  require  a  coarse,  heavy  pig  to 
consume  their  wash  and  grains  with  advantage. 

The  Yorkshire,  which  are  similar  in  color  to  the  Berkshire,  but  with 
longer  ears,  and  coajrser  hair.  They  have  long  legs,  flat  sides,  and  are 
coarse  in  the  bone  :  they  are  also  slow  feeders ;  but  for  the  reasons  al- 
ready assigned  they,  as  well  as  the  Northampton  and  Shropshire,  are  in 
esteem  with  the  distillers. 

The  Lincolnshire,  with  well  formed  heads  and  ears  of  a  medium  size 
pointing  forward,  and  curled  at  the  tips ;  they  are  long  and  straight  from 


108  FAMILY 


CHESHIRE  BREED. 


the  head  to  the  tail,  and  of  sufficient  breadth  ;  round  in  the  carcass  and 
deep  in  the  sides  ;  the  skin  and  hair  thin.  The  true  bred  pigs  of  thi< 
race  are  white,  and  rather  tender ;  but  they  reach  to  thirty  stone  of  four- 
teen pounds,  and  in  point  of  profit  may  be  ranked  next  to  the  Berkshire. 
This  breed  is  also  known  (with  some  occasional  variation)  as  the  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk. 

The  Cheshire,  of  various  colors,  but  chiefly  marked  with  broad  patches 
of  black,  or  blue,  and  white,  have  lage  heads,  with  long  pendant  ears ; 
are  of  a  great  length,  but  proportionably  narrow ;  curved  in  the  back, 
and  flat  sided ;  large  boned,  and  long  legged,  with  much  loose  skin,  and 
are  altogether  ill-formed ;  but  they  grow  to  an  extraordinary  weight,  and 
are  the  largest  kind  of  pigs  in  the  kingdom,  except  the  Riidgtcick  breed, 
which  take  their  name  from  a  village  on  the  borders  of  Surry  and  Sus- 
sex; and  are  remarkable  for  the  enormous  size  to  which  they  reach. 

Each  of  these  breeds  has  its  several  advocates  ;  bu't  as  their  respective 
value  does  not,  as  in  other  species  of  stock,  depend  on  soil  and  situation, 
these  differences  of  opinion  can  only  be  ascribed  to  the  want  of  sufficient 
comparative  experiments  or  to  prejudice.  A  veiy  competent  and  appa- 
rently a  very  candid  judge  of  the  merits  of  the  principal  kinds,  gives  it 
as  his  decided  opinion,  that  the  Berkshire  rough-haired,  feather-eared, 
curled  pigs,  are  superior  in  form  and  flesh  to  all  others ;  even  to  the  best 
Chinese. 

To  the  foregoing  might  be  added  many  other  varieties  and  sub-varie- 
ties in  England  ;  but  it  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  be  more  minute. 

The  hog  is  not  a  native  of  America,  but  was  brought  hither  by  Euro- 
peans. Until  within  a  few  years,  the  principal  breed  of  hogs  to  be  found 
in  the  United  States  strongly  resembled  the  old  Irish  breed — a  long- 
legged,  thin-sided,  lank,  haggard  race,  which  scarcely  attain  to  their  full 
size,  short  of  two  or  three  years,  and  two  or  three  of  which  require  all 
the  corn  commonly  raised  on  a  good  sized  farm,  to  get  into  a  decent  con- 
dition for  the  barrel. 

Within  a  few  years,  however,  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  this 
important  subject;  more  valuable  breeds  have  been  introduced,  which 
have  been  crossed  to  advantage  in  the  country.  We  have  crosses  from 
the  Chinese,  Russian,  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  English  breeds.  Of  the  latter, 
we  have  the  Bedfordshire,  Berkshire,  Suffolk,  Sussex,  Lincolnshire, 
Hampshire,  and  other  famihes.  In  general,  however,  there  is  room  for 
•extensive  improvement,  in  respect  to  our  swine.  Among  the  breeds 
deservedly  in  high  repute  in  New-England,  at  the  present  time,  is  the  Bed- 
ford or  Woburn  breed.  The  history  of  its  jntroduction  is  both  curious  and 
interesting,  and  for  it  we  are  indebted  to  the  Hon.  Oliver  Fiske.  of  Wor- 
cester Mass.,  as  we  are  to  his  zeal  for  its  extensive  dissemination,  in  various 
parts  of  New-England,  and  other  sections  of  the  United  States. 

According  to  this  gentleman,  the  breed — a  boar  and  a  sow — were  sent 
by  the  Duke  of  Bedford — after  whom  they  are  in  this  country  called — but 
in  England  are  better  known,  it  is  believed,  by  the  name  of  the  "  Woburn 
breed,"  as  a  present  to  Gen.  Washington.  They  were  committed  to  the 
care  of  an  English  farmer  by  the  name  of  Parkinson.  This  man  took  a 
farm  in  the  neighborhood  of  Baltimore;  but.  instead  ofsendmg  the  swine 
to  Gen.  Washington,  he  sold  them.  Being  highly  esteemed  by  Gen. 
Ridgely,  of  Maryland,  who  became  acquainted  wiih  their  excellence,  he 
sent  a  pair  of  them  to  Col.  Pickering,  of  .Massachusetts,  in  a  vessel  bound 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 109 

MANAGEMENT  OF  HOGS.  ' 

r" — — — 

to  Salem.  From  Col.  P.'s  stock,  Mr.  John  Reed  of  Roxbury,  obtained 
the  breed,  and  of  the  latter  Dr.  Fiske  obtained  jjarts  of  several  litters, 
which  he  transferred  to  Worcester.  The  pure  breed  is,  perhaps,  nearly 
the  perfection  of  the  race— judiciously  crossed  with  our  native  breed, 
greatly  improves  the  latter.  To  the  excellence  of  the  above  breed  Gov. 
Lincoln  and  several  other  gentlemen  have  borne  the  most  ample  testi- 
mony.    See  New-England  Farmer,  Vol.  III.  p.  222. 

The  importance  of  a  general  introduction  of  such  a  breed  of  swine  as 
the  foregoing,  to  the  farming  interest  of  the  land,  can  scarcely  be  estima- 
ted. Although  the  keeping  of  a  moderate  number  of  even  the  old  breeds, 
was  advantageous  to  the  fiirmer,  and  almost  essential,  inasmuch  as  they 
would  feed  upon  things,  which  would  otherwise  be  of  no  considerable 
service  to  him  ;  yet  the  fattening  of  such  swine  usually  proves  a  serious 
tax  upon  the  granary,  and  often  before  the  farmer's  pork  was  in  the  bar- 
rel, his  stock  of  corn  was  exhausted.  Too  much  apathy  in  respect  to  the 
improvement  of  this  part  of  the  farmer's  stock,  it  is  believed,  still  gene- 
rally prevails. 

Next  to  the  importance  of  a  good  breed,  is  the  proper  management  of 
them.  That  management  will  vary  according  to  their  age  and  other 
circumstances.  The  suggestions  which  we  design  to  make  will  respect 
these  animals  distinguished  into  the  following  classes :  1.  Sows  with 
Pig;    2.  Pigs;    3.  Store  Pigs;  and,  4.  Fatting  Hogs. 

I.  With  regard  to  soics  in  pig,  it  is  obvious  that  they  should  be  better 
fed  than  either  of  the  two  following  classes,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
enabled  to  supply  their  young  litter  with  the  necessary  supply  of  milk ; 
but  while  care  is  thus  taken  to  keep  them  in  good  condition,  equal  cau- 
tion is  necessary  that  they  be  not  too  fat.  Thus,  for  such  a  litter  in  the 
spring,  tares  and  cabbages,  combined  with  the  waste  milk  and  wash  of 
the  house  and  dairy,  may  be  employed  with  advantage ;  or,  if  the  sup- 
ply from  the  dairy  be  not  adequate  to  the  demand,  a  wash  may  be  pre- 
pared with  oat,  barley,  or  other  meal.  For  those  which  litter  in  autumn, 
lettuces  have  been  found  very  wholesome  and  nutritive,  in  addition  to 
the  wash  ;  and  in  the  winter  season,  potatoes,  Swedish  turnips,  and  other 
roots,  previously  prepared  by  boiling,  should  be  added. 

II.  With  regard  to  young  pigs,  they  may  be  fed,  after  being  weaned, 
in  the  same  manner  as  sows ;  but  it  is  eminently  important  that  their 
food  should  be  so  nutritious  as  that  they  should  be  continually  in  a  grow- 
ing state.  No  food  is  better  for  them,  it  is  well  known,  than  milk^  and 
nothing  scarcely  promotes  their  growth  more  rapidly  than  corn  soaked 
in  milk,  or  milk  thickened  with  corn  and  oat  meal  combined.  It  may  be 
remarked,  also,  that  young  pigs  seldom  do  well,  when  constantly  con- 
fined in  the  pen.  More  than  at  any  other  period  do  they  need  to  range 
abroad.  They  require  also  a  warm  and  dry  shelter,  especially  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  autumn,  and  during  the  season  of  winter.  From  inattentiow 
to  these  points,  the  growth  of  pigs  is  scarcely  a  moity  of  what  it  would 
otherwi.se  be,  besides,  that  they  require  a  much  greater  amount  of  food. 

III.  Store  pigs  are  those  which  have  attained  nearly  half  their  growth, 
and  for  these,  every  farmer,  who  has  it  in  his  power,  should  have  a  good 
enclosed  pasture,  it  having  been  found  by  experiment,  that  in  a  pasture 
of  moderate  dimensions  and  properly  managed,  the  sauie  number  of  hogs 
may  be  kept  in  better  condition,  and  probably  at  only  a  quarter  of  tlie  es;- 
pense,  than  if  they  were  kept  in  the  pen,  upon  Indian,  or  even  upon  roots. 

The  hog  pasture,  observes  Mr.  Dean,  in  his  New  England  Farmer, 

K 


110  FAMILY 


MANAGEMENT  OF  HOGS. 


should  be  so  near  to  the  dwelling  house  that  it  may  not  be  troublesome 
to  carry  the  wash  to  the  swine,  and  yet  so  far  off  that  the  people  in  the 
house  may  not  be  stunned  with  their  noise.  A  warm  cot  must  be  made 
in  some  convenient  part  of  their  pastuje,  for  them  to  lodge  in. 

To  prepare  a  pasture  for  them,  let  the  ground  be  broken  up,  tilled  and 
manured,  and  then  laid  down  with  clover.  For  swine  are  more  fond  of 
this  grass  than  of  any  other,  which  our  country  produces.  Let  the  quan- 
tity of  land  be  so  proportioned  to  the  number  of  swine  that  they  may  keep 
the  grass  from  running  up  to  seed.  For  this  will  prevent  waste  :  and 
the  shorter  the  grass  is,  the  sweeter  it  will  be,  and  the  more  tender  and 
agreeable  to  their  palates. 

I  suppose  that  one  acre  of  rich  land  in  clover,  will  support  twenty  or 
more  swine,  large  and  small  together,  through  the  sumuier ;  and  bring 
them  well  forward  in  their  growth  ;  but  they  should  have  rings  in  their 
noses,  to  prevent  their  rooting  out  the  clover. 

It  has  been  proved,  by  many  trials,  that  hogs  in  such  a  pasture,  may 
be  kept  in  good  plight,  without  any  other  food.  Some  say  they  may  be 
half  fattened. 

Arthur  Young,  Esq.  of  Great  Britain,  in  the  summer  of  the  year  1766. 
pastured  sixty -four  swine  of  various  sizes,  on  two  acres  of  clover  ground. 
And  allowing  two  pence  half-penny  per  week,  one  with  another,  their 
feedings  amounted  to  seventeen  pounds,  sixteen  shillings  sterling.  Their 
keeping  was  set  at  a  low  rate,  six  months  feeding  for  one  swine  being 
OS  bd,  and  the  profit  of  the  clover  put  to  this  use  is  astonishing.  He  as- 
sures the  public  that  all  these  swine  grew  very  fast.  And  in  his  opinion, 
tliis  use  of  clover  is  greatly  preferable  to  making  it  into  hay.  I  think  this 
is  not  to  be  doubted,  though  the  crop  of  hay  were  supposed  to  be  the 
greatest  that  is  ever  obtained. 

It  should  be  remembered,  that  the  pasturing  with  swine  will  enrich 
the  land  more  than  pasturing  with  other  beasts,  and  hereby  the  profit  of 
the  farmer  will  be  increased.  And  if  a  common  clover  lay  will  produce 
a  good  crop  of  wheat,  much  more  may  be  expected  ol'  the  same  kind  of 
ground,  after  pasturing  swine  upon  it ;  as  their  dung  adds  much  to  the 
fertihty  of  the  soil. 

Hogs  may  be  turned  into  their  pasture  about  the  first  of  May,  and 
kept  in  it  till  the  last  of  October.  And  if  in  May  and  October  the  grass 
should  not  be  quite  sufficient  for  their  support,  some  potatoes  or  other 
roots  may  be  thrown  to  them. 

The  fence  about  the  pasture  should  be  so  tight  and  strong  that  the 
swine  will  not  need  to  be  yoked  ;  because  yokes  do  much  towards  pre- 
venting their  growth,  as  I  have  found  by  letting  yoked  and  unyoked  ones 
of  the  same  litter  run  together  in  a  pasture.  It  will  be  of  great  advan- 
tage to  a  hog  pasture  to  have  plenty  of  water  in  it  through  the  summer. 
Running  water  is  best,  as  it  will  afford  them  the  most  wliolesome  drink, 
and  at  the  same  time  serve  as  well  as  any  other  for  them  to  wallow  in  4 
and  it  will  keep  them  clean,  which  is  no  small  advantage. 

The  best  way  of  managing  swine,  is  to  keep  them  always  in  middling 
plight.  Not  too  fat  lest  their  health  should  be  m  danger,  especially  when 
the  weather  is  hot ;  not  too  lean,  lest  this  should  give  tliem  a  ravenou.s 
appetite,  and  tempt  them  to  eat  things  that  are  not  whol»!some  for  them. 
Those  that  have  been  long  starved,  cannot  be  made  fat  without  great 
«xpense — sometimes  more  than  they  will  repay  with  tjit  ir  flesh. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 111 

MANAGEMENT    OP  HOGS. 

When  it  can  with  convenience  be  so  ordered,  it  is  an  excellent  piece 
of  husbandry  to  make  a  hog  pasture  of  an  orchard.  Their  dung  is  al- 
lowed to  be  the  very  best  manure  for  the  trees.  They  will  keep  the 
ground  light  and  loose,  destroy  insects  that  infest  the  trees,  and  feed 
heartily  upon  the  premature  apples,  which  the  farmer  is  too  often  tempt- 
ed to  grind  up  for  cider.^  And  the  shadow  of  the  trees  will  be  very  grate- 
ful and  comfortable  to  them  in  summer.  An  orchard  may  be  prepared 
with  clover  as  well  as  any  other  piece  of  ground.  But  it  should  be  re- 
membered that,  when  the  trees  in  an  orchard  are  young  and  snmll,  swine 
should  not  be  permitted  to  go  among  them  ;  for  there  will  be  danger  of 
their  wounding  them,  and  stripping  olFsome  of  the  bark. 

As  a  substitute  for  the  usual  mode  of  ringing  hogs,  Mr.  Tubb,  an 
English  breeder  of  stock,  recommends  to  shave  olF  with  a  razor,  or  sharp 
knife,  the  gristle  on  the  tops  of  the  noses  of  young  pigs.  The  place  soon 
heals  over,  and  the  pigs  are  thus  rendered  incapable  of  rooting.  Loudon 
recommends  to  cut  the  two  tendons  of  their  snouts  with  a  sharp  knife, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  nose.  This  may  be  done  with  little 
j)ain  and  no  prejudice  to  the  animal,when  about  two  or  three  months  old. 

IV.  The  business  of  ftittening  hogs  is  generally  performed  from  the 
commencement  of  October.  Some  farmers,  and  those  who  understand 
their  true  interests,  commence  somewhat  earlier.  According  to  the 
opinion  of  Rev.  Mr.  Elliot,  the  best  time  in  the  year  to  shut  up  hogs  to 
fatten  them,  is  the  month  of  August.  The  beginning  of  September; 
however,  is  sufficiently  early  to  make  them  fat,  provided  they  be  of  a 
proper  breed,  before  the  weather  comes  to  be  extremely  cold. 

Certain  it  is,  that  he  that  attempts  to  fatten  his  hogs  in  winter  will  be  a 
Joser,  for  it  has  been  found  by  long  experience,  that  they  do  not  gain  in 
their  flesh  near  so  fast  in  a  frosty,  as  in  a  temperate  season. 

Whatever  system  of  fattening  swine  may  be  adopted,  it  is  of  essential 
consequence  that  they  be  kept  warm  and  clean,  especially  in  cold  and 
damp  weather,  during  the  period  of  fattening  ;  and  that  they  also  be  sup- 
plied with  abundance  of  litter,  the  cost  of  which  will  be  amply  repaid  by 
the  increased  proportion  of  excellent  dung  thereby  obtained.  It  has, 
indeed  been  frequently  asserted,  that  swine  thrive  better  while  fattening, 
if  they  be  allowed  to  wallow,  at  home,  in  their  own  filth,  and  abroad  in 
mud  and  wet,  because  they  delight  in  it ;  and  thence  it  is  assumed  as  cer- 
tain, that  it  tends  to  their  advantage.  Such  an  assertion,  however,  is 
rather  the  offspring  of  prejudice,  than  the  result  of  real  experience:  we 
know  that  animals,  when  oppressed  with  heat,  will  plunge  into  water  in 
order  to  cool  themselves  ;  but  it  cannot  be  inferred  from  this  circum- 
*!tance,  that  it  will  be  necessarily  beneficial  to  them,  especially  when 
fattening.  Besides,  as  there  is  an  analog}'  between  the  disorders  of  this 
part  of  the  brute  creation,  and  those  of  the  human  race,  as  well  as  in  the 
rauses  whence  they  originate,  we  shall  here  only  remark,  that  swine  are 
liable  to  be  atl'ected  by  drinkiug  too  much  cold  water,  or  wallowing  in 
miry  or  humid  places  when  overheated. 

Not  only,  however,  should  these  animals  be  kept  warm  and  dry  while 
fattening,  but  they  should  also  be  confined,  if  possible,  by  themselves ;  or, 
at  all  events,  there  should  be  as  small  a  number  in  the  same  stye,  and  as 
nmch  out  of  the  hearing  of  the  cry  or  grunt  of  other  hogs  as  possible ; 
otherwise  upon  their  first  confinement,  they  will  pine  and  decrease  in 
flesh,  notwithstanding  they  have  abundance  of  food  given  them.  By  this 
means  they  will  be  enabled  to  take  more  frequent  and  uninterrupted  re- 


11-2  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  AND  SWINE. 

pose,  which  greatly  contributes  to  j)romote  their  fattening;  besides  which, 
all  those  inconveniences  will  be  effectually  obviated,  which  often  occur 
from  hogs  worrying  each  other,  and  from  the  weaker  being  deprived  by 
the  stronger  of  their  fair  proportion  of  food. 

Regularity  of  feeding  should  likewise  be  especially  regarded,  as  it  has 
great  influence  in  faciUtating  or  retarding  the  fattening  of  swine  ;  hence 
it  will  be  proper  to  give  them  a  full  allowance  of  food  three  or  four  times, 
or  at  certain  other  stated  intervals  in  the  day,  as  convenience  or  other 
circumstances  will  allow.  And  if  any  animal  should  have  surfeited  itself, 
(which  is  no  unusual  occurrence,  where  due  regard  is  not  bestowed  on 
the  point  last  stated,)  by  eating  too  large  a  proportion  of  food,  it  will  be 
advisable  to  give  about  half  an  ounce  of  flour  of  sulphur  in  some  wash, 
once  or  twice  in  the  day,  for  two  or  three  successive  days.  By  this  sim- 
ple remedy  their  palled  appetite  will  be  restored  more  effectually  than  by 
administering  antimony,  or  any  other  drug  that  has  been  recommended 
to  use  in  fattening  swine ;  for,  however  such  articles  may  possibly  have 
succeeded  in  a  few  instances,  it  is  obvious  that  they  cannot  be  generally 
employed  with  advantage,  and  may  not  unfrequently  be  productive  of 
hurtful  effects. 

It  is  recommended  by  various  writers  to  give  to  fatting  hogs  dry  rot- 
ten wood,  or  the  ashes  or  cinders  of  the  blacksmith's  shop  ;  others  re- 
commend charcoal.  Nature,  it  is  thought,  points  out  these,  as  preventives 
for  several  diseases,  to  which  fatting  swine  are  liable.  The  precise  effect 
of  these  articles,  it  is,  perhaps,  dithcult  to  ascertain.  The  rotten  wood 
may  act  as  an  absorbent,  and  the  cinders  and  charcoal  sene  to  correct 
the  superabundant  acid  in  the  stomach.  Certain  it  is,  that  fatting  swine 
will  devour  these  substances  with  avidity,  whenever  they  require  them. 
I  have  not  lost  a  fatting  hog,  says  Judge  Peters,  for  more  than  thirty 
years,  when  I  used  it,  (rotten  wood)  but  have  suffered  by  neglecting  it. 
Some  of  my  neighbors  met  with  frequent  losses  of  fatting  hogs,  till  I 
informed  them  of  my  practice  ;  of  which  I  was  told  by  a  woman  from 
East  Jersey,  before  our  revolutionary  war.  She  said  it  was  then  known 
and  practiced  there. 

To  the  good  effects  of  charcoal,  the  Editor  can  bear  his  own  testimony, 
having  made  use  of  this,  for  his  own  fatting  hogs  for  several  years.  He 
has  found  similar  good  effects  to  result  from  the  use  of  pounded  oyster- 
shells.  When  sufficiently  softened  by  exposure  to  the  air,  fatting  swine 
will  be  found  to  eat  them  with  avidilv. 


SECTION  VI. 

DISEASES  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  AND  SWINE. 
1.    HORSES. 

The  brute  creation  are,  in  general,  hable  to  fewer  maladies,  or  com- 

Elaints  than  mankind  ;  and  as  their  diseases  are,  with  some  exceptions, 
!8fl  complicated,  they  are  of  course  more  easily  reUeved.  Many  of  the 
diseases  which  afllict  brute  animals,  might  be  prevented  by  more  care, 
it  being  certain  that  these  are  often  the  result  of  the  negligence  or  erro- 
neous treatment  of  their  owners.  "  They  are  either  exposed  too  much 
to  the  rigor  and  changes  of  the  weatlier,"  observes  Mr.  Lawrence,  "  or 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


113 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES,  CATTLE,  SHEEP,  AND  SWINE. 

they  are  gorged  with  food,  or  denied  a  sufficient  quantity,  or  supplied 
with  such  as  is  unwholesome.  Hence  we  learn  the  chief  causes  of  their 
maladies.  Learn  to  prevent  them,  instead  of  undertaking  the  tedious, 
unsuitable,  and  often  hopeless  task  of  learning  to  cure  them."  Although 
many  diseases  incident  to  our  domestic  animals  might,  as  the  above 
writer  suggests,  be  prev^ented  by  care  and  vigilance,  yet  they  will  some- 
times get  sick,  under  the  most  favorahle  circumstances,  and  for  some  of 
their  maladies,  no  certain  cures  have  as  yet  been  discovered.  It  would 
greatly  swell  the  limits  of  this  work,  were  we  to  enumerate  all  the  mala- 
dies incident  to  the  animals  which  stand  at  the  head  of  this  article.  We 
must  therefore  confine  our  attention  to  a  few  of  those  which  are  of  most 
common  occurrence. 

BoTTS.  There  are  two  varieties  of  the  insects  which  produce  the 
botts,  one  larger  than  the  other.  The  larger  kind  are  covered  with  down 
of  a  brownish  color,  with  darker  shades.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs, 
generally,  on  those  parts  of  the  horse,  where  he  can  bite  himself,  espe- 
cially on  the  anterior  of  the  legs  ;  but  never  under  his  throat.  When  she 
approaches  the  horse,  she  supports  her  body  nearly  upright  in  the  air, 
and  with  one  of  her  feet  bends  out  a  hair,  on  which  siie  deposits  an  egg, 
and  thus  she  continues  to  do  for  a  short  time,  and  then  retires,  probably 
to  rest  herself,  when  she  returns  to  her  charge.  The  smaller  kind  are 
covered  with  a  darker  and  thicker  down.  Wings  transparent,  and  with- 
out any  shades.  The  female  deposits  her  eggs  under  the  throat,  and  no 
where  else.  As  she  approaches  the  horse,  she  instantly  darts  up  under 
his  throat,  and  deposits  an  egg  with  incredible  expedition,  and  then  goes 
off,  but  soon  returns  again  and  again,  to  the  great  disquiet  and  trouble  of 
the  horse,  causing  him  to  tlirow  up  his  head  with  violence.  Each  kind 
varies  in  size;  but  in  general,  they  are  about  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 
length. 

The  larvae  produced  by  the  eggs  of  the  above  insects,  penetrate  through 
the  villous,  into  the  muscular  coat  of  the  stomach,  forming  small  cavities 
ill  the  same,  and  then  hang  by  their  hooks,  irritating  and  wounding  the 
animal.  If  at  any  time  they  lose  their  hold,  they  immediately  catch  again. 
Not  any  part  of  the  stomach  is  exempted  from  them ;  but  they  are  most 
numerous  near  the  passages  into  and  out  of  the  stomach.  They  are  of 
all  insects  the  most  tenacious  of  life,  at  this  period ;  and  at  this  time  of 
their  existence  it  is,  that  they  prove  so  destructive  to  horses. 

The  following  experiments  were  made  at  different  times,  and  on  the 
larvae  three  fourths  grown  or  more. 


I 


fRum 

Decoction  of  tobacco 

Strong  elixir  vitriol 

Essential  oil  of  mint 

Volatile  spirit 

Spirits  of  turpentine 
<  Decoction  pink  root 

Fish  oil 

Linseed  oil 

Tincture  of  aloes 

Brine 

Solution  of  indigo 
^Elixir  camphor 


h. 

minutes. 

25 

" 

]1 

" 

2 

18 

2 

5 

56 
45 

lived 

10 

49 

ti 

t/2    >!    O 

10 
10 

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cfTet 
peril 
conti 

10 

CO 

JO 

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Si-  2"  3 

10 

it 

k2 


114  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES. 


$ 


Mercury  is  not  so  etFectiial  in  destroying  the  insects  as  is  generally  be- 
lieved. September  16,  1806,  immersed  a  number  of  small  botts,  with 
one  which  was  full  grown,  in  a  strong  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate ; 
the  small  botts  died  in  sixty  minutes  ;  but  a  full  grown  one  was  taken  out 
of  the  solution,  six  hours  after  its  immersion,  apparently  unhurt. 

From  the  preceding  experiments,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  an  able 
Essay  on  the  Natural  history  of  the  Bott-Fly  by  Dr.  Adams,  published  by 
the  Medical  and  Agricultural  Register,  it  is  apparent  that  it  must  be  ex- 
tremely ditficult  to  destroy  the  larvee  in  the  stomach  of  a  horse,  under  any 
circumstances,  by  the  use  of  any  remedy,  which  would  not  be  worse  than 
the  disease. 

Various  applications  have  indeed  been  proposed,  such  as  rum,  aloes, 
jalep,  brine,  linseed  oil,  pepper,  tincture  of  tobacco,  tincture  of  pink  root; 
but  none  of  them  have  proved  effectual.  But,  w^hile  we  are  not  able  to 
suggest  a  specific  for  this  most  terrible  of  all  evils,  which  afflict  the  horse, 
two  points  deserve  attention — the  one  by  way  of  preventing  the  exist- 
ence of  botts  in  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  the  other  by  way  of  palliating 
the  sufferings  of  the  animal,  when  they  do  actually  exist. 

The  best  method  of  preventing  the  bott  is  perhaps  once  in  ten  or  fifteen 
days  to  scrape  off  the  eggs  deposited  by  the  insect.  This  should  be  done 
through  the  season  of  their  appearance,  July,  August,  and  September. 
A  sharp  knife  may  be  used,  taking  care  not  to  scrape  the  eggs  where  the 
horse  will  be  likely  to  eat  them  while  he  is  feeding. 

When  botts  are  found  to  exist  in  a  horse,  the  chief  object  should  be  to 
remove  irritation  and  inflammation.  This  should  be  done  by  blood-letting 
and  the  free  use  of  mild  oils.  Blood-letting  has  a  tendency  to  remove 
the  inflammattJPff  disposition,  and  should  be  the  first  resort,  and  should  be 
frequently  repeated  ;  at  the  same  time  that  mild  oils  are  administered. 
Drenches  may  be  used,  but  the  chief  dependence  should  be  had  upou 
all«iying  the  irritation  and  inflammation  by  the  means  suggested. 

Worms.  Besides  botts,  horses  are  sometimes  troubled  with  other 
kinds  of  worms,  such  as  teres  tmaia  and  ascaris. 

The  teres  or  large  round  worm,  says  Loudon,  sometimes  occasions 
mischief,  when  it  exi-sts  in  great  numbers,  such  as  a  staring  coat,  binding 
of  the  hide,  irregular  appetite,  and  clammy  mouth.  The  best  remedy  is 
the  spigelia  marijlandica  or  Indian  pink,  in  daily  doses  of  half  an  ounce. 
I'cenia  are  not  common  in  the  horse,  now  and  then  they  exist,  and  are 
best  combated  by  weekly  doses  of  oil  of  turpentine,  three  ounces  at  a 
time,  mixed  by  means  of  the  yolk  of  an  e^^g,  with  half  a  pint  of  ale.  The 
ascaris  or  thread  worms,  are  best  remo^  ed  by  mercurial  purgatives.  The 
existence  of  worms  may  be  known  by  the  appearance  of  a  yellow  matter 
under  the  tail,  and  by  the  disposition  the  horse  has  to  rub  his  fundament. 
Blaine  reconmiends  the  following  vermifuge ;  jwicdered  arsenic,  eight 
grains;  pewter  or  tin  finely  scraped;  Venice  turpentine,  half  an  ounce,  make 
into  a  ball  and  give  every  morning.  He  also  recommends  salt  to  be  giv- 
en daily  with  the  food,  which  agrees  with  our  own  experience  as  one  ol' 
the  best  vermifuges  known,  it  is  a  fact  acknowledged  by  the  resideuta 
along  the  sea-coast,  that  horses  troubled  with  worms  will  ollen  volun- 
tarily drink  largely  of  sea  water,  and  thus  cure  themselves. 

Colic,  flatulent,  or  spasmodic,  called  also  gripes,  fret,  or  gull  ion,  is  an 
ittjportaut,  because  a  frequent,  disease,  and  because  it  frequently  de- 
stroys either  quickly  by  its  irritation,  or  by  its  degenerating  into  the  red 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 115 

DISEASES  OF  HORSES. 


or  inflammatory  colic,  when  improperly  treated  or  long  continued.  It 
is  usually  very  sudden  in  its  attack. 

The  causes  of  colic  are  not  always  apparent.  It  is  sometimes  occasioned 
by  intestinal  stones,  which  accumulate  to  a  great  size,  remaining  for 
3'ears  in  the  cells  of  the  colon,  until  some  accidental  displacement  occa- 
sions an  interruption  to  the  peristaltic  motion.  Cold  in  various  forms 
is  a  parent  of  colic ;  but  under  the  form  of  cold  water  given  when  a  horse 
is  hot,  it  is  most  common.  In  some  horses  it  is  so  frequent  as  to  become 
a  constitutional  appendage. 

The  distinguishing  marks  between  colic  and  inflammation  oftlie  bowels  are 
gained,  occording  to  Blaine,  by  attending  to  the  following  circumstances. 
lu  gripes  the  horse  has  violent  fits  of  pain  but  they  remit,  and  he  has  in- 
tervals of  ease.  The  pain  in  red  colic  is  more  uniform  and  less  violent. 
In  gripes,  the  pulse  is,  in  general,  natural ;  in  red  colic  it  is  quicker  than 
natural,  and  commonly  small.  The  extremities  are  not  usually  cold  in 
gripes  ;  in  red  colic  they  usually  are.  In  gripes,  the  horse  attempts  to 
roll  on  his  back,  which  in  red  colic  he  seldom  does.  There  are  no  marks 
of  fever  with  gripes,  as  red  eyelids,  inflamed  nostrils,  &c.  but  in  red  colic 
they  are  always  present.  When  the  complaint  has  continued  some  hours 
it  is  always  proper  to  bleed  to  prevent  its  ending  in  inflammation  :  bleed- 
ing in  the  mouth  is  quite  useless.  Back-rake,  and  throw  up  clysters  of 
warm  water,  one  after  another  as  fast  as  possible,  which  often  overcomes 
the  irritation.  La  Fosse  recommends  a  curious  remedy,  but  as  it  can 
always  be  obtained,  and  has  the  sanction  of  long  experience,  it  may  be 
tried.  An  onion  is  pounded  and  mixed  up  with  some  powdered  savin ;  in 
default  of  which,  use  powdered  ginger.     This  is  to  be  introduced  up  the 


rectum  as  high  as  possible,  and  the  horse  is  to  be  thei^. moved  briskly 
about.  An  onion  put  up  the  fundament  whole  has  longl)een  a  domestic 
remedy.  The  following  is  recommended  by  Blaine :  spirit  of  vitriolic 
(Ether,  an  ounce ;  powdered  opium,  one  drachm ;  oil  of  turpentine,  three  ounces; 
warm  ale,  a  pint.  He  also  recommends  the  following  more  simple  reme- 
dy as  always  at  hand  :  the  expressed  juice  of  two  or  three  large  onions;  com- 
mon gin,  common  oil,  of  each  half  a  pint;  mix  and  give.  White  recom- 
mends a  pint  of  brandy,  or  of  gin,  with  water,  as  an  excellent  carmina- 
tive. Clark,  who  has  expressly  written  on  gripes,  extols  the  virtues  of 
a  mixture  thus  made  ;  which,  if  it  have  the  qualities  he  attributes  to  it, 
and  which  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt,  no  agriculturalist,  coach,  or  post 
master  should  be  without  it ;  pimento  berry,  called  also  allspice,  ground  fine, 
luilfa  pound ;  spirits  oficine,  and  of  water,  of  each  a  pint  and  a  half;  infuse 
these  together,  and  keep  it  for  use.  Give  a  quarter  of  a  pint  every  hour 
until  full  relief  is  obtained ;  hand-rubbing,  wisping,  or  fomenting  the 
bowels  with  hot  water  at  the  time. 

I:*FLAMMATioN  OF  THE  BOWELS  OR  RED  COLIC,  is  avcry  distiuct  diseaso 
from  the  gripes,  gullion,  or  fret,  with  which  it  is,  however,  very  apt  to 
be  confounded  to  tlie  destruction  of  many  horses.  The  peritoneal  in- 
flannnation  of  the  bowels,  the  one  here  treated  on,  is  an  afiection  of  tlieir 
outer  covering. 

The  causes  are  various.  It  is  not  unfrequently  brought  on  by  a  sudden 
translation  of  cold  after  great  heats,  as  swimming  during  hunting,  or 
from  the  removal  of  a  horse  from  grass  at  once  into  heated  stables,  cloth- 
ing and  hard  food ;  neglected  gripes,  or  long  continued  costiveness,  ex- 
cessive riding,  and  the  immediate  drinking  of  cold  water,  have  brought 
it  on.    It  begins  by  restlessness,  loss  of  app&tite,  some  uneasiness  ;  the- 


116  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  HORSES. 


mouth  is  hot  and  dry,  the  inner  membranes  of  the  mouth,  nose  and  eye- 
lids are  often  redder  than  natural.  As  the  disease  advances,  the  pain, 
before  not  violent,  now  increases,  so  as  to  force  the  horse  to  lie  down 
and  rise  again  frequently ;  and  when  very  violent,  he  kicks  at  his  belly, 
or  looks  round  at  his  sides,  pawing  his  litter  very  frequently.  The  pulse 
is  usually  small,  quick,  or  hard;  sometimes  it  is  more  full  and  small,  but 
always  hard.  Breathing  is  quickened,  the  extremities  are  alternately 
hot  and  cold,  but  continue  longer  cold  than  hot ;  and  the  animal  is  cos- 
tive :  sometimes  pain  may  force  away  a  fe%v  hardened  balls  of  faeces,  but , 
the  principal  contents  are  retained.  Blaine  has  given  the  distinguishing ' 
features  between  this  disease  and  colic,  under  which  head  we  have  stated 
them. 

The  treatment  must  be  active  and  immediate,  or  a  fatal  termination 
may  be  expected.  Begin  by  abstracting  a  considerable  quantity  of  blood ; 
from  a  large  horse  to  the  amount  of  seven  or  eight  quarts  ;  proceed  to 
back-rake,  throw  up  a  large  clyster  of  warm  gruel.  Give  by  the  mouth, 
a  pint  of  castor  oil,  mixed  by  the  means  of  the  yolk  of  two  eggs,  with 
half  a  pint  of  broth  or  gruel.  Or,  give  olive  oil  instead,  following  it  up 
in  half  an  hour  by  a  gruel  drench  in  which  six  ounces  of  Epsom  salts 
have  been  dissolved.  A  sheep  skin,  immediately  as  it  is  removed  from 
the  sheep,  may  be  applied  to  the  belly,  which  should  first  be  well  rubbed 
with  the  strong  liquid  blister.  (Vet.  Pha.  \2.)  In  four  hours  repeat 
the  bleeding,  if  considerable  improvement  have  not  taken  place,  and  if 
the  bowels  be  not  unloaded,  give  more  oil,  and  clyster  frequently,  having 
first  back-raked.  Avoid  exercise ;  first  hand-rub,  and  afterwards  wrap 
up  the  extremities  to  the  knees.  As  a  clear  passage  for  tlie  dung  is 
found,  the  symptoms  mitigate,  and  the  animal  slowly  recovers;  but  he 
must  be  fed  at  first  very  sparingly. 

Lampas.  All  horses,  but  particularly  very  young  ones,  are  liable  to 
enlargement  of  the  rugae  or  ridges  of  the  palate,  dependent  not  on  any 
local  disease  confined  to  the  part  itself,  but  occasioruiUy  by  an  aftection 
of  the  whole  passage  of  the  mouth,  throat,  and  stomach.  It  is  usual  to 
attend  to  the  part  only,  which  is  scarified  or  burnt  to  little  purpose,  when 
u  mild  dose  of  physic,  or  gentle  alteratives,  would  prove  more  certain 
expedients ;  to  which  may  be  added  rubbing  the  part  with  bay  salt,  or 
with  vinegar. 

Bkidle  sorks.  When  the  bit  in  colt  breaking,  or  in  hard  pulling 
horses,  has  hurt  the  bars,  care  is  requisite  to  prevent  the  bone  becoming 
carious.  Touch  daily  with  segyptiacum,  and  cover  the  bit  with  leather, 
unless  total  rest  can  be  allowed. 

Pole  evil.  This  complaint  commonly  requires  the  attendance  of  an 
experienced  practitioner — but  the  prevention  is  often  in  the  power  of 
owners  and  others  about  horses,  and  to  this  point  we  shall  particularly 
direct  their  attention.  Pole  evil  is  commonly  the  effect  of  accident.  Re- 
peated small  blows  of  the  manger,  or  continued  pressure  from  hanging 
back  on  the  haltre,  &c.  will,  if  not  remedied,  produce  swelling  at  the 
nape  of  the  neck,  with  some  tenderness.  In  this  early  state,  if  the  collar 
))e  removed  and  the  part  be  kept  continually  wet  with  vinegar  and  water, 
the  swelling  will  often  disperse — but  if,  in  spite  of  this,  it  proceeds  to 
suppuration,  let  a  vent  be  made  for  the  matter  by  a  seton  [IIG]  so 
that  it  may  readily  flow  out.  Introduce  nothing  healing,  but  encourage 
a  free  discharge,  and  it  may  heal  at  once.  When  such  is  not  the  issue, 
the  disease  attacks  the  hgaments ;  sinuses  form,  and  the  matter  burrows 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  117 


DISEASES  OP  HORSES. 


under  the  skin  and  muscles,  when  a  seton  must  be  introduced  from  the 
opening  above  and  should  be  brought  out  at  the  bottom  ;  the  seton  should 
be  then  daily  wetted  with  the  liquid  blister,  (Tet.  Pha.  \Z.)  Should 
this  plan  fail,  escharotics  will  be  required  in  the  form  of  scalding  mix- 
ture.    (Vet.  Pha.  37 J 

Straxguary  or  suppression  of  urine;  incontinence  of  urine ;  bloody  urine. 
Stranguary  may  arise  from  an  injury  done  to  the  kidneys,  or  to  the  blad- 
der, by  strains,  or  by  the  absorption  of  irritating  matters.  In  these  cases, 
bleed  if  there  be  fever,  and  if  not  merely  give  the  horse  absolute  rest ; 
mash  him,  give  gruel,  and  warm  his  water  for  drink.  Bloody  urine 
should  be  treated  in  the  same  way ;  some  horses  have  such  a  natural  or 
acquired  weakness  of  the  kidneys,  as  to  stale  blood  with  their  urine  on 
every  occasion  of  over  exertion  :  the  means  frequently  used  for  relief, 
are  such  as  aggravate  the  complaint,  and  indeed  are  often  the  occasion 
of  it,  which  are  diuretics.  Strong  diuretics  injure  horses  more  than 
strong  physic,  and  benefit  them  less  than  any  other  of  the  popular  means 
made  use  of  In  retention  of  urine,  but  particularly  in  cases  of  bloody 
urine,  they  are  absolutely  improper. 

Mange.  This  is  a  contagious  disease,  not  uncommon  among  low  bred 
and  badly  kept  horses,  but  which  is  seldom  generated  in  those  properly 
managed.  When  it  is  the  effect  of  impoverished  blood,  a  different  course 
of  feeding  must  be  substituded,  not  heating,  but  cooling  though  gene- 
rous ;  as  carrots,  speared  oats,  malt  mashes,  stable  soiling,  &.c.  When 
it  arises  in  full  fed  horses,  bleed  twice,  lower  the  feeding,  substituting 
for  corn,  soiling,  carrots,  or  bran  mashes.  Give  a  nightly  alterative 
(Vet.  Pha.  No.  1  or  2)  and  dress  with  either  of  the  mange  dressings. 
(Vet.  Pha.  43.)  After  a  cure  has  been  effected,  carefully  clean  all  the 
apartments  with  soap  and  water. 

Glanders.     This  is  a  disease  which  is  highly  infectious,  but  which 
according  to  Loudon  is  extremely  difficult  if  not  impossible   to  cure. 
The  marks  of  glanders  are  a  discharge  of  purulent  matter  from  ulcers 
situated  in  one  or  both  nostrils,  more  often  from  the  left  than  the  right. 
Thi.s  discharge  soon  becomes  glairy,  thick,  and  vvhite-of-egg-like :  it  after- 
wards shows  bloody  streaks,  and  is  foetid.     The  glands  of  the  jaw  of  the 
affected  side,  called  the  kernels,  swell  from  an  absorption  of  the  virus  or 
poison,  and  as  they  exist  or  do  not  exist,  or  as  they  adhere  to  the  bone  or 
are  detached  from  it,  so  some  prognosis  is  vainly  attempted  by  farriers, 
with  regard  to  the  disease  ;  for  in  some  few  cases  these  glands  are  not  at 
all  affected,  and  in  a  great  many  they  are  not  bound  down  by  the  affec- 
tion of  the  jaw.     As  there  are  many  diseases  which  excite  a  secretion  of 
matter  from  the  nose,  and  which  is  kept  up  a  considerable  time ;  so  it  is 
not  always  easy  to  detect  glanders  in  its  early  stages.     Strangles  and 
violent  colds,  keep  up  a  discharge  from  the  nostrils  for  weeks  sometimes. 
In  such  cases  a  criterion  may  be  drawn  from  the  existence  of  ulceration 
within  the  nose,  whenever  the  disease  has  become  confirmed.     These 
glanderous  chancres  are  to  be  seen  on  opening  the  nostril  a  little  way  up 
the  cavity,  sometimes  innnediately  opposed  to  the  opening  of  the  nostril; 
but  a  solitary  chancre  should  not'determine  the  judgment.     The  health 
often  continues  good  and  sometimes  the  condition  also,  until  hectic  takes 
place  from  absorption,  and  the  lungs  participate,  when  death  soon  closes 
the  scene. 

The  treatment  of  glanders,  it  has  been  already  stated,  is  so  uncertain 
that  it  is  hardly  worth  the  attempt ;  however,  when  the  extreme  value  of 


118  FAMILY 


DISEASES    OF    HORSES. 


the  horse  or  the  love  of  experiment  leads  to  it,  it  may  be  regarded  as  fix- 
ed by  experience,  that  nothing  but  a  long  course  of  internal  remedies, 
drawn  from  the  mineral  acids,  can  effect  it.  These  have  been  tried  in 
their  endless  variety:  White  recommends  the  mildest  preparations  of 
mercury,  as  eethiops  mineral ;  under  the  conviction  that  the  more  acrid 
preparations  disturb  the  powers  of  the  constitution  so  much,  as  to  destroy 
as  effectually  as  the  disease.  At  the  veterinary  college  the  sulphate  of  cop- 
per (blue  vitriol)  has  been  long  in  use.  Others  have  used  the  sulphates  of 
iron  and  zinc.  Clark  recommends  the  daily  administration  of  a  drink  or 
ball,  composed  of  the  following  ingredients  :  sulphate  of  zinc,  15  grains; 
powdered  cantharldes,  7  grains ;  powdered  allspice,  15  grains ;  of  which  he 
gives  one  or  two  extraordinary  proofs  of  utility. 

Shoulder  Strains.  These  are  very  rare,  most  of  the  lameness  at- 
tributed to  the  shoulder  belonging  to  the  other  parts,  and  particularly  to 
the  feet.  Out  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  cases  of  lameness  before, 
Blaine  found  that  three  only  arose  from  ligamentary  or  muscular  exten- 
sion of  the  shoulder,  or  rather  of  the  adductor  and  sustaining  muscles: 
when  shoulder  strain  does  happen,  it  is  commonly  the  consequence  of 
some  slip,  by  which  the  arm  is  forced  violently  forwards.  It  is  less  to  be 
wondered  at  than  at  first  seems  probable,  that  farriers  mistake  foot  lame- 
ness for  shoulder  strains,  when  we  reflect  that  a  contracted  foot  occasions 
inaction,  and  favoring  of  the  limb ;  which  thus  wastes  the  muscles  of  the 
?»houlder.  Seeing  that  one  shoulder  is  smaller  than  the  other,  the  evil  is 
attributed  to  that,  and  it  is  pegged,  blistered,  swam,  and  fired,  to  the  tor- 
ture of  the  animal  and  the  increase  of  the  foot's  contraction  by  the  con- 
finement. In  real  shoulder  strains,  the  toe  is  dragged  along  the  ground 
w^hile  in  motion;  at  rest  it  is  planted  forw^ard,  but  resting  on  the  point  of 
the  toe.  When  the  lameness  is  in  the  foot,  the  hors^  points  his  loot  for- 
ward also,  but  he  does  so  with  the  whole  limb  unbent,  and  the  foot  flat. 
These  diflerences  are  highly  necessary  to  be  attended  to,  as  well  as  the 
peculiar  difficulty  there  is  in  moving  down  hill,  which  he  does  with  reluc- 
tance, and  by  swinging  his  leg  round  to  avoid  flexing  it.  Tliis  lameness 
may  be  further  brought  to  the  test  by  lifting  up  the  foreleg  considerbly, 
which  if  the  evil  be  in  the  shoulder,  will  give  evident  pain.  The  muscles 
between  the  fore  legs  are  likewise  tumified  and  tender  in  these  cases. 

The  treatment  consists,  when  it  is  recent,  in  bleeding  in  the  plate  vein, 
rowelling  in  the  chest,  and  fomenting  with  hot  water  two  or  three  times 
a  day.  When  the  heat  and  tenderness  have  subsided,  first  bathe  daily 
with  the  .astringent wash  for  strains  (Vet.  Pha.  No.  6,)  for  a  week;  and 
afterwards,  if  necessary,  proceed  to  blister  in  the  usual  manner. 

Gai.ls.  When  a  horse  is  galled  by  the  saddle  or  harness,  or  when  he 
is  chafed  between  the  arm  and  chest,  an  accident,  which  frequently  hap- 
pens in  travelling  through  muddy  roads,  the  following  lotion  will  be 
found  servicable: — Sulphate  of  zinc,  one  ounce;  superacetate  of  lead, 
one  ounce ;  water,  one  quart. 

Wind  galls.  When  wind  galls  make  their  first  appearance,  they  are 
easily  cured  by  a  bath  and  bandage.  Boil  red  oak  bark  to  a  strong  de- 
coction, add  some  sharp  vinegar  and  a  little  allum,  let  the  parts  be  fo- 
mented twice  a  day,  warm  as  the  hand  can  be  held  in  it ;  then  take  a 
woollen  cloth,  dip  it  in  the  bath,  and  bind  the  ancle  up,  tight  a*  possible, 
without  giving  pain  to  the  horse. 

Should  this  method  not  succeed,  after  a  thorough  trial,  the  swelled  or 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 119 

DISEASES    OF    HORSES. 

puffed  parts  may  be  opened  with  a  sharp  knife,  but  blistering  with  flies 
is  less  dangerous,  and  generally  attended  with  equal  success. 

Ring  bone.  This  is  a  hard  and  bony  substance  which  generally  reach- 
es halfway  round  the  ancle,  and  causes  a  horse  to  go  stiff  and  lame. 
When  it  first  makes  its  appearance  an  application  of  corrosive  sublimate 
added  to  Spanish  flies  and  Venice  turpentine  mixed  with  hog's  lard  may 
be  useful.  But,  when  a  ring  bone  has  attained  to  its  full  size,  we  know 
of  no  remedy. 

Broken  wind.  This  when  once  fastened  upon  a  horse,  admits  not 
probably  of  a  perfect  cure,  but  may  be  relieved  in  a  measure,  by  a  care- 
ful attention  to  diet.  The  food  should  be  compact  and  nutritious.  Corn 
is  better  than  oats,  and  old  hay,  which  has  been  well  kept,  better  than 
new.  During  the  grass  season,  the  disease  often  almost  disappears,  but 
recurs  in  the  winter,  during  which,  potatoes  may  be  given  to  advan- 
tage ;  also  carrots,  parsnips,  and  beet  roots.  Molasses  in  small  quantities 
has  been  recommended,  also  tar  water ;  but  more  dependence  probably, 
may  be  placed  on  lime  water.  Incase  the  symptomatic  cough  be  troub- 
lesome, bleeding  will  be  found  highly  advantageous. 

Founder.  "  A  horse  may  be  foundered,"  says  Mason,  in  his  excellent 
work  entitled,  "Gentlemen's  New  Pocket  Farrier,"  and  which  we  take 
the  liberty  to  recommend  to  our  readers,  "  by  excessive  hard  rides,  per- 
mitting him  to  plunge  deep  into  cold  water,  while  hot  and  sweating,  and 
drinking  his  fill  of  cold  pond  water,  eating  large  quantities  of  new  corn 
and  fodder,  and  then  briskly  exercised ;  over-feeding  with  bran  alone 
whilst  performing  hard  labor,  drinking  plentifully  at  every  branch  in 
travelling,  feeding  with  more  than  a  horse  can  eat  after  being  half  starved, 
violent  exercise  on  a  full  belly,  or  not  permitting  a  horse  who  has  travel- 
led in  a  hot  sun  all  day,  to  cool  thoroughly  before  he  is  given  as  much  as 
he  can  eat,  drink,  &c. 

Symptoms  of  a  Founder. — The  symptoms  that  indicate  an  approaching 
founder,  are  so  few  and  so  common,  that  the  most  ignorant  persons  will 
rarely  be  mistaken.  Great  heat  about  the  legs,  pasterns  and  ears,  a  sore- 
ness in  the  feet,  together  with  a  stifiness  so  great  in  all  his  limbs,  that  the 
animal  frequently  refuses  to  move,  unless  force  is  used — his  flanks  and 
lower  part  of  his  belly  draws  up,  his  hide  becomes  bound  or  tight,  his  legs 
thrown  a  little  more  forward  than  in  his  usual  or  natural  position;  a  con- 
stant thirst,  and  very  often  a  considerable  swelling  of  the  ancles,  (Sec.  &c. 
Remedy  for  a  Founder. — So  soon  as  you  are  convinced  that  your  horse 
is  foundered,  take  from  his  neck  vein  at  least  one  gallon  of  blood  ;  give  a 
drench  of  one  quart  strong  sassafras  tea,  one  table  spoonful  of  salt  petre, 
and  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  assafcetida,  and  do  not  permit  him  to  drink 
for  five  or  six  hours ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  time,  should  he  not  be 
evidently  better,  repeat  the  bleeding,  taking  half  a  gallon  of  blood,  and 
give  another  drench:  at  night  offer  him  some  bran  or  oats,  scalded  with 
sassafras  tea,  and  if  it  can  be  procured,  let  him  have  green  food,  fresh  from 
the  field,  for  it  has  the  happy  effect  of  opening  the  bowels  and  cooling  the 
system :  his  feet  should  be  nicely  cleaned  out  and  stuffed  with  fresh  cow 
manure  :  his  drink  should  be  at  least  one  half  sassafras  tea,  with  a  small 
handful  of  salt  thrown  therein. 

By  the  morning  should  the  horse  be  better,  nothing  further  is  necessary, 
only  being  careful  not  to  over  feed  him.  But  should  there  be  no  change 
for  the  better,  tie  a  small  cord  just  above  his  knees,  and  with  a  lancet  or 


120  FAMILY 


DISEASES    OF    CATTLE. 


phleme  bleed  in  a  vein  that  runs  around  the  coronet,  jusf  above  the  hoof: 
lake  from  each  leg  a  pint  of  blood;  give  a  pound  of  salts  dissolved  in  three 
half  pints  of  water,  in  form  of  a  drench,  keep  his  feet  stutied  with  fresh 
cow  manure,  and  bathe  his  legs  with  equal  parts  of  sharp  vinegar,  spirits 
and  sweet  oil  or  lard.  By  attention  to  these  directions,  in  two  or  three 
days  the  horse  will  again  be  fit  for  service. 

A  horse  in  this  unpleasant  situation,  requires  great  attention.  Whenever 
they  are  foundered,  they  search  for  a  bank  of  manure  to  stand  on,  which 
should  always  be  prevented,  as  its  heat  increases  the  fever. 

Horses  slightly  foundered,  have  sometimes  been  cured  in  a  few  hoars, 
by  standing  them  in  pond  water  or  mud,  or  by  bleeding  in  the  mouth,  but 
those  remedies  are  uncertain,  and  are  not  so  much  to  be  relied  on  as  those 
first  recommended. 

A  foundered  horse  is  generally  very  much  reduced  in  flesh,  before  a  cure 
is  effected ;  and  always  more  subject  to  founder  afterwards. 

Large  ridges  on  the  hoofs,  or  a  turning  up  of  tlie  feet  are  strong  indica- 
tions of  old  foundeis  or  other  injuries. 


Colic  or  Gripes.  When  afHicted  with  colic,  the  diseased  animal  will 
nse  up  and  lie  down  almost  incessantly,  continually  striking  its  head  and 
horns  against  any  object  that  occurs.  Young  cattle  are  chiefly  affected  by 
the  colic;  which  is  attended  either  with  a  scouring  or  with  costivcncss,  and 
which  of  course  must  be  treated  according  to  those  two  circumstances.  In 
the  former  case,  a  warm  draught  should  be  given,  consisting  of  one  quart  of 
ale,  mixed  with  a  few  drops  of  laudanum,  and  two  or  three  ounces  of  oil  of 
sweet  almonds;  or,  which,  perhaps,  is  preferable,  with  half  a  pint  of  olive 
oil,  and  sweetened  with  sugar.  This  draught  is  to  be  repeated  at  the  end 
of  twelve  hours,  or  oftener,  as  the  nature  of  the  case  may  requiie.  When 
colic  is  accompanied  with  co.stiveness,  the  following  purge  should  be  given, 
as  early  as  possible.  Dissolve  from/owr  to  six  drachms  of  fine  Barbadoes 
aloes,  (according  to  the  size  of  the  beast  and  the  urgency  of  the  case,)  in 
half  a  pint  of  brandy,  or  other  ardent  spirit;  mix  the  infusion  with  two 
quarts  of  water-gruel,  and  administer  the  draught  in  a  lukewarm  state. 
In  both  cases,  great  and  speedy  attention  is  necessary,  to  prevent  inflamma- 
tions of  the  intestines,  which  must  otherwise  prove  fatal ;  the  beasts  should 
be  kept  warm  and  dry  in  order  to  promote  perspiration. 

HovEX.  No  distemper  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  among  cattle 
than  that  of  being  swollen,  that  is,  blotcn  or  liorcn,  as  it  is  usually  denomi- 
nated among  farmers.  It  is  induced  either  by  exposure  to  damp  situations, 
by  too  sudden  removal  from  an  inferior  to  a  rich  pasture,  or  by  eating  too 
eagerly  of  turnips,  clover,  or  any  other  succulent  food,  especially  before 
the  dew  is  off  in  the  morning;  thus  the  stomach  is  loaded  with  food,  and  the 
process  of  rumination,  or  chewing  the  cud,  being  prevented,  the  animal 
becomes  swollen  with  confined  air,  which  penetrates  into  the  stomach  and 
intestines.  Its  preventive  is  obvious,  and  consists  simply  in  turning  cattle 
into  such  rich  pastures,  only  when  they  are  not  pressed  by  hunger,  so  that 
their  appetite  may  soon  be  gratilied ;  or  they  should  be  gently  driven  about 
for  a  few  hours,  that  the  dew  may  not  only  have  time  to  evaporate,  but  also 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 121 

DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 

the  animals  being  thus  suffered  to  graze  a  very  short  time  at  once,  their 
stomachs  will  become  gradually  accustomed  to  it. 

Various  remedies  have  been  tried  and  recommended  for  this  malady, 
which  if  not  opportunely  discovered,  inevitably  proves  fatal.  Of  these, 
the  most  common  is  to  make  an  incision  with  a  pen-knife  beneath  the 
short  ribs,  when  a  quill,  or  small  lube  of  ivory  or  smoothed  elder,  is  intro- 
duced in  order  to  give  vent  to  the  confined  air ;  the  wound  is  then  covered 
with  adhesive  plaster,  to  prevent  it  from  being  afiected  by  the  external 
cold,  and  thus  the  danger  is  in  general  quickly  removed. 

The  method  here  noticed  appears  to  be  the  result  rather  of  absolute  ne- 
cessity than  of  mature  thought,  though  sanctioned  by  custom  ;  and  as  it  is 
liable  to  be  attended  with  fatal  consequences  through  the  ignorance  or  in- 
expertness  of  the  operator,  it  becomes  necessary  to  resort  to  more  easy 
remedies.  Medicines,  indeed,  are  seldom  of  any  particular  service,  on 
account  of  the  distance  to  which  country  people  are  often  obliged  to  go  in 
order  to  procure  them;  but  the  following  recipe,  (which  we  communicate 
from  Mr.  Young's  "Annals  of  Agriculture,"  Vol.  xxxiii.)  being  composed 
of  simple,  cheap,  and  common  ingredients,  promises  to  be  useful.  Let 
three  quarters  of  a  pint  of  olive  oil,  and  one  pint  of  melted  butter,  or  hog's 
lard  be  mixed  together,  and  given  to  the  animal  by  means  of  a  horn  or 
bottle ;  if  no  favorable  change  be  produced  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  the 
same  quantity  may  be  repeated.  This  dose  is  calculated  for  neat  cattle: 
for  sheep,  when  hovenor  blown,  a  wine  glass  full  and  a  half,  or  two  glass- 
es will  be  sufficient  to  be  given  in  like  manner.  And  it  is  asserted  in  the 
communication  above  cited,  that  this  remedy  is  a  specific  for  the  malady 
in  question,  effecting  a  cure  within  the  short  period  of  half  an  hour.  Where, 
however,  the  pen-knife  is  resorted  to — and  necessity  alone  can  justify  it — 
Uie  incision  ought  to  he  viack  xcith  a  small  pen-knife,  very  sharp  at  the  point, 
icith  a  sudden  push,  four  inches  from  the  hip  bone,  and  four  inches  from  the 
edge  of  the  loin. 

A  writer  in  the  American  Farmer  recommends  a  spoonful  of  hartshorn 
infused  in  water,  which  he  says  completely  removes  the  distention  ;  others 
recommend  soda  and  potash,  all  of  which  combining  with  the  carbonic  acid 
gas — the  cause  of  the  distention — will  immediately  reduce  it.  For  want 
of  these,  ley  from  wood  ashes  may  be  employed. 

When  the  animal  has  obtained  relief  one  of  the  following  drinks  is  re- 
commended by  Dr.  White",  No.  1.  powdered  ginger,  half  an  ounce  ;  spirits 
of  nitrous  ether,  2  ounces  ;  oil  of  peppermint,  30  drops ;  warm  water,  one 
pint.    Mix  for  one  dose. 

No.  2.  Powdered  carraway,  1  ounce ;  ginger,  1  drachm  ;  warm  ale  or 
warm  water,  1  pint.     Mix. 

No.  3.  Powdered  gentian,  1  ounce;  Cascarilla  bark,  2  drachms;  warm 
ale,  or  water,  1  pint. 

Indigestion,  or  loss  of  the  cud.  Mr.  Lawrence  says,  that  in  this 
disease,  "  the  beast  mourns  and  has  no  appetite,  or  drops  its  food  without 
attempting  to  swallow  it.  Probably  from  defective  irritability  of  the  fibres 
or  contracting  muscles  of  the  rumn  or  cud-bag,  the  animal  is  unable  to 
throw  up  or  ruminate;  of  course  the  bag  temains  loaded  and  obstructed. 
The  intention  is  to  remove  the  obstructioy,  and  mvigorate  the  animal  fibres. 
Let  the  animal  fast  sometime,  then  give  £  warm  bran  or  pollard  masb, 
with  good  hay,  and  warm  water  with  oalt.  This  tieatment  alone  may 
succeed  with  patience,  even  should  the  maw  be  obstructed  by  acorns  or 

L 


122  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 


Other  hard  fruit.  An  aloes  tincture,  made  with  brandy  and  ginger,  or  cap- 
sicum, (red  pepper)  might  be  of  use  in  this  case.  After  conquermg  the 
obstruction,  bitter  infusions  made  of  camomile,  hoarhound,  oak  bark,  &c., 
in  beer,  may  be  required,  as  restoratives,  although,  perhaps,  good  dry  nour- 
ishing feed  will  have  an  equally  good  effect." 

It  is  remarked  by  Mr.  White  that  "  the  earlier  stages  of  this  complaint 
are  not  marked  by  very  striking  symptoms.  The  animal  has  a  dull  or 
languid  appearance,  and  generally  a  rough  unhealthy  coat  and  tight  skin. 
The  appetite  is  diminished,  and  at  length  he  ceases  to  chew  the  cud. 
The  eyes  and  mouth  have  generally  a  yellow  appearance." 

"To  cure  this  disease,  it  should  be  attacked  at  an  early  period;  for 
when  the  liver  has  become  effected  in  a  considerable  degree,  it  terminates 
fatally.  Should  there  be  any  appearance  of  costiveness,  the  following 
warm  laxative,  is  first  to  be  given ;  more  commonly,  however,  the  bowels 
are  in  a  loose  state,  and  the  dung  has  an  unhealthy  appearance;  in  this 
case  let  the  tonic  drench  be  given  morning  and  evening,  and  let  the  animal 
be  kept  in  a  warm  sheltered  situation.  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat,  that 
this  like  most  other  internal  diseases  of  cattle,  may  generally  be  removed 
by  timely  attention;  but  in  attemptmg  a  cure  after  they  have  existed  some 
time  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  expense  is  often  incurred. 

Warm  laxative.  Barbadoes  aloes,  half  an  ounce ;  castile  soap,  6  drachms ; 
ginger,  3  drachms;  cascarilla  bark, 2  drachms;  warm  water,  I  pint.  Mix. 
After  the  operation  of  the  laxative,  the  following  tonic  drench  may  be 
given  should  it  be  found  necessary  : — Of  cascarilla  bark  and  ginger,  each 
2  drachms;  soda,  2  drachms;  to  be  given  in  a  pint  of  ale  beer,  or  warm 
water. 

Jaundice  or  Yellows.  This  disease  may  be  known,  principally  by  the 
yellowness  of  the  eyes  and  mouth;  a  dull  or  languid  appearance  and  debili- 
ty; a  loss  of  appetite  also,  is  a  common  symptom.  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  former  disease  by  the  costiveness,  which  uniformly  attends  it,  and 
by  the  animal  appearing  to  be  in  more  pain.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  disorder,  a  cure  may  generally  be  accomplished,  by  giving  the  warm 
laxative  directed  for  the  foregoing  complaint,  and  repeating  it,  after  an  in- 
terval of  five  or  six  days,  giving  in  the  intermediate  time,  the  following 
drink  every  morning  and  evening. — Castile  soap,  half  an  ounce;  Venice 
turpentine,  half  an  ounce;  ginger,  Sdracfims;  powdered  gentian  root,  1 
ounce.  Rub  the  soap  and  turpentine  together  in  a  mortar,  until  they  are 
incoporated,  then  add  gradually,  a  pint  of  water,  and  afterwards  the  ginger 
and  gentian.  In  the  more  advanced  stage  of  tliis  disorder,  the  liver  is 
generally  so  injured  as  to  render  a  cure  impossible. 

Foul  in  the  foot,  or  hoof-ail.  Dr.  Peck,  an  English  writer,  has  given 
the  following  account  of  this  disorder  and  its  treatment. 

The  first  appearance  of  this  disease  is  a  hard  crack  between  the  claws 
or  hoofs,  attended  with  considerable  inflammation  ;  afterwards,  afrptid  and 
offensive  matter  is  discharged,  similar  to  that  of  the  grease  in  horse's  heels; 
sometimes  it  appears  in  form  of  a  large  tumor  upon  the  cornet,  between  the 
hair  and  the  hoof,  attended  with  violent  pain  and  inflammation. 

Wash  the  parts  from  all  dirt,  castile  soap  should  be  used,  and  if  between 
the  claws,  take  a  rope  of  proper  thickness  and  chafe  the  part  afflicted,  and 
afterwards  dress  it  with  the  butter  of  antimony,  or  oil  of  vitriol.  Let  the 
animal  stand  in  a  dry  place  for  an  hour ;  repeat  the  application  every  day. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 133 

DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 

If  the  part  be  much  atFected,  rub  it  with  some  stimulating  ointment,  and 
if  the  tumor  be  likely  to  suppurate,  linseed  poultices  as  often  as  are  ne- 
cessary should  be  applied,  and  repeated,  till  the  inflammation  has  subsid- 
ed ;  then  dress  the  wound  with  lint  and  mild  astringent  ointment.  Due 
regard  must  be  paid  to  existing  symptoms.  A  tew  doses  of  Glauber's 
salts  will  cool  tiie  body  and  accelerate  the  cure. 

Edward  Skellet,  Professor  of  the  Veterinary  art;  an  English  writer  of 
reputation,  says,  that  this  disorder  proceeds  from  two  causes  ;  the  one 
from  accidents,  and  the  other  from  a  morbid  state  of  the  system.  Its  sit- 
uation is  betwLxt  the  claws  of  the  cow  either  in  the  fore  or  hind  feet,  but 
more  frequently  in  the  former.  It  is  always  attended  with  a  swelling, 
the  discharge  from  which,  when  it  breaks  or  cracks,  has  a  very  offensive 
smell.  The  accidental  foul  proceeds  from  gravel,  flint,  bones  or  any  other 
hard  substance  getting  between  the  claws,  which  produces  great  pain 
and  inflammation.  The  first  step  to  be  taken  for  its  cure,  is  to  remove 
the  hard  substance,  and  clean  the  wound  out ;  then  the  following  oint- 
ment is  to  be  applied  to  the  part,  spread  on  tow,  and  bound  on  with  a 
cloth  and  string. — Soft  soap,  1  lb. ;  common  turpentine,  1  lb.  Melt  over 
a  slow  fire,  till  the  two  articles  are  completely  united.  The  dressings 
may  be  repeated  two  or  three  times,  which  never  fails  to  complete  a  care. 

Another  application  is  recommended  in  the  fourth  volume  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  Repository,  viz.  From  one  to  three  grains  of 
corrosive  subhmate,  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  to  be  applied,  as  nearly  as 
may  he,  completely  into  the  slit,  to  be  repeated  once  in  twenty-four  hours, 
until  the  cure  is  effected.  Care  should  be  taken  to  put  a  piece  of  rag  or 
bit  of  leather  between  the  claws,  lest  the  animal,  by  licking  the  foot, 
should  be  injured  by  the  corrosive  sublhnate.  An  ox,  it  is  said,  may  be 
kept  at  work,  while  affected  with  this  disease,  witliout  injury,  unless  his 
lameness  be  so  great,  as  to  impair  his  condition. 

Graijt  Sickness.  The  first  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  a  dull,  heavy 
appearance  about  the  eyes  of  the  animal ;  she  frequently  shifts  about 
from  one  side  to  the  other,  or  when  let  loose  or  driven  about,  complains 
very  much.  On  examining  her,  a  fulness  may  be  perceived  betwixt  the 
hips  and  ribs,  on  the  opposite  side  to  the  milking  one  ;  if  pressed  with 
tlie  hand,  this  fulness  will  be  felt  to  consist  in  the  extension  of  the  stom- 
ach. As  the  disease  advances,  a  loss  of  milk  ensues,  and  a  total  dislike 
to  any  food. 

Thi^disease  is  caused  by  a  surfeit  of  grain,  and  its  remedies  are  bleed- 
ing and  purging  ;  the  first  to  reheve  the  urgent  symptoms,  the  second  to 
remove  the  cause  of  the  malady.  The  quantity  of  blood,  according  to 
Dr.  Skellet,  should  be  not  less  than  from  two  to  three  quarts,  but  as  he 
prescribes  for  large  cows  in  the  vicinity  of  London,  perhaps  a  smaller 
quantity  would  be  preferable  for  animals  of  but  a  middling  size.  The 
purging  drink  recommended  by  the  same  author  is  as  follows. — Sulphur, 
from  S  to  12  ounces,  proportioning  it  to  the  strength  of  the  animal ;  nitre, 
2  ounces,  turmeric  and  cummin  seeds,  of  each  1  ounce. 

When  this  has  operated  in  unloading  the  stomach,  the  weakness  of 
that  organ,  the  loss  of  appetite  which  ensues,  and  the  deficiency  of  milk 
connected  with  it,  will  be  repaired  by  medicines  of  an  aromatic  and  bra- 
cing nature,  such  as  coriander,  ginder,  anisseed,  &c.  Diluent  liquors 
and  mashes,  form  the  proper  food  for  some  days. 

A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer  recommends  to  give  either  to 


124  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF    CATTLE. 


horses  or  cattle,  which  have  eaten  too  much  grain,  a  pint  of  melted  hog's 
lard,  as  soon  as  the  fact  is  ascertained. 

Warts  or  Horny  Excrescences.  These  are  affections  of  the  skin,  whicir 
in  cows  do  not  go  deep  ;  they  destroy  the  roots  of  the  hair,  wherever 
they  form,  and  are  of  a  firm  and  horny  texture,  and  readily  give  way 
when  pulled  or  roughly  handled,  which  occasions  them  to  bleed,  and 
shows  their  connexion  with  the  vessels  of  the  skin.  They  readily  yield 
to  emollient  ointments  particularly  to  goose  grease,  which  should  be  fre- 
quently rubbed  on  them  till  the  excrescences  fall  off. 

Maxge.  This  is  a  cutaneous  disease  which  is  very  contagious,  for  so 
many  cows  as  come  in  coutact  with  one  laboring  under  the  disorder  will 
be  sure  to  catch  it.  Its  symptoms  are  a  scurf  on  the  external  part  of  the 
body,  which  is  always  attended  with  an  itching.  This  the  animal  shevvgi 
by  having  a  continual  inclination  to  rub  the  affected  part  or  parts  against 
any  thing  she  can  get  at.  Some  say  that  it  is  caused  by  a  kind  of  animalcii- 
lae,  which  burrow  in  the  skin.  It  generally  attacks  those  animals,  which 
are  low  in  flesh,  and  have  been  fed  on  poor  forage. 

The  first  step  to  effect  a  cure  of  this  disease,  is  to  gently  curry  off  the 
scurf,  in  order  that  the  medicine  may  have  the  better  etiect.  After  this, 
the  following  application  is  to  be  rubbed  on  the  parts  afl'ected,  which  may 
be  repeated  every  three  or  four  days,  till  a  cure  is  effected ;  and  it  seldom 
requires  more  than  two  or  three  applications  : — Flours  of  sulphur,  1  lb. ; 
spirits  of  turpentine,  half  a  pint;  train  oil  enough  to  make  it  into  a  thin 
liquid. 

Horn  Distemper.  This  is  a  disease  which  has  its  seat  in  the  horns. 
Cows  are  more  subject  to  it  than  oxen,  and  it  does  not  attack  bulls ; 
steers  and  heifers  under  three  years  old,  it  is  siiid  are  not  subject  to  it. 
The  distemper  causes  the  pith  of  the  horn  to  be  gradually  consumed. 
It  is  most  commonly  confined  to  one  horn  only,  but  sometimes  appears 
in  both.  It  is  occasioned  by  poor  keeping,  by  which  the  blood  becomes 
thin  and  reduced,  and  does  not  circulate  properly  in  the  extremities.  It 
is  discovered  by  the  sluggishness  of  the  animal,  loss  of  appetite,  coldness 
of  the  horn,  and  a  disposition  to  lie  down. 

To  cure  the  disease,  the  horn  should  be  bored  with  a  nail  gimblet  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  etiect  a  discharge  of  the  matter,  which  has  become 
purulent.  The  hollow  part  should  be  well  cleansed  by  vinegar,  in 
which  a  i)ortion  of  salt  has  been  dissolved,  to  be  injected  by  a  syringe. 
Dr.  Dean  recommends  the  injection  of  a  mixture  of  rum  aiul  honey, 
with  myrrh  and  aloes.  Stimulating  medicines,  such  as  gingei',  spices, 
&c.,  have  been  given  ;  but  these  are  injurious,  until  the  bowels  have 
been  evacuated.  Laxatives,  however,  such  as  sulphur,  Glauber's  salts, 
&.C.  prove  serviceable,  and  after  the  bowels  are  evacuated,  and  the  horn 
well  cleansed,  good  keeping  will  be  necessary  to  etiect  the  cure. 

A  writer  in  the  New  England  Farmer  recommends  the  following  mix- 
lure  to  be  given  to  cattle  atlected  with  this  disease,  viz.  salt  and  soot,  of 
each  half  a  pint;  black  pepper  one  table  spoonful.  Soot  is  frequently^ 
administered  combined  with  the  yolk  of  ti^^iia.  For  this  disease  spirits  of 
turpentine  will  be  found  of  essential  service  applied  freely  to  the  top  of 
the  head,  along  the  roots  of  the  horn.  It  will  comn^only  be  found,  it  Ls 
believed,  that  cattle  alHicied  with  the  horn  distemper  have  the  end  of  the 
tail  soft  and  relaxed.  In  this  case  a  small  piece  of  tiie  tail  should  be  cut 
off;  or  which  is  still  better,  it  may  be  sht  for  an  inch  or  two  and  pounded 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 126 

DISEASES  OF  CATTLE. 

garlic  inserted,  taking  care  to  cover  the  end  of  the  tail  with  a  rag,  to 
prevent  the  garlic  from  falling  out. 

Udder-ill.  This  disease  primarily  arises  from  an  imperfect  digestion, 
occasioned  by  a  morbid  state  of  the  stomach.  The  chyle  from  which 
the  milk  is  formed,  consequently  becomes  depraved,  and  the  disease 
shows  itself  in  the  udder,  or  rather  in  one  of  the  quarters  of  the  udder  the 
milk  of  which  will  be  found  to  be  more  or  less  bloody,  according  to  the 
extent  Of  the  disease.  For  this,  Dr.  White  recommends  the  following 
drench:  Babadoes  aloes,  half  an  ounce  ;  common  salt,  four  ounces  ;  gin- 
ger, one  drachm;  water,  one  quart;  anodyne  carminative  tincture,  two 
ounces,  or  as  a  substitute  for  this  last,  one  table-spoonful  of  laudanum. 
This  drench  having  been  administered,  the  animal  should  be  turned  to 
short  and  sweet  grass,  where  she  may  have  sufficient  exercise  in  getting 
her  food.  This  will  gradually  strengthen  the  stomach,  improve  the  di- 
gestion and  chylification,  and  purify  the  blood.  The  swollen  udder, 
or  rather,  that  quarter  of  the  udder  which  is  affected,  (for  there  is  sel- 
dom more  than  one  affected  at  a  time,)  should  have  the  bad  milk  drawn 
from  it  three  or  four  times  a  day  ;  for  by  remaining  in  the  quarter  it 
would  irritate  and  increase  the  inflammation.  The  only  application  ne- 
cessary, for  the  swollen  udder,  is  neats'  foot  oil,  or  olive  oil,  and  when  it 
IS  considerable,  fomentation  may  also  be  made  of 

Sore  Teats.  Some  cows  are  more  subject  to  sore  teats  than  others; 
they  are  hable  to  this  complaint  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  particularly 
such  cows  as  have  newly  calved.  If  the  teats  be  afflicted  in  the  summer, 
they  often  become  ulcerated;  and  the  flies  plague  and  teaze  them  to  such 
a  degree  as  to  render  it  difficult  to  milk  them.  It  is  a  great  nuisance  at 
the  time  of  milking,  as  blood  and  corruption  are  hable  to  pass  between 
the  fingers  into  the  milk.  The  following  linament  ought  always  to  be 
kept  in  readiness  for  purposes  of  this  kind: — Take  elder  ointment  and 
yellow  basiUcon  ointment,  of  each  four  ounces;  spirit  of  turpentine,  one 
ounce ;  mix  them  well  together  on  a  slab. 

The  cow's  teats  may  be  well  rubbed  with  this  ointment  every  night 
and  morning  after  milking.  If  in  the  summer,  and  the  flies  plague 
them,  add  one  ounce  of  assafo3tida,  or  aloes,  in  powder,  and  dissolve  it 
along  with  the  ointment  and  wax.  This  will  prevent  the  flies  from  teax- 
ing  the  animal. 

Lice.  Cattle  that  have  been  half  starved  during  the  winter,  by  being 
kept  on  bad  hay  or  straw,  in  cold,  damp  situations,  are  often  covered 
with  lice.  These  may  be  killed  by  dusting  common  Scotch  snuff  on  to 
those  parts,  where  the  lice  are  foiind ;  but  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
apply  it  where  the  animal  is  able  to  lick  it  off;  or  the  following  lotion 
may  be  applied,  viz.  corrosive  sublimate,  2  drachms;  muriatic  acid,  half 
an  ounce  ;  water  one  pound.  Clater  recommends  the  following  wash 
— Stavesacre,  (Larkspur,  or  louce-wort)  half  a  pound;  tobacco  cut 
small,  two  ounces;  boil  in  one  gallon  of  urine  down  to  three  quarts. 
With  this  wash,  sponge  such  parts  as  are  infested  by  lice  ;  repeat  if  ne- 
cessary, in  five  or  six  days. 

l2 


126  FAiMlLY 


DISEASES  OF   SHEEP. 


3. SHEEP. 

The  diseases  to  which  sheep  are  liable  in  other  countries  are  quite  nu- 
merous; but  in  the  United  States  but  two  according  to  Chancellor  Living- 
ston, are  found  to  prevail  to  any  great  extent — ^the  scab  and  the  staggers 
or  dizziness. 

Scab.  This  is  a  common  disorder  among  our  sheep.  It  is  so  well 
known  as  not  to  need  a  particular  description.  Mr.  Livingston  advises, 
on  its  first  appearance  in  a  flock,  to  take  out  the  wool  from  the  part  af- 
fected, and  to  apply  spirits  of  turpentine  and  lard  to  the  i)lace.  Should 
this  application  not  prove  efficacious,  he  advises  to  separate  such  sheep 
as  are  infected  from  the  more  healthy — to  cut  oft'  the  wool  as  i'ar  as  the 
skin  feels  hard  to  the  finger,  wash  with  soap  suds,  and  rub  hard  with  a 
shoe  brush,  so  as  to  cleanse  and  break  the  scab.  •  *'  I  always,"  says  he, 
"  keep  for  this  use,  a  decoction  of  tobacco,  to  which  I  add  one-third,  by- 
measure,  of  the  ley  of  wood  ashes,  as  much  hog's  lard  as  will  be  dissolv- 
ed by  the  ley,  a  small  quantity  of  tar  from  the  tar  bucket,  which  contains 
gi-ease,  and  about  one-eighth  of  the  whole,  by  measure,  of  spirits  of  tur- 
pentine. This  liquor  is  rubbed  upon  the  part  infected,  and  spread  at  u 
little  distance  around  it.  In  three  washings,  with  an  interval  of  three 
days  each,  I  have  never  failed,  in  this  way  to  effect  a  cure,  when  the 
disorder  was  only  partial, 

Clater  recommends  the  following  mixture: — Take  mercury  or  quick- 
silver, 1  lb. ;  Venice  turpentine  half  a  pound;  spirit  of  turpeutiue,  2  oz.; 
work  them  well  together  in  a  marble  mortar,  until  the  mercury  is  tho- 
roughly incorporated,  which  may  be  completed  in  the  course  of  five  or 
six  hours;  then  take  four  pounds  of  hog's  lard,  melt  it  over  a  slow  fire, 
and  when  about  as  warm  as  new  milk,  add  to  it  the  quicksilver,  antl 
keep  it  constantly  stirring  until  it  grows  stiff.  One  pound  of  the  oint- 
ment is  sufficient  to  dress  seven  sheep  for  the  scab;  and  if  slightly  in- 
fected it  will  suffice  for  from  that  number  to  ten. 

The  method  of  using  this  ointment  is  as  follows : — Divide  the  wool  on 
tlie  back  from  the  head  to  the  tail,  so  as  to  expose  the  skhi,  then  take  a 
small  quantity  of  the  ointment,  and  rub  it  well  in  upon  tlie  skin  from  the 
head  to  the  tail.  Next,  divide  the  wool  on  each  side,  and  rab  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  ointment  well  in. 

The  following  preparation  has  also  been  found  effectual:— Mix  one 
pound  of  tobacco,  one  ounce  of  white  arsenic,  one  pint  of  oil  ol"  turpen- 
tine, and  six  quarts  of  beef  brine,  with  a  small  quautity  of  tar,  and  boil 
the  whole  till  the  ingredients  become  incorporated  so  as  to  form  a  lini- 
ment. In  applying  which,  every  scab  must  be  broken,  and  the  sheep 
be  well  rubbed,  that  the  liquid  may  penetrate  every  part.  Another  efft- 
eacious  remedy,  similar  to  the  one  which  we  have  extracted  from  Clater, 
was  communicated  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  to  the  "  Society  for  the  Encour- 
agement of  Arts,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce,"  in  1789,  from  whose 
transactions  for  that  year  we  have  selected  it : — Let  one  pound  of  pure 
quicksilver,  Venice  turpentine  and  common  oil,  of  each  half  a  pound, 
and  four  pounds  of  hog's  lard,  be  triturated  in  a  mortar  till  the  quicksil- 
ver is  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  vai'ious  ingredients. 

In  applying  this  ointment,  the  head  of  the  sheep  must  be  first  robbed  ; 
after  which  a  furrow  is  to  be  drawn  with  the  finger^  from  the  region  be- 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 127 

DISEASES  OF   SHEEP. 

tweeii  the  ears,  along  the  back  to  the  point  of  the  tail,  so  Jis  to  divide  the 
wool,  till  the  skin  be  exposed  to  the  touch.  Then  the  finger  being  dip- 
ped into  the  unguent,  must  be  drawn  along  the  skin;  and  similar  furrows 
should  be  made  down  the  shoulders  and  thighs,  as  far  as  the  wool  ex- 
tends; and  if  the  sheep  be  much  infected,  two  other  hues  or  furrows 
ought  to  be  drawn  parallel  to  that  on  the  back;  and  one  should  also  be 
traced  downwards  on  each  side,  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs. 

/  nother  application  which  has  been  highly  recommended  is  composed 
of  tobacco,  liiue  water,  and  oil  of  vitriol,  to  which  we  may  add  from  the 
same  authority,  "  another  excellent  remedy,"  viz.  a  decoction  of  helle- 
bore mixed  with  vinegar,  sulphur,  and  spirits  of  tvirpeutiue. 

Staggers  or  Dizziness.  This  disorder  is  found  upon  dissection  to 
be  owing  to  a  bag  containing  water  within  the  skull,  which  presses  upon 
the  brain.  It  is  generally  considered  as  incurable,  though  it  is  said  by 
others  that  it  may  be  remedied  by  trepanning :  a  soft  place  on  the  head 
indicates  the  situation  of  the  bag,  which  if  taken  out  whole  will  remove 
the  disorder ;  others  pass  a  sharp  wire  up  the  nostril  into  the  brain  and 
perforate  the  bag  ;  the  suppuration  which  this  occasions  effects  the  cure ; 
rive  out  of  six,  however,  die  under  this  operation,  and  it  may  therefore 
be  considei'ed  as  incurable  by  the  doctor. 

PiNxixG  AXD  Scouring.  Lambs,  soon  after  the  birth  are  subject  to  a 
disorder  called  pinning,  It  consists  in  the  excrements  being  so  glutinous 
as  to  fix  the  tail  to  the  vent,  which  if  neglected  will  often  kill  the  lamb. 
The  remedy  is  to  wash  them  clean,  and  rub  the  buttocks  and  tail  with 
dry  clay,  which  will  prevent  any  further  adhesion.  Lambs  are  also  sub- 
ject to  scouring  or  purging.  This  generally  arises  from  being  kept  too 
cold;  sometimes  from  the  quality  of  the  ewe's  milk.  They  should  with 
the  parent  ewes,  be  put  in  a  warm  dry  sheltered  cot;  the  ewes  should  have 
plenty  of  nutritious  food  given  them;  such  as  oats,  old  Indian  corn,  and 
wheat  brtad ;  care  should  be  taken  that  they  nurse  their  lambs  duly,  for 
it  often  happens  that  this  complaint  is  aggravated  from  a  penury  of 
milk ;  in  which  case  the  deficiency  should  be  supphed  by  cow's  milk 
boiled,  or  by  letting  the  lamb  suck  a  cow. 

Tick.  The  remedies  applied  in  England  are  solutions  of  arsenic,  or 
corrosive  sublimate,  and  decoctions  of  tobacco.  The  first  are  dangerous 
to  the  operator  and  may  occasion  fatal  accidents  ;  the  last  are  hurtful  to 
the  sheep  if  not  carefully  applied.  Chancellor  Livingston  reconmiends 
to  take  a  bellows  to  the  nozel  of  which  a  pipe  must  be  affixed  capable  of 
containing  a  handful  of  tobacco ;  (the  refuse  from  the  tobacconists  will 
answer,)  set  fire  to  the  tobacco,  and  while  one  man  holds  the  sheep  be- 
tween his  knees,  let  another  open  the  wool,  while  a  third  blows  the 
smoke  into  the  fleece ;  close  the  wool  on  the  smoke,  and  open  another 
place  a  few  inches  from  it,  and  so  go  over  the  whole  sheep,  blowing  also 
under  the  belly  and  between  the  legs ;  in  twenty  four  hours  every  tick 
will  be  killed.  The  whole  operation  may  be  performed  on  a  sheep  in 
about  two  minutes. 

Cold  and  its  consequences.  When  sheep  are  very  ill  kept,  or  when 
they  lie  on  damp  or  wet  ground,  they  are  subject  to  colds,  which  appear 
by  the  discharge  of  mucus  from  the  nose  and  eyes,  and  sometimes  by 
blindness.  The  cure  is  warmth,  dry  litter,  and  good  food.  It  will, 
however,  happen  that  some  sheep  have  at  all  times  this  discharge  from 
the  nose;  but  upon  examination,  those  will  generally  be  found  to  be  old. 


128  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  SHEEP. 


and  should  be  fatted  as  soon  as  possible,  as  they  disfigure  a  flock,  and  do 
not  pay  for  their  keeping. 

Foot  Rot.  This  disease  is  analogous  to  the  grease,  the  thrush,  and 
the  canker  of  the  horse,  and  the  loo  or  loe,  or  foul  in  the  foot,  in  cattle. 
It  is  produced  by  the  same  cause,  and  as  in  the  horse  and  in  cattle,  it  is 
contagious,  so  a  sheep  affected  with  the  foot  rot,  put  into  a  fold,  would 
be  likely  to  infect  the  whole  flock.  This  opinion,  however,  has  not  been 
so  fully  established  as  to  admit  of  no  doubt.  The  disorder  is  contagious, 
but  may  be  produced  also  by  other  causes,  and  especially  by  feeding  on 
!^tale  grains  and  bad  hay.  The  only  method  of  curing  it  is  to  examine  the 
foot  carefully,  and  pare  away  every  bit  of  horn,  under  which  the  disease 
may  have  formed.  When  this  is  done,  (and  it  is  belter  to  pare  away  too 
much  than  too  little,)  a  saturated  solution  of  blue  vitriol  will  always  effect 
a  cure,  and  is  sufficiently  strong  for  the  very  worst  cases.  It  is  necessa- 
ry also  to  avoid  the  cause  that  produces  this  disorder  by  changing  the 
.situation  of  the  sheep,  and  giving  them  wholesome  food. 

Bra.xy,  Dry  Braxy,  Water  Braxy,  Bowd  sickness.  Water  Braxy  is  an 
inflammatory  disorder,  which  quickly  terminates  in  dropsy  of  the  belly 
or  chest ;  dry  braxy,  is  indigestion  or  obstruction  in  the  first  and  third 
stomach,  by  feeding  during  winter  on  dry  sapless  food,  such  as  the  tops 
of  heather,  bent  and  other  dry  food.  The  symptoms  of  the  former  are 
quick  breathing,  hanging  the  head  and  ears,  loss  of  appetite  and  separating 
from  the  flock.  In  the  latter  there  is  swelling  of  the  belly,  and  griping 
pains,  which  often  become  violent.  Sometimes  the  animal  stands  with 
his  feet  almost  together ;  at  other  times  he  is  seen  lying  down  and  rising 
up  almost  every  miimte.  The  mouth  and  tongue  are  dry  and  parched, 
and  the  white  of  the  eye  inflamed.  In  both  diseases  bleed  freely  from 
the  neck  vein,  and  in  the  latter  give  one  ounce  of  common  salt,  in  half  a 
pint  of  water,  and  a  teaspoonful  of  tincture  of  opium ;  a  dram  of  powder- 
ed aloes  may  be  added,  and  a  little  ginger. 

Catarrhat>  Affections,  Hoose,  Cough,  Distemper.  This  disorder  in 
sheep  is  similar  to  that  iji  cattle.  It  exists  in  various  degrees,  but  the 
same  remedy  is  always  necessary,  that  is,  bleeding  to  the  extent  of  one 
pint.  If  any  medicine  is  required,  it  is  half  an  ounce  of  connnon  salt, 
or  one  ounce  of  Epsom  salt  dissolved  in  four  ounces  of  thin  gruel.  Sheen 
should  never  be  bled  in  the  nose  or  ears  as  is  commonly  done.  There  is 
no  difficulty  whatever  in  bleeding  sheep  in  the  same  manner  that  bullocks 
are  bled,  without  cutting  off"  a  bit  of  wool. 

Poison.  Sheep  are  often  poisoned  by  eating  laurel  or  ivy,  as  it  is  com- 
monly called  (not  the  magnolium.)  The  symptoms  of  which  are  their 
foaming  at  the  mouth,  then  vomiting  the  half  masticated  leaves  and  green 
juice,  by  which  the  mouth  of  the  animal  is  discolored.  Remedy. — Take 
a  gill  of  sweeCoil,  hog's  lard,  or  fresh  butter ;  mix  it  with  a  pint  of  new 
milk.  If  taken  seasonably  it  will  effect  a  cure.  Or,  an  egg  given  to 
each  of  the  diseased,  in  the  shape  of  a  natural  bolus,  by  simply  breaking 
the  egg  and  slipping  the  yolk,  and  as  much  white  as  practicable,  down 
tJie  throat  of  the  animal.  The  sheep,  after  swallowing  the  egg,  will 
vomit  up  the  leaves  and  green  juice,  but  none  of  the  egg.  To  cows  giv^ 
four  times  the  quantity. 

Wounds.  Besides  the  various  casualties  above  specified,  sheep  are 
liable  to  receive  injuries  frpm  being  wounded  by  thorns,  &c.  or  worried,. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 129 

~~  DISEASES  OF  SWINE. 

torn,  or  bitten  by  mischievous  dogs,  or  such  as  are  not  thoroughly  broken 
in.  Althoiigli  such  accidents  may  in  general  be  prevented  by  due  care 
and  attention,  yet  in  cases  of  common  green  wounds,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  apply  some  healing  or  emollient  balsam  or  salve  like  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

Let  one  ounce  of  myrrh,  a  similar  quantity  of  Socotrine  aloes,  and  four 
ounces  of  puritied  turpentine,  be  mixed  with  a  quart  of  good  brandy. 
The  vessel  should  be  corked  up,  and  exposed  for  one  or  two  weeks  to  a 
moderate  heat,  after  which  it  maybe  strained  off,  and  preserved  for  future 
use  in  a  closely  stopped  bottle. 

Lastly,  the  shepherd  ought  frequently  to  examine  his  flock,  and  see  that 
their  tails  and  buttocks  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  otherwise  they  will  be- 
come tagged,  or  belted,  i.  e.  the  skin  will  become  excoriated  and  sore  from 
the  dung  that  adheres  to  those  parts,  especially  when  the  animals  are 
atfected  with  the  flux,  or  white  scour.  Where  this  is  the  case,  the  sheep 
nmst  be  taken  into  a  dry,  separate  yard,  and  well  washed  with  soap  suds, 
the  wool  around  the  sores  being  previously  removed;  after  which  the 
wounded  parts  may  be  strewed  with  finely  pulverised  white  lead  or  chalk, 
and  this  may  be  succeeded  by  rubbing  them  with  a  mixture  of  brandy 
and  tar :  but  cleanliness  alone  will  be  quite  suflicient  to  etFect  a  cure. 


4.    SWINE. 

Measlj:s.  This  disorder  exists  chiefly  in  the  throat,  which  is  internal- 
ly filled  with  small  pustules  or  tumors  that  some  times  appear  on  the  out- 
ward surflice  of  the  neck.  It  is  known  by  the  languor  and  decline  in  the 
flesh  of  the  animal  aftected,  and  may  be  removed  by  giving  small  quanti- 
ties of  levigated  crude  antimony  in  his  food.  Another  prescription  for 
this  disease  is, — take  half  a  spoonful  of  spirit  of  hartshorn,  and  two 
ounces  of  bole  ammoniac ;  mix  it  with  meal  and  water,  and  give  it  to  the 
animals  affected  in  the  morning,  when  they  are  very  hungry.  Repeat 
the  dose  everyday,  till  they  are  cured,  which  will  be  in  four  or  five  days. 
Another  mode  of  treatment  recommended  is  to  mix  two  spoonfuls  of  mad- 
der with  their  food  about  once  a  week,  which  prevents  obstructions,  act- 
ing as  a  diuretic,  and  at  the  same  time  an  astringent.  Alsoon  some  other 
day  of  the  week  give  a  spoonful  or  two  of  an  equal  quantity  of  flour  of 
sulphur  and  saltpeter,  well  pounded  and  mixed. 

Mange.  This  disease,  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  is  a  cutaneous  eruption, 
occasioned  by  inattention  to  cleanliness  in  hog-styes.  It  is  easily  known 
by  the  violent  rubbing  of  swine  against  trees,  or  any  hard  substance  \vith 
such  violence  as  to  tear  away  the  head  of  pustules,  and  ])roduce  a  disa- 
greeable scab.  When  this  disease  appears,  the  animal  aflected  must  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  herd,  washed  thoroughly  with  a  strong  soap 
ley,  and  annointed  with  the  following  unguent  recommended  by  Dr. 
Norford  in  the  Annals  of  Agriculture,  viz. — Incorporate  one  ounce  of 
fine  flour  of  sulphur,  two  drachms  of  fresh  pulverized  white  hellebore, 
three  ounces  of  hog's  lard,  and  half  an  ounce  of  the  water  of  kali  (as  pre- 
pared in  the  shops,)  so  as  to  form  an  ointment.     This  is  to  be  rubbed  m 


130  FAMILY 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE. 


at  one  time,  and  is  said  to  be  sufficient  for  a  beast  which  weighs  six  or 
seven  stone.  If  properly  applied.  Dr.  N.  slates  that  no  repetition  will 
be  necessary,  if  the  hog  be  keyn perfectly  clean  after  the  cure  is  performed. 
Incase  there  is  a  slight  cough,  he  directs  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce 
and  ahalf  of  crude  antimony,  according  to  the  size  of  each  animal,  to  be 
finely  pulverized  and  mixed  with  his  daily  food  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight^ 
when  the  swine  will  be  perfectly  restored.  But  if,  from  neglect,  the 
neck,  ears,  (especially  in  the  large  lop  eared  hogs)  or  other  parts  be- 
come ulcerated,  they  should  be  annointed  ev  ery  third  or  fourth  day  with 
a  little  tar  ointment,  prepared  by  mixing  equal  parts  of  mutton  suet  and 
tar  over  a  gentle  fire,  and  straining  the  mixture  while  hot. 

MuRRAiy  or  Leprosy.  In  swine  this  disease  is  indicated  by  shortness 
and  heat  of  breath,  heads  hanging  down,  staggering,  and  a  secretion  of 
viscid  matter  from  the  eyes.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  hot  seasons,  when  the 
blood  becomes  inflamed.  To  cure  this  disease  boil  a  handful  of  nettles 
in  a  gallon  of  small  beer,  then  add  half  a  pound  of  flour  of  sulphur;  a 
quarter  of  a  pound  of  pulverized  anisseeds  ;  three  ounces  of  liquorice, 
and  a  quarterof  a  pound  of  elecampane.  Give  this  liquid  in  milk  at  six 
doses,  and  keep  the  animal  on  wholesome  food.  The  best  preventive  is 
to  keep  swine  clean  and  cool  in  summer,  and  allow  no  carrion  or  filth 
whatever  to  remain  near  their  styes. 

Diseases  of  the  Lungs.  These  are  generally  accompanied  with  a  dry 
husky  cough,  and  wasting  of  the  flesh  occasioned  by  too  great  exposure 
to  cold  and  wet.  The  best  remedy  is  a  dry  warm  stye,  with  a  regular 
supply  of  food  that  is  calculated  to  keep  them  cool,  and  allay  the  irrita- 
tion attendant  on  their  cough. 

Fever  or  rising  of  the  Lights.  This  disease  originates  from  overfeed- 
ing, and  may  be  removed  by  administering  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  oil. 

Gargut.  This  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the  udder  or  bag,  it 
being  distended  with  coagulated  milk,  whence  the  lacteal  ducts  are  ob- 
structed. It  is  chiefly  occasioned  by  not  sucfdng-doicn  in  proper  time  ; 
though  too  much  keep  before  the  time  of  farrowing  will  also  produce 
this  malady.  In  slight  cases,  the  udders  may  be  bathed  with  campho- 
rated spirits  of  wine,  but  as  the  young  pigs  wifl  never  suck  their  dams 
when  the  milk  becomes  vitiated,  there  is  no  alternative,  but  gently  to 
express  the  corrupted  milk,  if  it  can  be  efllscted,  otherwise  it  will  be  best 
to  kill  the  sow,  which  must  necessarily  perish  from  the  inattention  above 
mentioned. 

Issues.  If  the  issues  in  the  forelegs  of  swiue  become  stopped,  every 
attempt  to  fatten  them  will  be  in  vain.  These  therefore  should  ho 
watched,  and  if  found  to  be  stopped,  they  should  be  rubbed  open  with  a 
coni-ro)). 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


131 


VETERINARY    PHARMACOPEIA. 


b.    VETERINARY  PHARMACOPEIA 

For  the  following  recipes  for  veterinary  practice  we  are  indebted  to 
Loudon's  Encyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  in  which  we  are  informed,  that 
they  were  compiled  from  the  works  of  those  eminent  veterinary  writers, 
Blaine,  Clark,  Lawrence,  Peel,  White,  &.c.  The  recipes  for  oxen, 
calves,  and  sheep  have  been  included  in  the  arrangement.  It  should  be 
noted,  that  a  large  ox  will  bear  the  proportions  of  a  moderate  sized  liorse ; 
a  moderate  sized  cow,  something  less.  A  calf,  about  a  third  of  the  quan- 
tity ;  and  a  sheep  about  a  quarter,  or  at  most,  a  third  of  the  proportions 
directed  for  the  cow.  It  is  also  to  be  remarked,  that  the  degrees  of 
strength  in  the  different  recipes  are  usually  regulated  by  their  numbers, 
the  mildest  standing  first. 


1.  Alteratives, 
1. 
Levigated  antimony,  2  drachms, 
Cream  of  tartar. 

Flour    of  sulphur,    each    half  an 
ounce. 

2. 
Cream  of  tartar, 
Nitre,  of  each  half  an  ounce. 

3. 
iEthiop's  mineral, 
Levigated  antimony, 
Powdered  resin,each  three  drachms. 
Give  in  a  mash,  or  in  oats  and 
bran,  a  little  wetted,  every  night,  or 
make  into  a  ball  with  honey. 

2.   Tonic  Alteratives. 
1. 
Gentian, 
Aloes, 
Ginger, 
Blue  vitriol,  in  powder,  of  each  one 

drachm. 
Oak  bark  in  powder,  6  drachms. 

2. 
Winter's    bark  in  powder,  three 

drachms, 
Green  vitriol,  do.  one  and  a  half 

drachms. 
Gentian,  do.  three  drachms. 

Make  either  of  these  into  a  ball 
with  honey, and  give  every  morning. 

3. 
White  vitriol,  one  drachm. 
Ginger  or  pimento,  ground,  two 

drachms. 
Powdered  quassia,  half  an  ounce, 


Ale,  8  ounces. 

Mix  and  give  as  drink. 
4. 
Arsenic,  10  grains. 
Oatmeal,  1  ounce. 

Mix  and  give  in  a  mash,  or  mois- 
tened oats  nightly. 

3.  Astringent  Mixtures  for  Diarrhea, 
Lax  or  Scouring. 
1. 
Powdered  ipecacuanha,  1  drachm. 
Do.  opium,  half  a  drachm, 
Prepared  chalk,  2  ounces, 
Boiled  starch,  1  pint. 

2. 
Suet,  4  ounces,  boiled  in 
Milk,  8  ounces. 
Boiled  starch,  6  ounces, 
Powdered  alum,  1  drachm. 

The  following  has  been  very 
strongly  recommended  in  some  ca- 
ses, for  the  lax  of  horses  and  cattle. 

3. 
Glauber's  salts,  2  ounces, 
Epsom  do.  1  ounce, 
Green  vhriol,  4  grains, 
Gruel,  half  a  pint. 

When  the  lax  or  scouring  at  afl 
approaches  to  dysentary  or  molten 
grease,  the  following  drink  should 
be  first  given. 

4. 
Castor  oil,  4  ounces, 
Glauber's  salts,  dissolved,  2  ounces, 
Powdered  rhubarb,  half  a  drachm, 


132 


FAMILY 


VETERINARY     PHARMACOPEIA. 


Powdered  opium,  4  grains, 
Gruel,  1  pint. 

4.  Astringent  balls  for  Diabetes  or 

pissing  evil. 
Catechu    [Japan    earth]    half  an 

ounce, 
Alum  powdered,  half  a  drachm, 
Sugar  of  lead,  10  grains. 

Conserve  of  roses,  to  make  a 
baU. 

5.  Astringent  paste  for  thrush,  foot- 

rot,  foul  in  the  foot,  Sfc. 
Prepared  calamine, 
Verdigris,  of  each  half  an  ounce, 
White  vitriol. 

Alum,  of  each  half  a  drachm, 
Tar,  3  ounces  ;  mix. 

6.  Astringent  icashes  for  cracks  in 

the  fteels,  icounds,  Sfc. 
1. 
Sugar  of  lead,  2  drachms. 
White  vitriol,  1  drachm, 
Strong  infusion  of  oak  or  elm  bark, 
1  pint;  mix. 

2. 
Green  vitriol,  1  drachm. 
Infusion  of  galls,  half  a  pint. 

Mix,  and  wash  the  parts  three 
^imes  a  day. 

7.  Powder  for  cracks,  8fc. 
Prepared  calamine,  1  ounce, 
Fuller's  earth,  powdered. 
Pipe  clay,  do.  of  each  2  ounces. 

Mix  and  put  within  gauze,  and 
dab  the  moist  surfaces  of  the  sores 
frequently. 

8.  Astringent  Paste  for  Grease. 

Prepared  calamine, 

Tutty,  powdered, 

Charcoal  do.  of  each  2  ounces. 

Yeast  enough  to  make  a  paste. 
2. 

To  the  above,  if  more  strength  be 
required,  add  of  alum  and  verdigris 
each  a  drachm. 

9.  Astringent  wash  for  do. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  2  drachms, 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  ounce. 


Soft  water,  10  ounces. 

Rub  the  sublimate  in  a  mortar 
with  the  spirit  till  dissolved,  then 
add  the  water.  This  is  a  stong 
preparation,  and  has  often  proved 
successful  in  very  bad  cases  of 
grease,  which  have  resisted  all  the 
usual  remedies. 

10.  Blisters. 
1. 

A  general  one. 
Cantharides  powdered,  2  ounces. 
Venice  turpentine,  do. 
Resin,  do. 
Palm  oil,  or  lard,  2  lbs. 

Melt  the  three  latter  articles  to- 
gether, and  when  not  too  hot  stir  in 
tlie  Spanish  flies. 
2. 

A  strong  cheap  blister,  but  not 
proper  to  be  vised  in  fevers  or  in- 
flammations, as  of  the  lungs,  bow- 
els, &c. 

Euphorbium,  powdered,  1  ounce, 
Oil  of  vitriol,  2  scruples, 
Spanish  flies,  6  ounces. 
Palm  oil  or  lard, 
Resin,  of  each  1  pound. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  3  ounces. 

Melt  the  resin  with  the  lard  or 
palm  oil.  Having  previously  mix- 
ed the  oil  of  vitriol  with  an  ounce 
of  water  gradually,  as  gradually  add 
this  mixture  to  the  melted  mass ; 
which  again  set  on  a  very  slow  fire 
for  ten  minutes  more :  aftenvard 
remove  the  whole,  and  when  begin- 
ning to  cool,  add  the  powders  pre- 
viously mixed  together. 
3. 

A  mercurial  blister,  for  spHnts. 
spavins  and  ring  bones. 
Of  either  of  the  above,  4  ounces, 
Corrosive  sublimate,  finely  powder- 
ed, half  a  drachm. 
4. 

Strong  liquid  blister. 
Sjianish  flies,  in  gross  powder,  one 

ounce. 
Oil  of  origanum,  2  drachms. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  4  ounces, 
Olive  oil,  2  ounces. 

Steep  the  flies  in  the  turpentine 
three  weeks,strain  ofi'&addtheoil. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


133 


VETERINARY    PHARMACOPEIA. 


14.  Mild  liquid  or  sweating  blister. 
Of  the  above,  1  ounce, 
Olive  oil  or  goose  grease,  one  and 
a  half  ounces. 

15.  Clysters. 
I.  A  laxative  one. 
Thin  gruel  or  broth,  5  quarts, 
Epsom  or  common  salts  6  ozs. 

16.  Clyster  for  Gripes, 

Mash  two  moderate  sized  onions, 
Pour  over  them  oil  of  turpentine, 

2  ounces, 
Capsicum  or  pepper,  half  an  oz. 
Thin  gruel,  4  quarts. 

17.  J^utrilious  Clyster^ 

3. 
Thick  gruel,  three  quarts, 
Strong  sound  ale,  one  quart. 

Or  4, 
Strong  broth,  2  quarts. 
Thickened  milk,  2  quarts, 

18.  Astringent  Clyster. 

5. 

Tripe  liquor  or  suet  boiled  in  milk, 

three  pints. 
Thick  starch,  2  pints, 
Laudanum,  half  an  ounce, 

Or  6. 
Alum  whey,  one  quart. 
Boiled  starch,  two  quarts. 

19.  Cordial  Balls. 
Gentian  powdered,  4  ounces. 
Ginger  do.  2  ounces, 
Coriander  seeds  do.  4  ounces, 
Qiraway  do.  4  ounces, 
Oil  of  aniseed,  quarter  of  an  oz. 
Make  into  a  mass  with  honey, 
treacle  or  lard,  and  give  an  ounce 
and  a  half  for 


20.  Chronic  Cough  Balls. 
1. 
Calomel  1  scruple, 
Gum  ammouiacum, 

M 


Horse  radish,  of  each  2  drachms. 
Balsam  of  Tolu, 
Squills,  each  one  drachm. 

Beat  all  together,  and  make  into 
a  ball  with  honey,  and  give  everv 
morning,  fasting. 

21.  Drink  for  the  same. 
2, 
Tar  water, 

Lime  water,  of  each  half  a  pint. 
Tincture  of  sq'uills,  have  an  oz. 

22.  Powder  for  the  same. 
3. 
Tartar  emetic,  2  drachms. 
Powdered  foxglove,  half  a  drachm. 
Powdered  squill,  half  a  drachm. 
Calomel  one  scruple. 
Nitre  3  drachms. 

Give  every  night  in  a  malt 
mash. 

23.  Diuretic  Balls. 
Resin,  yellow,  1  pound. 
Nitre,  half  a  pound. 
Horse  turpentine,  half  a  pound. 
Yellow  soap,  quarter  of  a  pound. 

Melt  the  resin,  soap  and  turpen- 
tine over  a  slow  fire  ;  when  coolinj 
add  the  nitre.  For  a  strong  dose, 
an  ounce  and  a  half,  for  a  mild  one, 
an  ounce.  It  should  be  kept  in 
mind,  that  mild  diuretics  are  always 
equal  to  what  is  required  ;  and  that 
strong  diuretics  are  always  hurt- 
ful. 

24.  Diuretic  Powders. 
Yellow  resin,  powdered,  4  oz. 
Nitre,  do.  8  ounces, 
Cream  of  tartar,  do.  4  ounces. 

Dose — 6,  8,  or  10  drs.  nightly, 
which  some  horses  will  readily  eat 
in  a  mash. 

25.  Urine  Drink. 
Glauber's  salts,  two  ounces, 
Nitre,  6  drachms, 

Dissolve  in  a  pint  of  warm 
wrater. 


134 


FAMILY 


VETERINARY    PHARMACOPEIA. 


26.  Embrocations — cooling  for  in- 
Jtammations. 
1. 
Goulard's  extract,  half  an  ounce, 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  ounce, 
Soft  water,  1  quart. 
2. 
Mindererus  spirit,  4  ounces, 
Water,  12  ounces. 

27.  For  Strains. 
Bay  salt,  bruised,  half  a  pound, 
Crude  sal  ammoniac,  2  ounces, 
Sugar  of  lead,  quarter  of  an  oz. 
Vinegar  one  pint  and  a  half, 
Water  one  pint. 

28.  For  the  Eyes. 

1. 
Sugar  of  lead,  1  drachm, 
White  vitriol,  2  scruples. 
Water,  1  pint. 

2. 
Brandy,  one  ounce. 
Infusion  of  green  tea,  4  ounces, 
Tincture  of  opium,  2  drachms, 
Infusion  of  red  roses,  4  ounces. 

3. 
Rose  water,  six  ounces, 
Mindererus  spirit,  3  ounces. 

4. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  4  grains. 
Alkohol,  1  ounce. 
Lime  water,  1  pint. 

5. 
Alum,  powdered,  1  drachm. 
Calomel,  half  a  drachm. 

Mix  and  insert  a  little  at  one 
comerof  the  eye.  The  custom  of 
blowing  it  in,  alarms  the  horse. 

29.  Fever  Powders. 
1. 
Tartar  emetic,  2  drachms, 
Nitre,  5  drachms. 

2. 
Antimonial  powder,  2  drachms, 
Cream  of  tartar. 
Nitre,  of  each  four  drachms. 


30.  Fever  Drink. 
3. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  1  ounce, 
Mindererus  spirit,  six  ounces, 
Water,  4  ounces. 

31.  Epidemic  Fever  Drink. 
4. 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  1  ounce. 
Simple  oxymel,  6  ounces, 
Tartar  emetic,  3  drachms. 

32.  Malignant  Epidemic  Fever. 
5. 
Simple  oxymel, 
Mindererus  spirit. 
Beer  yeast,  of  each  4  ounces, 
Sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  one  ounce. 

33.    Fumigations  for  purifying  in- 
fected stables,  sheds,  Sec. 
Manganese,  2  ounces. 
Common  salt,  do. 
Oil  of  vitriol,  3  ounces, 
Water,  1  ounce. 

Put  the  mixed  manganese  and 
salt  into  a  basin ;  then,  having 
before  mixed  the  vitriol  and  water 
very  gradually,  pour  them  by  means 
of  tongs,  or  any  thing  that  will 
enable  you  to  stand  at  a  sufficient 
distance,  on  the  articles  in  the 
basin  gradually.  As  soon  as  the 
fumes  rise,  retire  and  shut  up  the 
door  close. 

34.  Hoof  Liquid. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  4  ounces. 
Tar,  4  ounces. 
Whale  oil,  8  ounces. 

This  softens  and  toughens  the 
hoofs  extremely,  when  brushed  over 
them  night  and  morning. 

35.  Purging  Medicines. 
Balls — very  mild. 
Aloes,  powdered,  6  drachms, 
Oil  of  turpentine,  1  drachm. 

Mild. 
Aloes,  powdered,  8  drachms, 
Oil  of  turpentine,  1  drachm. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


135 


VETERINARY    PHARMACOPEIA. 


Aloes,  powdered,  10  drachms, 

Strong. 
Oil  of  turpentine,  1  drachm. 

The  aloes  may  be  beaten  with 
treacle  to  a  mass,  adding,  during 
the  beating,  the  oil  of  turpentine. 
All  spices,  cream  of  tartar,  oil  of 
tartar,  jalap,  &;c.  are  useless,  and 
often  hurtful  additions. 

36.  Liquid  Pur^e. 
Epsom  salts,  dissolved,  8  ozs. 
Castor  oil,  4  ounces, 
Watery  tincture  of  aloes,  8  ozs. 

Mix — The  watery  tincture  of 
aloes  is  made  by  beating  powder- 
ed aloes  with  the  yolk  of  eggs,  ad- 
ding water  by  degrees  ;  by  these 
means  half  an  ounce  of  aloes  may 
be  suspended  in  8  ounces  of  water, 
and  such  a  purge  is  useful  when 
a  ball  cannot  be  got  down,  as  in 
partial  locked  jaw. 

37.  Scalding  Mixture  for  Poll 
Evil. 

Corrosive  sublimate,  finely  pow- 
dered, 1  drachm, 

Yellow  basilicon,  4  ounces. 

38.  Foot  Stoppings. 
Horse  and  cow  dung,  each  about 
2  pounds.  Tar,  half  a  pound. 

39.  Wash  for  coring  ouf^  destroy- 
ing fungus,  or  proud  flesh,,  Sec. 
Sec. 

Lunar  caustic,  one  drachm. 

Water,  2  ounces. 


40.   Wash  for  Mange. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  2  drachms, 
Spirit  of  wine  or  brandy,  1  oz. 
Decoction  of  tobacco. 
Do.  of  white  helebore,  of  each  1 

pint. 

Dissolve  the  mercury  in  the  spirit, 
and  then  add  the  decoctions. 

41.  Ointments  for  healing. 
I. 
Turner's  cerate,  2  ounces, 
White    vitriol     powdered,    half 

drachm, 
Lard,  4  ounces. 

42.  Far  Digesting. 
2. 
Turner's  cerate,  2  ounces, 
White  vitriol,  1  drachm, 
Yellow  basilicon,  5  ounces. 

43.  Fo-r  Mange. 
Sulphur  vivum,  8  ounces. 
Arsenic  in  powder,  2  drachms, 
Mercurial  ointment,  2  ounces, 
Turpentine,  2  ounces, 
Lard,  8  ounces. 

Mix,     and     dress    with    every 
morning. 

44.  For  Scab  or  Shab  in    Sheep^ 
Mallenders     and     Sellenders   in 
Horses,    and  foul    blotches    and 
eruptions  in  cntlU:  in  general. 
Camphor,  I  drachm, 
Sugar  of  lead,  half  a  drachm. 
Mercurial  ointment,  1  ounce. 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  WEATHER. 

"  Innumerable  advantages  would  arise  to  the  husbandman,"  re- 
marks Dr.  Deane,  *'  from  a  foreknowledge  of  the  changes  of  the  weath- 
er ;  and  even  from  a  foreknowledge  of  the  general  characters  of  the 
approaching  seasons.  In  the  former  case,  he  would  bo  able  to  order 
his  business  from  day  to  day  in  the  best  manner,  and  so  prevent  much 
hurry,  perlexity  and  loss ;  especially  in  the  seasons  ot  hay  makmg  and 
harvesting  ;  in  the  latter,  he  would  be  happily  directed  in  his  choice  of 
crops,  and  the  best  method  of  cultivating  them.  But,  as  this  know- 
ledge is  not  to  be  obtained,  the  ability  to  make  very  piobable  conjec- 
tures is  nextly  to  be  coveted,  as  it  v.ill  be  found  to  answer  very  valua- 
ble purposes." 


136  FAMILY 


OBSERVATIONS    ON    THE    WEATHER. 

Among  the  various  phenomena  which  attentive  observers  have  found 
to  indicate  approaching  changes  in  the  atmosphere,  the  following 
chiefly  from  the  Complete  Grazier,  are  selected  as  aflfording  the  most 
certain  signs  : 

I.  By  animals.  Previous  to  rain  and  wind,  or  stormy  weather,  neat 
cattle  and  sheep  seem  more  than  usually  desirous  of  feeding  in  their 
pastures,  and  to  leave  them  with  reluctance.  A  similar  change  is  an- 
nounced by  the  uneasiness  of  swine,  which  grunt  loudly,  and  retire  to 
their  styes  ;  by  geese  and  ducks  washing  themsehes  repeatedly  and 
with  little  intermission,  flying  anxiously  backwards  and  forwards  ;  by 
swallows  flying  low  and  skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  water, 
twittering  with  more  loudness  than  usual ;  and  by  poultry  rolling  much 
in  dust  and  sand,  or  gravel.  Wet  and  wundy  weather  is  likewise  indi- 
cated by  dogs  becoming  drowsy  and  stupid,  and  exhibiting  an  evident 
reluctance  for  food,  except  grass  (particularly  the  species  denominated 
dog's  grass,  or  couch-grass  ;)  and  by  cats  losing  their  vivacity,  and  re- 
maining within  doors.  Continued  rain  is  announced  by  pigeons  re- 
turning slowly  to  their  cotes  ;  a  change  from  cloudy  or  unsettled  to 
greater  wet,  by  flies  stinging  and  swarming  more  than  usual ;  and  a 
sudden  variation,  accompanied  with  a  storm,  by  wild  ducks,  plovers, 
bustards,  and  other  aquatic  birds  withdrawing  to  the  sea-coast,  or  to 
the  marshes.  "^ 

The  contrary  circumstances  evince  the  longer  oc  shorter  continuance 
of  fine  weather  ;  to  which  may  be  added,  that  bees  flying  abroad,  and 
laboring  with  that  industry  which  has  become  proverbial ;  crows  croak- 
ing in  the  morning ;  the  robin  or  red-breast  singing  early  from  the 
more  elevated  branches  of  trees  ;  and  gnats  flying  in  a  columnar  form, 
within  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun,  are  all  indications  of  fine  or  serene 
weather. 

II.  From  the  appearance  of  the  earth.  Thus  moist  stones  and  dry 
soil  prognosticate  rain  ;  a  continued  fall  of  which  may  be  expected,  if 
the  ground  seem  nearly  dry,  and  the  roads  almost,  if  not  wholly  free 
from  mud  ;  as  the  contrary  occurrences  announce  that  the  evaporation 
of  lyimidity  has  ceased,  and  consequently  that  fine  weather  is  ap- 
proaching. 

III.  From  the  atmosphere.  If  in  the  evening  a  white  mist  be  spread 
over  a  meadow  contiguous  to  a  river,  and  be  evaporated  by  the  sun's 
rays  on  the  following  morning,  it  is  an  indication  of  fine  weather 
throughout  the  day  ;  so  in  the  morning,  if  a  mist,  which  is  impending 
over  low  lands,  draw  off  towards  those  which  are  more  elevated,  it 
announces  a  fine  day.  The  gradual  diminution  of  clouds  till  they  can 
no  longer  be  seen  in  the  air,  is  a  sign  of  fine  weather ;  so  likewise  is 
the  continuance  of  abundant  dew  upon  the  grass  after  a  serene  day. 
The  contrary  events  announce  a  change  of  weather,  which  may  be 
more  clearly  known  by  the  clouds  gathering  and  lowering  ;  by  the  sky, 
after  serene  weather,  becoming  undulated  as  it  were  with  small  clouds. 

The  indications  of  approaching  changes  of  the  weather  from  the 
form  of  the  clouds  have  been  much  insisted  upon  by  some  writers. 
These  indications  are  far  from  being  infallible  ;  yet  experience  and  ob- 
servation justify  certain  deductions  in  respect  to  the  coming  weather, 
which  may  be  of  some  value  to  the  farmer.     Although  the  forms  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


137 


OBSERVATIOiVS    ON    THE    WEATHKR. 


clouds  are  greatly  diversified,  they  may  all  be  comprised  in  seven  mod- 
ifications  as  follows  : 

Cirrus  or  Carl-cloud.  Cumulus  or  Slacken -cloud. 

Cirrocumulus  or  Sondcr  cloud.     Nimbus  or  Rain-cloud. 

Cirrostratus  or  Wane- cloud.  Stratus  or  Fall  cloud. 

Cuiiiulostratus  or  Ticain-cloud. 

These  clouds  are  represented  in  the  follo-ving  engravinjr. 


138  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


06s.  1.  The  cirrus  or  curl  cloud  Fig.  1.  derives  its  name  from  its 
curling  form,  whicii  often  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  bunch  of  wool 
drawn  out  into  fine  pointed  ends.  A  variety  of  this  cloud  is  known 
by  farmers  under  the  name  of  mare^s  tail,  and  is  an  accompaniment  of 
variable  weather,  and  prognosticates  wind  and  rain. 

2.  The  Cirrocumulus  or  sonder-cloud  Fig.  2.  consists  of  beds  of 
small,  well  defined  masses  of  clouds  which  lie  in  the  neighborhood  of 
each  other,  yet  are  separated  from  each  other  and  distinct,  as  the  word 
sonder  or  sunder  indicates.  The  prevalence  of  this  cloud  in  summer 
forebodes  a  higher  temperature  ;  in  winter,  it  indicates  warm  and  wet 
weatlier.  When  these  clouds  are  very  dense,  and  quite  round  in  their 
form,  they  are  a  forerunner  of  storms. 

3.  Cirrostratus  or  wane-cloud.  The  prevalence  of  this  cloud  is  almost 
always  followed  by  rain  or  snov/.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fre- 
quent change  which  it  undergoes  in  its  appearance.  Figs.  3,  4,  5,  6,  7, 
represent  the  varieties  of  this  cloud. 

4.  Cumulostratus  and  Cumulus  are  represented  by  Fig.  9,  the  Cu- 
mulus naving  the  appearance  of  a  heap  or  stack  of  clouds,  and  the 
Cumulostratus  being  the  base  or  foundation  of  the  Cumulus.  It  is 
called  twain-cloud  from  the  frequent  coalescence  or  juncture  of  two 
other  modifications  of  clouds,  as  the  cirrus  and  the  cumulus.  The 
cumulostratus  is  an  indication  of  rain  or  snow  ;  but  if  it  ends  in  either, 
it  previously  assumes  the  form  of  Nimbus,  as  in  Fig.  II. 

5.  Nimbus,  Fig.  1 1,  is  always  followed  by  either  snow  or  rain. 


PART  VI. 

ART    OF    GARDEIS'IXG    OR    HOimCULTURE. 

ON    THE    SITUATION,    SOIL,    FENCING,    AND    LAYING    OUT  OF  GARDENS. 

Situation.  The  ground  should  be  as  nearly  on  a  level  as  possible ; 
but  as  it  is  not  always  in  our  power  to  choose  a  level  spot,  the  slope 
in  the  ground,  should,  if  possible,  be  towards  the  South.  In  a  Kitchen 
Garden  all  large  trees  ought  to  be  kept  at  the  distance  of  thirty  or  forty 
feet.  For,  the  .v/mrfeof  them  is  injurious,  and  their  roo/.s  a  great  deal 
more  injurious  to  every  plant  growing  within  the  influence  of  those 
roots.  Grass,  which  niatts  the  ground  over  with  its  roots  and  does 
not  demand  much  food  from  any  depth,  does  not  suffer  much  from  the 
roots  of  trees  ;  but  every  other  plaut  does.  A  kitchen  garden  should, 
therefore,  have  no  large  trees  near  it.  If  it  be  practicable,  without  sa- 
crificing too  much  in  other  respects,  to  make  a  garden  near  to  running 
water,  and  especially  to  water  that  may  be  turned  into  the  garden,  such 
an  advantage  ought  not  to  be  lost ;  but  as  to  watering  with  a  watering 
pot,  it  is  seldom  of  much  use,  and  it  cannot  Ijc  practiced  upon  a  large 
scale.  It  is  better  to  trust  to  judicious  tillage,  and  to  the  dews  and 
rains.     A  man  will  raise  more  moisture,  with  a  hoe  or  a  spade,  in  a 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  139 


HORTICULTURE. 


day,  than  he  can  pour  on  the  earth  out  of  a  watering  pot  in  the  same 
time ;  or,  at  least  to  greater  purpose. 

Soil.  The  plants  which  grow  in  a  garden,  prefer,  like  most  other 
plants,  the  best  soil  that  is  to  be  found.  The  best  is  loam  of  several 
feet  deep,  with  a  bed  of  lime-stone,  sand-stone,  or  sand  below.  Oak 
trees  love  clay,  and  the  finest  and  heaviest  wheat  grows  in  land  with  a 
bottom  of  clay ;  but  if  there  be  clay  within  even  six  feet  of  the  sur- 
face there  will  be  a  coldness  in  the  land,  which  will,  in  spite  of  all  you 
can  do,  keep  your  spring  crop  a  week  or  ten  days  behind  those  upon 
land,  which  has  not  a  bottom  of  clay. 

Having  fixed  upon  the  spot  for  a  garden,  the  next  thing  is  to  pre- 
pare the  ground.  This  may  be  done  by  ploughing  and  harrowing,  un- 
til the  ground  at  top  be  perfectly  clean  ;  and  then  by  double  ploughing ; 
that  is  to  say,  by  going  with  a  strong  plough,  that  turns  a  large  furrow, 
and  turns  it  cleanly,  twice  in  the  same  place,  and  thus  moving  the 
ground  to  the  depth  of  fourteen  or  sixteen  inches,  for  the  advantage  of 
deeply  moving  the  ground  is  very  great  indeed.  When  this  has  been 
done  in  one  direction  it  ought  to  be  done  across,  and  then  the  ground 
will  have  been  well  and  deeply  moved. 

This  is  as  much  as  1  shall,  probably,  be  able  to  persuade  any  body  to 
do  in  the  way  of  preparing  the  ground.  But,  this  is  not  all  that  ought 
to  be  done  ;  and  it  is  proper  to  give  directions  for  the  best  way  of  doing 
this  and  everything  else.  The  best  way  is,  then,  to  trench  tlie  ground; 
which  is  performed  in  this  manner.  At  one  end  of  the  piece  of  ground, 
intended  for  the  garden,  you  make  with  a  spade,  a  trench,  all  along,  two 
feet  wide  and  two  feet  deep.  You  throw  the  earth  out  on  the  side  away 
from  the  garden  that  is  to  be.  You  shovel  out  the  bottom  clean,  and 
make  the  sides  of  the  trench  as  nearly  perpendicular  as  possible.  You 
then  take  another  piece,  all  i^long,  two  feet  wide,  and  put  the  earth  that 
this  new  piece  contains  into  the  trench,  taking  off  the  top  of  the  new 
two  feet  wide,  and  turning  that  top  down  into  the  bottom  of  the  trench, 
and  then  taking  the  remainder  of  the  earth  of  the  new  two  feet  and 
place  it  on  the  top  of  the  earth  just  turned  into  the  bottom  of  the 
trench.  Thus  proceed,  till  the  whole  of  your  garden  ground  be  trench- 
ed ;  and  it  will  have  been  cleanly  turned  over  to  the  depth  of  two  feet. 

There  is  no  point  of  greater  importance  than  this.  Poor  gound 
deeply  moved  is  preferable,  in  many  cases,  to  rich  ground  with  shallow 
tillage  ;  and  when  the  ground  has  been  deeply  moved  once,,  it  feels  the 
benefit  forever  after.  It  is  well  known  to  all  who  have  had  experience 
on  the  subject,  that  of  two  plants  of  almost  any  kind  that  stand  for  the 
space  of  three  months  in  top  soil  of  the  same  quality,  one  being  on 
ground  deeply  moved,  and  the  other  on  ground  moved  no  deeper  than 
is  usual,  the  former  will  exceed  the  latter  one  half  in  bulk.  And,  as 
to  trees  of  all  descriptions,  from  the  pear  tree  down  to  the  currant  bush, 
a  similar  difference  might  be  seen.  It  is  a  notion  with  some  persons, 
that  it  is  no  use  to  move  the  ground  deeper  than  the  roots  of  the  plant 
penetrate.  But,  in  the  first  place  the  roots  go  much  deeper  than  wo 
generally  suppose.  When  we  pull  up  a  cabbage,  for  instance,  wo  $ee 
no  roots  more  than  a  foot  long,  but  if  we  were  carefully, to  pursue  the 
roots  to  their  utmost  point,  even  as  far  as  the  eye  would  assist  us,  we 
should  find  the  roots  a  great  deal  longer,  and  the  extremities  of  the 


140  FAMILY 


HOBTICITLTURE. 


roots  are  much  too  fine  to  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  Upon  pulling 
up  a  common  turnip,  who  would  image  that  the  side  or  horizontal 
roots  extend  to  several  feet?  Yet  they  may  be  traced  to  the  length  of 
four  feet.  But,  though  the  roots  should  not  extend  nearly  to  the  bottom 
of  the  moved  ground,  the  plants  are  affected  by  the  unmoved  ground 
near  at  hand.  Plants  require  a  communication  with,  and  an  assistance 
from,  beneath  as  well  as  from  above,  in  order  to  give  them  vigor  and 
fecundity. 

Thus  will  the  ground  be  prepared^  hut  it  seems  necessary  to  add  a 
few  words  on  the  subject  of  manures,  as  adapted  to  a  garden.  It  is 
generally  thought,  and  truly,  that  dung  of  any  sort,  is  not  what  ought 
to  be  used,  in  the  raising  of  garden  vegetables.  It  is  very  certain,  that 
they  are  coarse  and  gross  when  produced  with  the  aid  of  that  sort  of 
manure,  compared  with  what  they  are  when  raised  with  the  aid  oCosh- 
es,  lime,  rags,  and  composts.  And  besides,  dung  in  hot  soils  and  hot 
climates,  ados  to  the  heat :  while  ashes,  lime,  rags  and  composts  do  not, 
but  on  the  contrary,  they  attract  and  cause  the  earth  to  retain  moisture. 
All  the  ground  in  a  garden  ought  alwai/s  to  be  good  ;  and  it  will  be  kept 
in  this  state  if  it  be  well  manured  once  every  year. 

Fencing.  The  fence  of  a  garden  is  an  important  matter ;  for  we 
have  to  view  it  not  only  as  giving  protection  against  intnidcr'^,  two- 
legged  as  well  as  four  legged,  but  as  affording  shelter  in  cold  weather 
and  shade  in  hot.  With  regard  to  shelter;  this  is  of  very  great  con- 
sequence, for  it  is  well  known  that  on  the  south  side  of  a  good  high 
fence,  you  can  have  peas,  lettuce,  radishes,  and  many  other  things, 
full  ten  days  earlier  in  the  spring  than  you  could  have  them  in  the 
unsheltered  ground.  The  shade.,  during  the  summer,  is  also  valuable. 
Peas  will  thrive  in  the  shade  long  after  they  will  no  longer  produce  in 
the  sun.  Currant  trees  and  goosberry  trees  will  not  do  well  in  this 
climate,  unless  they  be  m  the  shade.  Raspberries  also  are  best  in  the 
shade ;  and  during  the  heat  of  summer,  lettuce,  radishes  and  many 
other  things  thrive  best  in  the  shade.  It  Mill  be  presently  seen,  when 
I  cometaepeak  of  the  form  of  a  garden,  that  I  have  fixed  on  an  oblong 
square.,  twice  as  long  as  it  is  wide.  This  gives  me  a  long  fence  on  the 
north  side,  and  also  on  the  south  side.  The  former  gives  me  a  fine, 
warm  extensive  border  in  the  spring,  and  the  latter  a  border  equally  ex- 
tensive and  as  cool  as  I  can  get  it,  in  the  heat  of  summer. 

I  am  aware  of  the  difficulty  of  overcoming  long  habit,  and  of  intro- 
ducing any  thing  that  is  new.  Yet,  amongst  a  sensible  people,  such  as 
those  for  whom  this  work  is  intended,  one" need  not  be  afraid  of  nlti- 
n.ate  success  ;  and  I,  above  all  men,  ought  not  to  entertain  such  fear, 
after  what  1  have  seen  with  regard  to  the  ruta  baga.  Yet  I  proceed 
with  hesitation  to  propose,  even  for  a  garden,  a  line  fence.  In  England 
it  is  called  a  quick  set  hedge.  The  truth  is,  however,  that  it  ought  rather 
to  be  called  an  everlax ting  hedge  ;  tor  it  is  not  so  quicklv  set,  or.  at  least, 
hro  very  quickly  raised.  The  plants  are  those  of  the  'white  thorn.  It 
bears  white  flowers  in  great  abundance,  of  a  very  fragrant  smell, 
which  are  succeeded  by  a  little  red  berry.  Within  the  red  pulp  is  a  small 
stone  ;  and  this  stone,  being  put  in  the  ground,  produces  a  plant  or 
tree  in  the  same  manner  a  cherry  stone  does.  The  red  berries  are  called 
haws,  whence  this  thorn  is  sometimes  called  hawthorn. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  141 


HORTICULTURE. 


The  haws  are  sown  in  drills,  like  peas,  and  they  are  taken  from  that 
situation  and  planted  very  thick  in  rows,  in  a  nursery,  where  they  stand 
a  year  or  two,  if  Ihey  are  not  wanted  the  first  year.  Then  they  are 
ready  to  be  planted  to  become  a  hedge. 

The  ground  for  the  Garden  being  prepared,  in  the  manner  described 
under  the  head  of  Soil,  take  up  your  plants,  prune  their  roots  to  within 
four  inches  of  the  part  that  was  at  the  top  of  the  ground,  taking  care 
to  cutaway  all  the  fibres.  Work  the  ground  well  ali  around  the  edges 
of  the  piece  intended  for  the  garden,  and  make  it  very  fine  with  a  spade. 
Then  place  a  line  along  very  truly  ;  for,  observe  you  are  planting  for 
generations  to  come.  Take  the  spade,  put  the  edge  of  it  against  the 
line,  drive  it  down  eight  or  ten  inches  deep  ;  pull  the  eye  of  the  spade 
towards  you,  ^.nd  thus  you  make  all  along  a  little  open  cut  to  receive 
the  roots  of  the  plant,  which  you  will  then  put  into  the  cut,  very  up' 
ri^/i^  and  then  put  the  earth  against  them  with  your  hand;  taking 
care  not  to  plant  them  deeper  in  the  ground,  than  they  stood  before 
you  took  them  from  the  nursery.  The  distance  between  the  plants  is 
twelve  inches.  When  this  line  is  done,  plant  another  line  all  along  by 
the  side  of  it,  and  at  six  inches  from  it,  in  exactly  the  same  manner  ; 
taking  care,  in  this  second  line,  to  place  the  plants  opposite  the  middles 
of  the  intervals.  When  both  lines  are  planted,  tread  gently  between 
them  and  also  on  the  outside  of  them. 

This  work  should  be  done  in  the  Jirst  or  second  week  of  October.  But 
if  you  cannot  do  it  in  the  fall,  do  it  the  moment  the  ground  is  fit  in  the 
spring.  In  both  cases  the  plants  must  be  cut  down  close  to  the  ground. 
If  you  plant  in  the  fall,  cut  them  down  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of 
the  ground  in  the  spring,  and  before  the  buds  begin  to  swell :  and,  if  you 
plant  in  the  spring,  cut  down  as  soon  as  you  have  planted.  This  ope- 
Tfition  is  of  indispensable  necessity ;  for,  without  it,  you  will  have  no 
hedge.  Keep  the  ground  between  them  and  all  around  them  very  clean, 
and  frequently  hoed.  Some  people  cut  down  again  the  next  spring  ; 
but  this  is  not  the  best  way.  Let  the  plants  stand  two  summers  and  three 
winters,  and  cut  them  all  close  down  to  the  ground  as  you  can  in  the 
spring,  and  the  shoots  will  come  out  so  thick  and  so  strong,  that  you 
never  need  cut  down  any  more.  But  you  must  this  year  begin  to 
clip.  About  the  middle  of  July  you  must  clip  oft' the  top  a  little,  and 
the  sides  near  the  top,  leaving  the  bottom  not  much  clipped,  so  that  the 
sides  of  the  hedge  may  slope  like  the  sides  of  a  pyramid.  The  hedge 
will  shoot  again  immediately  and  will  have  shoots,  perhaps,  six  inches 
long  by  October.  Then,  before  winter,  you  must  clip  it  again,  not  cut- 
ting down  to  your  last  cut,  but  keeping  your  side  always  in  a  pyramidi- 
cal  slope,  so  that  the  hedge  may  always  be  wide  at  bottom  and  sharp 
at  the  top.  And  thus  the  hedge  will  go  on  getting  higher  and  higher, 
and  wider  and  wider,  till  you  have  it  at  the  height  and  thickness  that 
you  wish,  and  when  it  arrives  at  that  point  there  you  may  keep  it.  A 
hedge  five  clear  feet  high  may  be  got  in  six  years  from  the  day  of 
planting. 

Latino  out.  The  laying  out  of  a  garden  consists  in  the  division  of 
it  into  several  parts,  and  in  the  allotting  of  those  several  parts  to  the 
several  purposes  for  which  a  garden  is  made.  These  parts  consist  of 
Walks,  Paths,  Plats,  Borders  and  a  Hot- Bed-Ground.  To  render  the 
directions  more  clear,  a  plan  of  the  proposed  garden  is  here  given. 


142 


FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


■ 


rtr«r0r« 

r^H!>r#  HI 


LAYING  OUT. 

Tliis  is  not,  strictly  s|>eakin£r  a  plan,  because  it  exhibits  trees  in  elcva- 
tio*i,  but  it  will  answer  the  purpose.  The  length  of  tiie  garden  is  100 
yards,  the  breadth  50  yards.  Before,  however,  I  proceed  further,  let 
me  give  my  reasons  for  choosing  an  oblong  square.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  length  of  my  garden  is  from  East  to  West.     By  leaving   a  greater 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  143 


HORTICULTURE. 


'length  in  this  direction,  than  from  North  to  South,  three  important  ad- 
vantages are  secured.  Firsts  we  get  a  long  and  warm  border  under  tlie 
North  fence  for  the  rearing  of  things  early  in  the  spring,  Second^  we 
get  a  long  and  cool  border  under  the  South  fence,  for  shading  during 
the  great  heats,  things,  to  which  a  burning  sun  is  injurious.  Thirds  by 
this  shape  of  the  area  of  the  garden  a  larger  portion  of  the  whole  is 
sheltered  during  winter  and  spring,  from  the  bleak  winds. 

Having  such  a  spot  before  us,  little  difficulty  can  arise  in  laying  it 
out.  Indeed  it  is  only  necessary  to  state  the  dimensions.  The  several 
parts  are  distinguished  by  numbers.  The  long  walk  running  from 
East  to  West  is  six  feel  wide,  as  is  alsct  the  cross  walk,  in  the  middle. 
All  the  paths  are  three  feet  wide.  The  borders  No.  2  and  3,  are  nine 
feet  wide.  The  dimensions  of  the  Plats,  Nos.  5,  7,  8,  9,  10  and  Tl,  are 
each  70  feet  from  East  to  West,  and  56  from  North  to  South.  Plat  No. 
6,  is  56  feet  by  50.  Plat  No.  4,  is  60  by  36.  The  Hot  bed  ground  No. 
1,  is  70  by  36.  I  leave  trifling  fractions  unnoticed.  It  will  be  seen  that 
about  a  third  part  of  the  ground  is  appropriated  to  Fruit-Trees.  The 
reason  for  this,  and  the  uses  of  the  other  parts  of  the  ground,  will  be 
fully  stated  under  the  head  Cultivation. 

Hot  Beds.  The  materials  of  which  the  bed  is  to  be  composed,  and 
the  manner  of  preparing  those  materials,  are  first  to  be  spoken  of. 
Dung  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  or  pigs,  is  used  to  make  the  bed.  Either 
may  be  made  to  do,  with  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  care  and  trouble  ; 
but,  the  best  possible  thing  is  dung  from  the  stable,  taken  away  before 
it  has  been  rotted  ;  short  and  long  promiscuously,  but  rather  long  than 
short.  In  making  the  bed  you  will  proceed  as  directed  below,  but 
I  must  first  describe  the  Frame  and  the  Lights.  As  there  are  ^qw 
American  Farmers  who  are  not  able  to  make  both  with  their  own 
hands,  it  will  be  necessary  for  me  merely  to  say,  that  the  frame  is  of  the 
best  shape  when  it  is  eighteen  inches  deep  at  the  back  and  rdne  inches 
deep  at  the  front.  This  will  give  slope  enough.  The  Frame  is  the 
wood  work  on  which  the  Lights^  or  glass-work,  are  laid.  And,  as  it  is 
useless  to  make  a  hot-bed  without  a  frame  and  lights  ready,  I  shall  sup- 
pose them  prepared.  I  suppose  a  three-Ught  Frame,  four  feet  wide  and 
nine  feet  long,  which  will,  of  course,  make  every  Light  three  feel  wide, 
and  four  feet  long^  because  the  long  way  of  the  light,  fits  the  cross  way 
of  the  Frame. 

Of  making  the  bed.  The  front  of  the  bed  is,  of  course,  to  be  full  south, 
so  that  the  noon  sun  may  come  right  upon  the  glass.  The  length  and 
width  oftlie  bed  must  be  those  of  the  Frame:  therefore  take  the  frame 
and  place  it  upon  the  spot  you  mean  the  bed  to  stand  on.  Make  a 
mark  in  the  ground  all  round  the  outside  of  the  frame.  Then  take 
some  sharp  pointed  straight  stakes  and  drive  them  .in  the  ground  at 
each  corner  of  the  marked  out  place  for  the  bed,  and  one  or  two  on  the 
back  and  front  side.  Let  these  be  about  four  feet  high.  Thus  all  be- 
ing ready,  begin  taking  the  dung  on  the  side  of  your  heap  nearest  the 
spot  where  you  are  building  the  bed.  Take  long  and  short  fairly,  and 
mix  them  as  you  put  them  in.  Shake  the  stuff  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
leave  any  lumps.  Let  the  bed  rise  in  all  parts  together  as  nearly  as 
possible.  Beat  the  whole  down  with  a  fork  as  you  proceed.  When 
you  have  shaken  on  dung  to  the  thickness  of  four  or  five  inches,  beat 
all  over  well  again ;  and  so  on,  till  the  work  be  finished.     But  7nind,  you 


144  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


must  be  very  careful  to  keep  the  edges  of  the  bed  well  beaten,  else  they 
will  sink  more  than  the  rest,  and  thus  the  earth  on  the  bed  will  crack 
iQ  the  middle.  At  last,  shovel  and  sweep  up  all  the  short  earthy  stuff 
round  the  bed  wheie  your  dung-heap  was,  and  lay  it  very  smoothly  on 
the  top  of  the  bed  ;  and  make  all  as  smooth  and  level  as  a  die  with  the 
back  of  your  shovel.  Thus  the  bedis  made.  Then  put  on  the  frame, 
and  the  lights  upon  the  frame.  If  you  finish  your  bed  by  noon,  (he  heat 
will  begin  to  rise  by  the  next  morning,  and  by  noon  of  the  second  day, 
the  heat  will  be  up.  Poke  your  finger  as  deep  as  you  can  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  bed  ;  if  the  heat  be  so  great  that  you  cannot  endure  it,  then 
it  is  too  great  to  receive  the  earth  ;  but  if  not,  put  on  the  earth  all  over 
the  bed.  If  the  heat  be  too  great,  give  the  bed  a  little  air^  and  wait  till 
a  little  of  the  heat  be  gone  off.  The  earth  should  be  dry,  not  like  dust, 
but  not  wet.  I  made  provision  for  my  bed,  by  putting  earth  in  my  cel- 
lar in  November.  The  bed  is  to  be  covered  all  over,  about  six  inches 
deep.  When  the  earth  has  been  on  twenty-four  hours,  take  off  the 
lights,  and  stir  the  earth  well  with  your  hands.  When  you  have  stir- 
red the  earth  well,  and  made  the  earth  level  and  smooth,  sow  your  seed^ 
if  you  do  not  find  the  earth  too  hot. 

Of  the  act  of  sowing.  The  more  handsomely  this  is  done,-  the  better  it 
is  done.  A  handsome  dress  is  better  than  an  ugly  one,  not  because  it 
is  warmer  or  cooler;  but,  because,  liking  it  better,  we  take  more  care  of 
it.  Those  who  have  seen  two  or  three  women  together,  crossing  dirty 
streets,  or  in  danger  from  horses  and  carriages,  cannot  have  failed  to 
discover,  that  humanity,  like  smoke,  is  very  apt  to  fly  to  the  fairest. 

Seeds  are  great  tell-tales  ;  for,  when  they  come  up,  we  discover  all 
the  carelessness  that  may  have  prevailed  at  the  sowing  of  them. 

Of  the  management  of  a  hot-bed.  Observe  that  the  main  principle  is, 
always  to  give  the  plants  as  much  air  as  they  loill  endure.  I  suppose  the 
hot  bed  made  as  above,  to  be  four  feet  high  when  just  finished.  It  will 
sink  as  it  heats,  and  will,  at  last,  come  to  about  one  foot  and  a  half. 
Its  heat  will  gradually  diminish  ;  but  it  will  give  a  great  heat  for  about 
six  weeks,  and  some  heat  for  four  months.  It  is  this  bottom  heat  that 
makes  things  grow.  The  sun  is  often  hot  in  May  ;  but  it  is  not  till  the 
earth  is  warm,  that  vegetation  advances  with  rapidity.  Having  secured 
the  bottom  heat,  make  free  with  the  air.  Even  before  the  seeds  begin 
to  appear,  give  air  to  the  bed  every  day,  unless  it  be  very  cold  weather. 
When  the  plants  come  up,  they  will  soon  tell  you  all  about  air  ;  for,  if 
they  have  not  enough,  they  will  draw  up  long  legged,  and  will  have 
small  seed  leaves,  and,  indeed,  if  too  much  deprived  of  air,  will  droop 
and  die.  Take  care  in  time  to  prevent  this.  Let  them  grow  strongs 
rather  tiian  tall.  Short  stems,  broad  seed  leaves,  very  green,  these  are 
the  signs  of  good  plants  and  proper  management.  It  will  be  necessary 
to  water.  Take  off  a  light  at  a  time,  and  water  with  a  watering  pot, 
that  does  not  pour  out  heavily.  Water  just  about  sun-set,  and  then 
shut  down  the  light ;  and  the  heat  will  then  rise,  and  make  the  plants 
grow  rapidly.  Of  the  management  of  the  different  sorts  of  plants  in  a 
hot-bed,  I  shall  speak  under  their  respective  names. 

On  Propagation  and  Cultivation.  In  order  to  have  good  vege- 
tables, herbs  and  fruits,  we  must  be  careful  and  diligent  in  the  Propa- 
gation and  Cultivation  of  the  several  plants  ;    for,  though  nature  does 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  145 

HORTICULTURE. 


much,  she  does  not  do  all.  The  propagation  of  plants  is  the  bringing 
of  them  forth,  or  the  increasing  or  multiplying  of  them.  This  is  effected 
in  several  different  ways  ;  by  seeds,  by  suckers,  by  offsets,  by  layers,  by 
cuttings.  Cultivation  must  of  course  differ  in  some  respects,  to  suit 
itself  to  certain  differences  in  the  plants  to  be  cultivated  ;  but  there  are 
some  principles  and  rules  which  apply  to  the  cultivation  of  all  plants ; 
and  it  is  of  these  only  that  I  propose  to  speak. 

Sort  of  Seed.  We  should  make  sure  here  ;  for,  what  a  loss  to  have 
late  cabbages  instead  of  early  ones.  As  to  beans,  peas,  and  many  other 
things,  there  cannot  easily  be  mistake  or  deception.  But  as  to  cabba- 
ges, cauliflowers,  turnips,  radishes,  lettuces,  onions,  leeks,  and  numerous 
others,  the  eye  is  no  guide  at  all.  If  therefore  you  do  not  save  your 
own  seed,  you  ought  to  be  very  careful  of  whom  you  purchase. 

True  seed.  But  besides  the  kind,  there  is  the  genuineness  to  be  con- 
sidered. For  instance,  you  want  sugar-loaf  cabbage.  The  seed  you 
sow  may  be  cabbage  ;  it  may  too,  be  sugar  loaf,  or  more  that  than  any 
thing  else,  but,  still,  it  may  not  be  true  to  its  kind.  To  insure  (ruth  in 
seed,  if  you  purchase,  take  the  precaution  recommended  above.  But 
when  you  find  that  you  have  any  true  seed  of  any  kind,  get  as  much 
more  of  it  as  will  last  you  for  the  number  of  years  that  such  seed  will 
keep  ;  and  to  know  how  many  years  the  seeds  of  vegetables  and  herbs 
will  keep,  see  under  the  head  of  Saving  and  Preserving  Seed. 

Soundness  of  Seed.  Seed  may  be  of  the  right  sort ;  it  may  be  true  to 
its  sort ;  and,  yet,  if  it  be  unsound,  it  will  not  grow.  The  way  to  try 
seed,  is  this.  Put  a  small  quantity  of  it  into  lukewarm  water,  and  let 
the  water  be  four  or  five  inches  deep.  Some  seeds,  such  as  those  of 
cabbage,  radish,  and  turnip,  will,  if  good,  go  to  tlie  bottom  at  once. — 
Cucumber,  melon,  lettuce,  and  many  others,  require  a  few  minutes. — 
Parsnips,  and  carrot,  and  all  the  winged  seeds,  require  to  be  worked  by 
your  fingers  in  a  little  water,  before  you  put  them  into  the  glass  ;  and 
the  carrot  should  be  rubhed,so  iis  to  get  off  part  of  the  iiairs.  Though 
there  are  other  methods,  I  incline  to  the  opinion  that  we  should  try 
seeds,  as  our  ancestors  tried  Witches,  not  by  fire  but  by  water. 

Saving  and  Preserving  Seed.  This  is  the  most  important  part  of  the 
Gardener's  business.  There  are  rules  applicable  to  particular  plants  ; 
but  it  is  my  business  here  to  speak  of  such  as  are  applicable  to  all 
plants.  The  truest  plants  should  be  selected,  that  is,  such  as  are  of  the 
most  perfect  shape  and  quality.  In  the  cabbage,  we  seek  small  stem, 
,  well  formed  loaf,  few  spare,  or  loose  leaves  ;  in  the  turnip,  large  bulb, 
small  nock,  slender  stalked  leaves,  solid  flesh,  or  pulp  ;  in  the  radish, 
high  color,  if  red  or  scarlet,  small  neck,  few  and  short  leaves,  and  long 
top.  Of  plants  the  early  coming  of  which  is  a  circumstance  of  impor- 
tance, the  very  earliest  should  be  chosen  for  seed  ;  for  they  will  almost 
always  be  found  to  include  the  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  other 
respects.  They  should  be  carefully  cultivated,  during  the  time  they 
are  carrying  on  their  seed  to  perfection.  But  effectual  care  must  bs 
taken  to  prevent  a  mixing  of  the  sorts.  The  plants  should  stand  till 
perfectly  ripe,  if  possible.  They  should  be  cut,  or  gathered,  when  it  is 
dry  ;  and  they  should,  if  possible,  be  dry  as  dry  can  be,  before  they  are 
threshed  out.  If,  when  threshed,  any  moisture  remain  about  them, 
they  should  be  placed  in  the  sun  ;  and  when'quite  dry,  should  be  put 
N 


146  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE . 


into  bags,  and  hung  up  against  a  very  dry  wall,  where  they  will,  by  no 
accident,  get  damp.  Thus  preserved,  kept  from  the  open  oir,  and 
from  damp,,  the  seeds  of  vegetables  will  keep  sound  and  good  for  sow- 
ing for  the  number  of  years  stated  in  the  following  list. 

Years.  Years. 

Asparagus           ...        4  Lettuce        ....  3 

Balm 2  Mangel  Wurzel        .         .  10 

Bean 1  Melon         .         .  .          .10 

Bean,  Kidney,      ...         1  Mint         ....  4 

Beet 10  Mustard        ....  4 

Brocoli       ....           4  Onion 2 

Cabbage         ....      4  Parsley         ....  6 

Camomile           ...          2  Parsnip       ....  1 

Caraway         ....      4  Pea         ....  1 

Carrot          ....         1  Pennyroyal          .         .         .  '  2 

Cauliflower       ...           4  Potato       ....  3 

Celery          ....       10  Pumpkin         .         .         .       .  10 

Corn          ....          3  Radish         ....  2 

Coriander       ....      3  Rhubarb           ...  1 

Cress          ....         2  Rosemary         ...  3 

Cucumber       .         .         .       .     10  RutaBaga            .         ,         .  4 

Fennel         ....         5  Savory             ...  2 

Garlic       ....            3  Spinach       ....  4 

Hop       .         .         ,         .          .2  Squash       ....  10 

Horse-radish      ...         4  Tansy             ....  3 

Hyssop         ....       6  Thyme         ....  2 

Lavender         .         .         .         .2  Turnip            ....  4 
Leek          ...         .2 

Sowing.     The  first  thing,  relating  to  sowing,  is,  the  preparation   of 
the  ground.     It  may  be  more  or  less^ne,  according  to  the  sort  of  seed 
to  be  sown  ;  but  still  the  finer  the  better  for  every  thing  ;  for  it  is  best 
if  the  seed  be  actually  pressed  by  the  earth  in  every   part.     Of  course 
the  ground  should  be  good.,  either  in  itself,  or  made  good  by  manure  of 
some  sort.     But,  in  all  cases,  the  ground  should  be  fresh  ;    that  is,  it 
should  be  diig  just  before  the  act  of  sowing,  in  order  that  the  seeds  may 
have  the  full  benefit  of  the  fermentation.,  that  takes  place  upon   every 
moving  of  the  earth.     Never  sow  when  the  ground  is  wet.     If  you  dig 
ground  in  wet  weather,  you  make  a  sort  of  mortar  of  it,  it  binds  when 
the  sun  or  wind  dries  it.     The  fermentation  does  not  take  place.     Sow 
therefore,  if  possible  in  dry  weather,  but  in  freshly  moved  ground.     The 
reason  for  sowing  will,  of  course,  find  a  place  under  the  name  of  the 
respective  plants.     However,  it  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  some,  and 
even  many,  things,  which  are  usually  sown  in  the  spring,  would  be 
better   sown   in  the  fall.     Parsnips,  carrots,  beets,  onions,  and  many 
other  things,  may  be  safely  sown  in  the  fall.     The  seed  will  not  perish 
if  covered   by  the  earth.     But  then   care  must  be  taken  to  sow  early 
enough  in  the  fall  for  the  plants  to  come  up  before  the  frost  sets  in. — 
Even  early  peas  would  be  best  sown  in  the  fall,  could  you  have  an  in- 
surance against  mice. 

Transplanting.     The  weather   for  transplanting,  whether  of  table 
regetables  or  of  trees,  is  the  same  as  that  of  sowing.    If  you  do  this 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  147 


HORTICULTURE. 


work  in  wet  weather,  or  when  the  gronnd  is  wet,  the  work  cannot  be 
well  done.  It  has  been  observed,  as  to  seeds,  that  they  like  the  earth 
to  touch  them  in  every  part,  and  to  lie  close  about  them.  It  is  the  same 
with  roots.  The  earth  should  be  as  firm  as  possible,  for,  if  it  be  not, 
part  of  the  roots  will  remain  untouched  by  the  earth.  If  ground  be 
i^e^it  cannot  hejirm.  And,  if  mixed  wet,  it  will  remain  in  a  sort  of 
mortar,  and  will  cling  and  bind  together,  and  will  leave  more  or  less  of 
cracks,  when  it  comes  to  dry.  If  possible,  therefore,  transplant  when 
the  ground  is  not  wet ;  but,  here,  as  in  the  case  of  sowing,  let  it  be 
deeply  moved,  and  v/ell  broken,  immediately  before  you  transplant  into 
it. 

CuLTivATioy.  Here,  as  under  the  foregoing  head,  I  propose  to 
speak  only  of  what  is  of  general  application,  in  order  to  save  the  room 
that  would  be  necessary  to  repeat  instructions  for  cultivation  under  the 
namesof  the  several  plants.  The  ground  being  good,  and  the  sowing 
or  planting  having  been  properly  performed,  the  next  thing  is  the  a/"/er- 
managemenl,  which  is  usually  called  the  cuUivation.  If  the  subjects  be 
from  seed^  let  them  be  thinned  early,  because,  if  left  too  close,  they  can- 
not come  to  good.  Carrots,  parsnips,  lettuces,  every  thing,  ought  to 
be  thinned  in  the  seed-leaf.  Hoe,  or  weed,  immediately,  and  let  me  ob- 
serve here,  once  for  all,  that  weeds  ought  never  to  be  suffered  to  get  to 
any  size,  either  in  the  field,  or  garden.  But,  besides  the  act  of  kil- 
ling weeds,  cuUivation  means  moving  the  earth  between  the  plants 
while  growing.  This  assists  them  in  their  growth  ;  it  feeds  them  ;  it 
raises  food  for  their  roots  to  live  on.  A  mere^aZ-hoeing  does  nothing 
but  keep  down  the  weeds.  The  hoeing,  when  the  plants  become 
stout,  should  be  deep  ;  and,  in  general,  with  a  hoe  that  has  prongs,  in- 
stead of  a  mere  flat  plate.  Deep  hoeing  is  enough  in  some  cases  ;  but, 
in  others,  digging  is  necessary  to  produce  a  fine  and  full  crop.  If  any 
body  will  have  a  piece  of  cabbages,  and  will  dig  between  the  rows  of 
one  half  of  them,  twice  during  the  growth,  and  let  the  other  have 
nothing  but  a  flat  hoeing,  that  person  will  find  that  the  half  which  has 
been  digged  between,  will,  when  the  crop  is  ripe,  weigh  nearly,  if  not 
quite  twice  as  much  as  the  other  half  It  may  appear  that,  to  dig  thus 
amongst  growing  plants  is  to  cut  off"  their  roots,  of  which  the  ground  is 
full.  This  is  really  the  case,  and  this  does  great  good  ;  for,  the  roots 
thus  cut  assunder,  shoot  again  from  the  plant  side,  find  new  food,  and 
send,  instantly,  fresh  vigor  to  the  plant.  The  effect  of  tliis  tillage  is 
quite  surprising. 

Having  given  some  directions  as  to  propagation  and  cultivation  in 
general,  I  next  proceed  to  give  Alphabetical  Lists  of  the  several  sorts  of 
plants,  and  to  speak  of  the  proper  treatment  of  each. 

Asparagus.  It  is  propagated  from  the  seed.  Gather  the  seed  when 
it  is  dead  ripe.  Sow  it  thinly  in  drills  afoot  asunder,  and  two  inches 
deep,  three  weeks,  or  about,  before  the  frost  sets  in.  Press  the  earth 
well  down  upon  the  seed,  and  as  soon  as  the  frost  sets  in  cover  the 
ground  with  muck,  or  litter,  a  foot  deep.  As  soon  as  the  frost  breaks 
up  in  the  spring,  take  off"  the  litter,  and  you  will  have  the  plants  quick- 
ly up.  When  the  plants  are  fairly  up,  thin  them  to  four  inches  asun- 
der. Keep  them  clean,  and  hoe  deeply  between  them  all  summer; 
and  when  the  haulm  is  yellow  in  the  fall,  cut  them  off"  near,  or  close  to 


148  FAMILY 


HOKTICULTURE. 


the  ground,  but  let  the  haulm  be  quite  dead  first,  yet  do  it  before  th© 
frost  actually  sets  in.  When  you  have  eut  off  the  haulm,  lay  some 
litter  upon  the  bed  until  spring,  to  prevent  the  frost  from  being  too 
long  coming  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring.  When  the  frost  breaks 
up,  throw  some  wood  ashes,  or  some  other  manure  about  an  inch  deep, 
over  the  bed,  having  first  loosened  the  top  of  the  bed  with  a  fork  ;  up- 
on this  manure  throw  earth  over  the  bed,  out  of  the  paths,  three  inches 
thick,  and  break  it  very  fine  at  the  time.  In  the  fall,  cut  down  the 
haulm  again  as  before,  repeat  the  winter  operation  of  littering  ;  and, 
in  the  spring  again  fork  up,  put  on  ashes,  or  good  mould,  and  dress  it 
with  three  inches  more  earth.  This  year^  if  your  work  have  all  been 
well  done,  you  may  have  some  asparagus  to  eat.  The  next  fall,  and 
every  succeeding  fall,  cut  down  the  haulm,  and  cover  with  litter,  as 
before,  and  this  spring  of  the  third  year,  put  on  ashes  again,  or  fine 
manure,  and  throw  over  the  beds  the  earth  that  will  come  out  of  the 
paths  dug  six  inches  deep.  I  suppose  your  beds  four  feet  wide,  and 
your  paths  two  feet.  After  this  you  are  to  cut  down  the  haulm  in  the 
fall,  cover  with  litter  in  the  winter,  fork  up,  and  occasionally  manure 
in  the  spring. 

Another  method  to  make  the  beds,  is  to  begin  with  plants^  instead  of 
seed.  The  plants  (raised  as  above  stated)  may  be  planted  in  the  beds 
atone  year  old,  or  older.  Plant  them  at  the  same  depth  pointed  out 
for  depositing  the  seed.  And,  iu  all  other  respects,  proceed  as  in  the 
case  of  a  bed  begun  with  seed. 

Balm  is  an  herb  purely  medicinal.  A  very  little  of  it  is  sufficient  in 
a  garden,  and  it  is  propagated  from  seeds  or  from  offsets.  When 
once  planted,  the  only  care  is  to  see  that  it  does  not  extend  itself  too 
far. 

Bean  (Kidney).  Endless  is  the  variety  of  sorts.  Some  are  dwarfs^ 
some  climbers ;  but  the  mode  of  propagating  and  cultivating  is  nearly 
the  same  in  all,  except  that  the  dwarfs  require  smaller  distances  than 
the  climbers,  and  that  the  latter  are  grown  with  poles,  which  the  for- 
mer are  not.  In  this  fine  country  the  seed  is  so  good,  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate so  favorable  to  the  plant,  the  use  of  the  vegetable  so  general,  and 
the  ])ropagation  and  cultivation  so  easy,  and  so  well  understood,  that 
little  in  detail  need  be  said  about  them.  I  prefer  sowing  the  dwarfs  in 
rows^  rather  than  in  hunches.  It  is  useless  to  sow  them  while  the 
ground  is  cold,  for  they  will  not  grow  till  it  be  warm. 

Beet.  This  vegetable,  which  is  little  used  in  England,  is  here  in  as 
common  use  as  the  carrots  are  there.  *It  should  be  sown  in  the  fall, 
but,  if  not,  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground  in  the  spring,  and 
is  dry.  The  rows  afoot  apart,  and  the  plants  eight  inches  apart  in  the 
rows.  In  order  to  hasten  the  seed  up  in  the  spring,  if  sown  then,  soak 
it  four  days  and  nights  in  rain  water  before  you  sow  it.  Put  it  two 
inches  deep,  cover  it  well  and  press  the  earth  down  hard  upon  it.  Sow 
the  seed  pretty  thick  all  along  in  the  drill,  and  when  tjie  plants  come 
up,  thin  them  to  eight  inclies  apart.  Hoe  between  the  plants  frequent- 
ly, but  not  very  deep,  because  these  tap-rooted  things  are  apt  to  fork 
if  the  ground  is  made  loose  very  low  down  while  they  are  growing. — 
There  are  yellow  and  white  beets,  as  well  as  red.  But  the  red  are  the 
true  kind  ;    the  others  are  degenerate.     There  is,  however,   the  round 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 149 

HORTICULTUKE. 


or  turnip-rooted  red  beet,  which  is  equally  good  with  the  tap-rooted 
beet.  The  ground  should  be  rich,  but  not  fresh  dunged.  Ashes  of 
wood  or  compost  niould,  is  best;  and  the  digging  ought  to  be  very 
deep,  and  all  the  clods  ought  to  be  broken  into  fine  earth,  because  the 
clod  turns  the  point  of  the  root  aside,  and  makes  the  top  short  or  fork- 
ed. Beets  may  be  transplanted  and  will  in  that  way  get  to  a  good 
size. 

Brocoli.  This  plant  is  not  much  cultivated  in  America.  In  Eng- 
land it  is  grown  in  great  quantities,  especially  near  London.  It  is 
there  sown  in  the  spring.  It  is  of  the  nature  of  the  cauliflower,  which 
see.  One  sort  has  a  whitish  head,  and  is  like  a  cauliflower,  except 
that  the  white  is  a  yellow  white.  It  is  cultivated,  in  all  respects,  like 
the  cabbage,,(  which  see  ;)  but,  as  it  is  large,  it  must  be  placed  at  wi- 
der distances,  not  less  than  two  feet  and  a  half  each  way.  If  raised 
very  early  in  the  spring,  and  planted  out  in  June,  and  in  good  ground, 
as  cool  as  can  be  got,  it  will  have  heads  in  October,  and  if  any  of  the 
plants  have  not  then  perfected  their  heads,  they  may  be  treated  like 
those  of  the  cauliflowers  which  have  not  perfected  theirs,  (which  see.) 
Fifty  of  this  plant  for  the  fall  may  be  enough  ;  and  they  ought  to 
be  planted  out  in  the  south  border,  in  order  to  be  as  cool  as  povssible. — 
The  white  sort  is  deemed  the  handsomest,  but  the  others  are  more  har- 
dy. 

Cabbage.     To  raise  cabbage  plants  in  the   open  ground,   put  your 
.  seed  rows  at  six  inches  distance,  and  put  the  seeds  thin  in  the  row. — 
As  soon  as  up,  thin  the  plants  to  three  inches  in  the  row.    But  to  have 
fine  cabbages  of  any  sort,  the  plants  must  be  tioice  transplanted.     First y 
they  should  be  taken  from  the  seed  bed,  (when  they  have    been  sown 
in  drills  near  to  each  other,)    and  put  out  into  fresh  dug,  well  broken 
ground,  at  six  inches  apart  every  way.     This    is  called  picking  out. — 
By  standing  hure  about  fifteen  or  twenty   days,  they  get  straight  and 
strong,  stand  erect,  and  have  a  stout  stem.     If  you  do  not  intend  to 
prick  out,  leave  the  plants  thinner  in  the  seed   bed,  and   hoe  deep  be- 
tween them    while  they  stand  there.     Besides  this  you  may    pass    a 
sharp  spade  along  under  the  rows,  and  cut  off  the  tap-roots  ;    for  they 
must  be  shortened  when  transplanted.  This  if  done  a  week  or  ten  days 
before  transplanting,  will  give  the  plants  a  more  bushy  root ;  and    will, 
in  some  measure,  supply  the  place  of  pricking  out.     Having  the  plants 
ready,  you  proceed  to  the  work  of  transplanting,  observing  the  direc* 
tions  given   under   the  head   Transplanting.      Put  them  in  rows,  of 
course.     As  to  distances,  they  must  be  proportioned  to   the  size  which 
the  cabbages  usually  come  to.     For  the  very  small  sorts,  the  Early 
Dwarf  and  Early  Sea  Green,  afoot  apart  in  all  directions  is  enough. 
The  next  size  is  the  Early  York,  which  must  have  sixteen  inches  every 
way.     The  Sugar  Loaf  may  have  twenty  inches.     The  Battersea  and 
Savoy,  two  feet  and  a  half.     The  large  sorts,  as  the  Drum-head  and 
others,  three  feet  at  least. 

Now  with  regard  to  the  tillage,  keep  the  ground  clear  of  weeds. — 
But,  whether  there  bo  weeds  or  not,  hoe  between  the  plants  in  ten  days 
after  they  are  planted.  You  cannot  dig  between  the  plants  which 
stand  at  the  smallest  distances,  but  you  may,  and  ought,  to  dig  once,  if 
not  twice,  during  their  growth,  between  all  the  rest.  To  prevent  a 
N* 


150  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


Budden  cheek,  by  breaking  all  the  roots  at  once  in  hot  weather,  dig  ev- 
ery other  interval,  and  dig  the  rest  a  week  later.  All  the  larger  sorts 
of  cabbages  should,  about  the  time  their  heads  begin  to  form,  be  earthed 
up  J  that  is,  have  the  earth  from  the  surface  drawn  up  against  the 
stem  ;  and  the  later  the  plants  are,  the  higher  should  the  earth  be 
drawn.  After  this,  dig,  or  hoe  deep,  the  rest  of  the  ground.  As  to 
sort?,  the  earliest  is  the  Early  Dwarf;  the  next  is  the  Early  Sea-green  ; 
then  comes  the  Early  York.  The  Sugar-Loaf,  sweetest  and  richest  of 
all  cabbages,  if  sown  and  transplanted  when  Early  Yorks  are,  will  head 
nearly  a  month  later.  For  winter  use,  then,  there  really  needs  nothing 
but  tlie  Dwarf  Green  Savoy.  When  good  and  true  to  kind  it  is  very 
much  curled,  and  of  a  very  deep  green.  It  should  be  sown  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  at  all  warm,  and  planted  out  as  soon  as  stout  enough. — 
By  November,  it  will  have  large  and  close  heads,  weighing  from  five  to 
eight  pounds.  This  is  the  best  of  all  winter  cabbages.  If  you  have 
Drum-heads,  or  other  large  cabbages,  the  time  of  sowing,  and  that  of 
transplanting  are  the  same  as  those  for  the  Savoy.  The  Red  Cabbage 
is  raised  and  cultivated  in  the  same  season  and  same  maner  as  the 
Green  Savoy.  There  are  many  other  sorts  of  cabbages,  early  and 
late,  and  they  may  be  tried;  but  those  above-mentioned  are  certainly 
sorts  enough  for  any  family. 

As  to  saving  the  Cabbage  seed.     The  cabbage  is  a  biennial.     It  brings 

its  flower  and  its  seed  the   second  year.     To  have  seed,  therefore,  you 

must  preserve  the  cabbage,  head,  root,  and  all,  throughout  the  winter  ; 

•and  this  must  be  done   in  the  cellar,  or  under  cover  out  of  doors  ;  for 

the  root  must  be  kept  in  the  ground  all  winter. 

Camosiile  is  a  medicinal  plant  of  great  use.  It  is  perennial,  and 
though  it  may  be  propagated  from  the  seed,  it  is  easiest  propagated  by 
parting  the  roots.  One  little  bit  of  a  root  will  soon  make  a  bed  large 
enough  for  a  garden.  The  flinvers  are  used  in  medicine.  They  should 
be  gathered  before  they  begin  to  fade,  and  be  dried  in  a  gentle  sun  or 
in  the  shade  ;  and  then  put  by  in  paper  bags,  in  a  dry  place. 

Caraway.  The  seeds  are  used  in  cakes.  The  plant  is  an  annual. 
Sow  in  the  spring,  in  a  fine  rich  ground,  and  leave  the  plants  eight 
inches  apart,  each  way. 

Carrot.  Read  the  Article  Beet  ;  for  the  same  season,  same  soil, 
same  manure,  same  preparation  for  sowing,  same  distances,  same  in- 
tercultivation,  same  time  of  taking  up,  &;c.,  all  belong  to  the  carrot. 
Some  fine  roots  may  be  carefully  preserved  to  plant  out  for  seed  in  the 
spring ;  and  the  seed  should  be  taken  only  from  the  centre  seed-stock 
of  the  carrot,  lor  that  is  tlie  finest.  The  mark  of  a  good  kind  of  seed 
is,  deep  red  color  of  the  tap.  The  paler  ones  are  degenerate  ;  and  the 
yellow  ones  are  fast  going  back  to  the  wild  carrot.  A  cow  will  nearly 
double  her  milk,  if  taken  from  common  pasture  in  October,  and  fed  on 
carrot-greens,  or  tops  ;  and  they  may,  at  this  season,  be  cut  off  for  that 
,    purpose. 

Caumflowkr.  It  is  not  without  some  difficulty  that  this  plant  is 
brought  to  perfection  in  any  country  where  the  frost  is  severe  in  win- 
ter, and  especially  where  the  summers  are  as  hot  as  they  are  in  every 
part  of  the  United  States.     Still  it  may  be  brought  to  perfection.     It  is 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  151 


HORTICULTURE. 


a  cabbage^  and  the  French  call  \i flower-cabbage.  Its  head  is  a  lump  of 
rich  pulp,  instead  of  being,  as  a  cabbage-head  is,  a  parcel  of  leaves 
folding  in  towards  a  centre,  and  lapping  over  each  other.  The  cauli- 
flower is  an  annual  plant,  and  ripens  its  seed,  during  the  season  it  is 
sown  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  part  which  is  eaten  is  not,  as  in  the  cabbage,  a 
lump  of  leaves,  but  the  seed-stalks,  pods,  and  blossoms,  in  their  em- 
bryo and  compact  state,  before  they  expand.  It  is  the  same  in  brocoli. 
Cauliflowers  may  be  had  to  eat  in  the  fall  or  spring.  To  have  cauli- 
flowers to  eat  in  the  fall  is  much  the  easiest  matter,  and  then  they  are 
more  valuable  tlian  in  the  spring.  Sow  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  manner,  as  you  do  early  cabbages.  Treat  the  plants  in  the  same 
way  ;  put  them  at  two  feet  and  a  half  distance  ;  they  will  begin  to 
come  early  in  October  ;  and  if  any  of  them  have  not  perfected  their 
heads  when  tlie  sharp  frosts  come,  take  them  up  by  the  roots,  hang 
them  up  by  the  heels  in  a  warm  part  of  the  barn  ;  they  will  get  tolera- 
bly good  heads.  The  quantity  of  this  plant  must  depend  on  the  taste 
for  it  ;  but,  it  is  so  much  better  than  the  very  best  of  cabbages,  that  it 
is  worth  some  trouble  to  get. 

Celery.     There  are   three  or  four  sorts.     The  white.,  the  red;  the 
hollow  and  the  solid.     The  hollow  white  is  the  best  ;  but  the  propaga- 
tion and  cultivation  of  all   are  the  same.     The  whole  of  that  part  of 
the  year,  during  which  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground,  is  not  a  bit  too 
long  for  the  getting  o? fine  celery.    The  seed  sown  in  the  cold  ground 
in  April,  will  lie  six  weeks  before  it  comes  up.     But  a  hot  bed  will  bring 
the  seeds  up  in  two  weeks.     As  soon  as  the  plants  are  three  inches  high^ 
and  it  scarcely  matters  how  thick  they  stand  ;  make  a  nice  little  bed 
in  open  air,  make  the  ground  rich,  and  very  fine.     Then  prick  out  the 
plants  at  4  inches  apart.     They  are  so  very  small,  that  this  must  be 
gently  done  ;  and  they  should  be  gently  watered  once,  and  shaded  two 
days.     In  this  bed  the  plants  stand  till  the  middle  of  July,  or  therea- 
bouts, when  they  are  to  go  out  into  trenches.     Make  the  trenches  a  foot 
deep,  and  a  foot  wide,  and  put  them  not  less  than  five  feet  asunder. 
The  ground  that  you  make  the  trenches  in  should  not  be  fresh  dug,  but 
be  in  a.  solid  state.,  which  may  conveniently  be,  for  celery  comes  on  just 
as  peas  and  early  cabbages  have  gone  off".     When  you  have  made  your 
trench,  put  along  it  some  good  rich  compost  manure  consisting  partly 
of  wood  ashes.     Not  dung :  or  at  least,  not  dung  fresh  from   the  yard, 
for  the  Celery  will  be  rank  and  pipy.     Dig  this  manure  in,  and  break 
all  the  earth  very  fine  as  you  go.     Then  take  up  your  plants,  and  trim 
oft'  the  long  roots.     You  will  find  that  every  plant  has  offsets  to  it, 
coming  up  by  the  side  of  the  main  stem.     Pull  all  these  off*,  and  have 
only  the  single  stem.     Cut  the  leaves  off*,  so  as  to  leave  the  whole  plant 
about  six  inches  long.     Plant  them  six  inches  apart,  and  fix  them  well. 
Do  not  water  the  plants  ;  and  if  you  plant  in  fresh  dug  ground,  and 
fix  your  plants  well,  none  of  the  troublesome  and  cumbrous  business 
of  shadins  is  at  all  necessary  ;  for  the  plant  is  naturally  hardy,  and,  if 
it  has  heat  to  wither  it  above,  it  has  also  that  heat  below  to  cause  its 
roots  to  strike  out  almost  instantly.     When  the  plants  begin  to  grow, 
which  they  will  quickly  do,  hoe  on  each  side  and  between  them  with  a 
small  hoe.     As  they  grow  up,  earth  their  stems,  that  is,  put  the  eartli 
up  to  them,  but  not  too  muck  at  a  time,  and  let  that  be  finely  broken, 
and  not  at  all  cloddy.    While  you  do  this,  keep  the  stalks  of  the  out- 


152  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


side  leaves  close  up  to  prevent  the  earth  from  getting  between  the 
stems  of  the  outside  leaves  and  the  inner  ones  ;  for,  if  it  gets  there,  it 
checks  the  plant  and  makes  the  Celery  bad.  Earth  up  very  often^  and 
not  put  much  at  a  time.  Every  week  a  little  earth  to  be  put  up. 
Thus  in  October  you  will  have  Celery  fit  for  use. 

Cucumber.     To  give  minute  rules  for  the  propagation  and  cultiva- 
tion of  this  plant,  in  a  country  like  this,  would  be  waste    of  time. 
However,  if  you  wish  to  have  them  a  month  earlier^  than  the  natural 
ground  will  bring  them,  do  this.     Make  a  hole,  and  put  into  it  a  little 
hot  dung ;  let  the  hole  be  under  a  warm  fence.     Put  six  inches  deep  of 
fine  earth,  and  rich,  on  the  dung.     Sow  a  parcel  of  seeds  in  the  t^arth, 
and  cover  at  night  with  a  bit  of  carpet,  having  first  fixed  some  hoops 
over  this  little  bed.     Before  the  plants  show  the  rough  leaf,  plant  two 
into  a  little  flower  pot,  and  fill  as  many  pots  in  this  way  as  you  please. 
Have  a  large  bed  ready  to  put  the  pots  into,  and  covered  with  earth  so 
that  the  pots  may   be  plunged  in  the  earth,  up  to  their  tops.     Cover 
this  bed  like  the  last.     When  the  plants  have  got  two  rough  leaves  out, 
they  will  begin  to  make  a  shoot  in  the  middle.     Pinch  that  short  off. 
Let  them  stand  in  this  bed,  till  your  cucumbers,  sown  in   the  natural 
i{round,  come  up  ;  then  make  some  holes  in  good  ricli  land,  and  taking 
a  pot  at  a  time,  turn  out  a  ball  and  fix  it  in  the  holes.     These  plants 
will  bear  a  mo j/Z/i  sooner  than  those  sown  in  the  natural  ground  ;  and, 
if  well  managed,  will  continue  bearing  till  September.     Those  who 
have  hot-bed  frames^  will  do  this  matter  very  easily.     The  cucumber 
plant  is  very  tender  and  juicy ;  and,  therefore,  when  the  seedlings  are 
put  into  the  pots,  they  should  be  watered  and  shaded  for  a  day  or  two, 
so  also  when  the  balls  are  turned  out.     I  have  one  observation  to  make 
on  the  cultivation  of  cucumbers,  melons,  of  all  sorts,  and  of  all  the 
pumpkin  and  squash  tribe  ;  and  that  is,  that  it  is  a  great  error  to  sow 
them  Zoo  thick.     One  plant  in  a  hill   is  enough.     One  will  bring  more 
weight  of  fruit  than  two,  (if  standing  near  each  other)  two  more  than 
three,  and  so  on  till  you  come  to  fifty  in  a  square  foot.     Let  any  one 
niAke  the  experiment,  and  he  will  find  it  mathematically  true.     The 
roots  of  cucumbers  will  go  ten  feet,  in  fine  earth,  in   every  direction. 
Judge,  then,  how  ten  plants,  standing  close  together,  will  produce  mu- 
tual starvation.     If  you  save  a  cucumber  for  seed,  let  it  be  the  Jirst 
fine-fruit  that  appears  on  the  plant. 

Coriander  is  an  annual  plant  that  some  persons  use  in  soups  and 
salads.  It  is  sown  in  the  spring.  The  seed  is  also  used  as  a  medi- 
cine.    A  small  patch,  probably  two  square  yards,  will  be  enough. 

Cress,  (or  Pepper-Grass)  is  very  good  in  salads,  along  with  lettuces, 
&c.  It  should  be  sown  in  little  drills,  very  thick,  and  cut  before  it 
comes  into  rough  leaf.  A  small  quantity  in  the  salad  season  should 
be  sown  every  six  days. 

Fennel.  This  is  tiperennial  ;?/fln/,  propagated  from  seeds  or  from 
offsets  ;  and  sown,  or  planted,  early  in  spring  or  fall.  The  plants 
should  stand  about  a  foot  asunder.  It  is  a  tall  plant  with  hairt/  leaves. 
Its  leaves  are  used  in  salads,  are  chopped  up  fine  to  put  in  melted  but- 
ter to  eat  with  fish,  they  are  boiled  with  fish  to  give  them  a  flavor,  and, 
they  are  tied  around  mackerel,  particularly  when  they  are  boiled.    The 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  153 


HORTICULTURE. 


French,  who  excel  in  cooking  fish,  always  do  this.  In  winter,  the  seeds 
bruised,  give  fish  the  same  flavor  as  the  leaves  do  in  summer.  It  is  a 
very  hardy  plant.  Two  yards  square  will  contain  enough  for  any  fam- 
ily ;  and,  once  in  the  ground,  will  stand  for  an  age. 

Garlick.  Almost  all  nations  except  the  English,  the  Americans, 
and  the  French,  make  great  and  constant  use  of  Garlick ;  and  even 
the  French  use  it,  frequently  to  an  extent  that  would  drive  us  from  the 
table.  It  is  propagated  from  seed,  or  from  offselts,  and  is  sown,  or 
planted,  either  in  the  spring  or  fall.  For  winter  use  the  roots  are  ta- 
ken up  and  kept  dry,  as  onions  are. 

Hop.  Any  bit  of  a  root  will  grow  and  become  a  plant.  The  young 
plants  should  be  planted  in  the  fall,  three  or  four  together  in  a  clump, 
or  hill,  and  the  hills  should  be  seven  to  ten  feet  apart.  The  first  year 
of  planting,  put  four  rods,  or  little  poles,  to  each  hill,  and  let  two  vines 
go  up  each  pole,  treading  the  rest  of  the  vines  down  to  creep  about  the 
ground.  In  a  month  after  the  vines  begin  to  mount  the  poles,  cut  off 
all  the  creeping  vines,  and  draw  up  a  hill  of  earth  around  the  poles  a 
foot  high,  covering  all  the  crowns  of  the  plant.  At  the  end  of  another 
month,  draw  some  more  earth  up,  making  the  hill  higher  and  higher. 
When  the  fall  comes,  cut  off  all  the  vines,  that  have  gone  up  the  poles, 
afoot  from  tlie ground  ;  take  down  the  poles;  dig  down  the  hills,  and 
open  the  ground  all  round  the  crowns  of  the  plants  ;  and  before  win- 
ter sets  in,  cut  all  down  to  the  very  crowns,  and  then  cover  over  the 
crowns  with  earth  three  or  four  inches  thick.  Through  this  earth,  the 
hop-shoots  will  start  in  the  spring.  You  will  want  but  eight  of  them 
to  go  up  your  four  poles  ;  and  the  rest,  when  three  inches  long,  you 
may  cut,  and  eat  as  asparagus.  This  year  you  put  poles  20  feet  long 
to  your  hops.  Proceed  the  same  as  before,  only  make  your  hills  larger  ; 
and  this  year  you  will  have  plenty  of  hops  to  gather  for  use.  Be  sure 
to  open  the  ground  every  fall  ;  and  cut  all  off  close  down  to  the  crown 
of  the  plants.  They  are  fit  to  gather  when  you  see,  upon  opening  the 
leaves  of  the  hop,  a  good  deal  of  yellow  dust,  and  when  the  seeds  which 
you  will  find  at  the  socket  of  the  leaves  of  the  hop,  begin  to  be  plump. 
Gather  them  nicely,  and  let  no  leaves  or  stalks  be  among  them,  and 
lay  them  out  on  a  cloth  to  dry  in  the  sun,  taking  care  that  no  rain  or 
dew  fall  on  them.  VVhen  perfectly  dry,  put  them,  very  hardly  and 
closely  pressed  into  a  new  bag,  made  of  thick  Russia  linen ;  and  in 
this  state  they  will  keep  good,  and  fit  for  use,  for  twenty,  or  perhaps, 
three  times  twenty  years. 

Horse-Radish.  Like  every  other  plant,  this  bears  seed ;  but  it  is 
best  propagated  by  cutting  bits  of  the  root  into  lengths  of  two  inches, 
and  putting  them,  spring  or  fall,  into  the  ground  about  a  foot  deep,  with 
a  setting  stick.  They  will  find  their  way  up  the  first  year,  and  the 
second  they  will  be  fine  large  roots,  if  the  ground  be  trenched  deeply, 
and  made  pretty  good.  Though  a  very  valuable  and  wholesome  arti- 
cle of  diet,  it  is  a  most  pernicious  weed. 

Lavender.  A  beautiful  little  well-known  shrub,  of  uses  equally 
well  known.  Hundreds  of  acres  are  cultivated  in  England,  for  the 
flowers  to  be  used  in  distillation.  It  may  be  propagated  from  seed» 
but  is  easiest  propagated  from  slips,  taken  off  in  the  spring,  and  plant- 


154  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


ed  in  good  moist  ground  in  the  shade.  When  planted  out,  it  should 
be  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  If  the 
flowers  are  to  be  preserved,  the  flower  stalks  should  be  cut  off  before 
the  blossoms  begin  to  fade  at  all. 

Leek.  There  are  two  sorts  ;  the  narrow-leaved^  and  the  Jlrtg-leek^ 
the  latter  of  which  is  much  the  best.  Some  people  like  I6eks  better 
than  onions  ;  and  they  are  better  in  soup.  Sow  in  the  fall,  or  as  early 
in  the  spring  as  you  can.  About  four  yards  square  is  enough.  Put 
the  rows  eight  inches  asunder,  and  thin  the  plants  to  three  inches 
apart  in  the  row.  Hoe  deeply  and  frequently  between  the  plants  till 
the  middle  of  July,  and  then  take  the  plants  up,  cut  their  roots  off  to 
an  inch  long,  and  cut  off  the  leaves  a  good  way  down.  Make  trenches 
like  those  for  celery,  only  not  more  than  half  as  deep  and  half  as  wide, 
and  proceed  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  case  of  celery. 

Lettuce.  There  are,  I  believe,  twenty  sorts,  two  of  which  only  it 
will  be  enough  to  mention,  greencoss,  white-coss^  the  former  of  which 
is  a  darker  green  than  the  latter,  is  rather  hardier,  and  not  quite  so 
good.  These  when  true  to  tlieir  kind,  and  in  a  proper  situation,  rise  up 
and  fold  in  their  leaves  to  a  solid  loaf,  like  the  sugar  loaf  cabbage  ; 
and,  in  rich  ground,  with  good  management,  will  become  nearly  as 
large.  When  you  cut  one  of  these  from  the  stem,  and  pull  off  its  out- 
side leaves,  you  have  a  large  lump  enough  for  a  salad  for  ten  people. 
You  must  raise  them  in  the  spring,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the 
very  earliest  cabbage  plants,  (which  see.)  Put  the  plants  out  into  the 
natural  ground,  about  a  fortnight  before  the  general  corn-planting  time. 
Do  not  put  them  in  a  place  full  to  the  sun.  Ma&e  the  ground  quite 
rich,  break  it  well,  and,  in  transplanting,  keep  as  much  earth  about  the 
roots  as  you  can,  and  give  as  little  water  ;  and  transplant  iti  the  evening. 
Let  one  plant,  (a  very  fine  one,)  stand  for  seed,  and  it  will  give  you 
plenty  of  seed  for  a  year  or  two. 

Melons.  There  are,  all  the  world  knows,  two  distinct  tribes  :  the 
J\Jusk  and  the  Water.  Of  the  former  the  sorts  are  endless,  and  indeed, 
of  the  latter  also.  In  this  fine  country,  where  they  all  come  to  perfec- 
tion in  the  natural  ground,  no  distinction  is  made  as  to  earliness,  or  late- 
ness in  sorts.  Amongst  the  Musk,  the  Citron  is,  according  to  my  taste, 
the  finest  by  far  ;  and  the  finest  Water-melons  that  I  have  ever  tasted, 
were  raised  from  the  seed  that  came  from  a  melon  raised  in  Georgia. 
As  to  the  manner  of  propagating,  cultivating,  and  sowing  the  seed  of 
melons,  see  cucumber  ;  and  only  observe  that  ail  that  is  there  said,  ap- 
plies to  melons  as  well  as  to  cucumbers.  The  soil  should  be  rich  for 
melons,  but  it  ought  not  to  be/rejfA/y  dunged.  They  likq  a  light  and 
rather  sandy  soil.     Melons  should  be  cultivated  well. 

Mint.  There  are  two  sorts  :  one  is  of  a  darker  green  than  the  oth- 
er; the  former  is  cullGd  pppper-mint.i  and  is  generally  used  for  distilling 
to  make  mint  water;  the  latter,  which  is  called  spear-mint,  is  used  for 
the  table  in  many  ways.  The  French  snip  a  little  into  their  salads  :  we 
boil  a  bunch  amongst  green  peas,  to  which  it  gives  a  pleasant  flavor  ; 
chopped  up  small,  and  put,  along  with  sugar,  into  vinegar,  we  use  it  as 
sauce  for  roasted  lamb ;  and  a  very  pleasant  sauce  it  is.  Mint  may  be 
propagated  from  seed  ;  but  a  few  bits  of  its  root  will  spread  into  a  bed 
in  a  year. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  155 


HORTICULTURE. 


Mustard.  There  ia  a.  white-seeded  sort,  and  a  brown-seeded.  The 
white  mustard  is  used  in  salads  along  with  cress,  and  is  sown  and  culti- 
vated in  the  same  way.  The  black  is  that  which  table  mustard  is  made 
of.  It  is  sown  in  rows,  two  feet  apart,  early  in  the  spring.  The  plants 
ought  to  be  thinned  to  four  or  five  inches  apart.  Good  tillage  between 
the  rows.  The  seed  will  be  ripe  in  July,  and  then  the  stalks  should  be 
cut  off,  and  when  quite  dry,  the  seed  should  be  threshed  out,  and  put 
by  for  use.  Why  should  any  man  who  has  a  garden,  want  to  buy 
mustard  ?  Why  should  he  want  the  English  to  send  him  out,  in  a  bot- 
tle, and  sell  him  for  a  quarter  of  a  dollar,  less  and  worse  mustard,  than 
he  can  raise  in  his  garden  for  a  penny  ?  The  plants  do  not  occupy  the 
ground  more  than  fourteen  weeks,  and  may  be  followed  by  another 
crop  of  any  plant,  and  even  of  mustard,  if  you  like.  This,  therefore, 
is  a  very  useful  plant,  and  ought  to  be  cultivated  by  every  farmer,  and 
every  man  who  has  a  garden. 

Onion.  This  is  one  of  the  main  vegetables.  Its  uses  are  many,  and 
they  are  all  well  known.  The  modes  of  cultivation  for  a  crop  are  vari- 
ous. Three  T  shall  mention,  and  by  either  a  good  crop  may  be  raised. 
Sow  in  the  fall  or  spring  ;  let  the  ground  be  rich,  but  not  from  fresh 
dung.  Make  the  ground  very  fine  ;  mark  the  rows  a  foot  a  part  and 
scatter  the  seed  thinly  along  a  drill  two  inches  deep.  Then  fill  the  drills  ; 
and  press  the  earth  down  upon  the  seed  by  treading  the  ground  all  over. 
Then  give  it  a  very  slight  smoothing  with  the  rake.  W^hen  the  plants 
get  to  be  three  inches  high,  then  thin  them  to  four  inches.  Keep  the 
ground  clear  of  weeds  by  hoeing,  but  do  not  hoe  deep^  nor  raise  earth 
about  the  plants  ;  for  these  make  them  run  to  neck  and  not  to  bulk. 
When  the  tip  of  the  leaves  begin  to  be  brown,  bend  down  the  necks, 
so  that  the  leaves  lie  flat  with  the  ground.  When  the  leaves  are  nearly 
dead,  pull  up  the  onions,  and  lay  them  to  dry,  in  order  to  put  away  for 
winter  use.  Some  persons,  instead  of  sowing  the  onions  all  along  the 
drills  drop  four  or  five  seeds  at  every  six  or  seven  inches  distance,  and 
leave  the  onions  to  grow  in  clumps  ;  and  this  is  not  a  bad  way  ;  for 
they  will  squeeze  each  other  out.  They  will  not  be  large  ;  but  they  will 
ripen  earlier^  and  will  not  run  to  neck.  The  third  mode  of  cultivation 
is  as  follows : — Sow  the  onions  any  time  between  April  and  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  in  drills  six  inches  apart,  and  put  the  seed  very  thick  along 
the  drills.  Let  all  the  plants  stand,  and  they  will  get  to  be  about  as 
big  round  as  the  top  of  your  little  finger.  Then  the  leaves  vfill  get 
yellow,  and  when  that  is  the  case,  pull  up  the  onions,  and  lay  them  on 
a  board  till  the  sun  have  withered  up  the  leaves.  Then  put  them  in 
a  bag,  and  lay  them  up  in  a  dry  place  till  spring.  As  soon  as  the  frost 
is  out,  and  the  ground  dry,  plant  out  these  onions  in  good,  fine  ground, 
in  rows  a  foot  apart.  Do  not  cover  them  with  earth  ;  but  just  press 
them  down  with  your  thumb  and  fore  finger.  Proceed  after  this  as 
with  sown  onions ;  only  observe,  should  any  be  running  up  to  seed, 
twist  down  the  neck  at  once.  Preserving  onions  is  an  easy  matter. 
Any  dry,  airy  place  will  do,  for  frosts  never  hurt  them,  if  not  moved 
while  frozen. 

Parsley.  This,  it  is  well  known,  bears  its  seed  the  second  year, 
and  then  dies  away.  It  may  be  sown  at  any  season,  when  the  frost  is 
out  of  the  ground.     The  best  way  is  to  sow  it  in  the  spring,  and  in  very 


156  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


clean  ground ;  because  the  seed  lies  long  in  the  ground,  and,  if  the 
ground  be  foul,  the  weeds  choak  the  plants  at  their  coming  up.  A  bed 
six  feet  long,  and  four  feet  wide,  the  seed  sown  in  drills  at  eight  inches 
apart,  is  enough  for  any  family. 

Parsnip.  As  to  the  season  for  sowing,  sort  of  land,  preparation  of 
ground,  distance,  cultivation  and  tillage,  precisely  the  same  as  the 
Carrot,  which  see.  But  as  to  preservation  during  winter,  and  for 
spring  use^  the  Parsnip  stands  all  frost  without  injury,  and  even  with 
benefit. 

PEi..  This  is  one  of  those  vegetables  which  all  men  most  like.  Its 
culture  is  universal  where  people  have  the  means  of  growing  it.  The 
soil  should  be  good,  and  fresh  dung  is  good  manure  for  them.  Ashes, 
and  compost,  very  good  ;  but  peas,  like  corn,  will  bear  to  be  actually 
sown  upon  dung.  The  sorts  are  numerous,  one  class  is  of  a  small  size, 
and  the  other  targe.  The  latter  grow  taller,  and  are  longer  in  coming 
to  perfection,  than  the  former.  The  earliest  of  all  is  the  little  white 
pea,  called,  in  Long  Island,  the  May-pea,  in  England,  the  early  frame 
pea.  Then  come  the  early  Charlton,  the  Hotspur,  the  Blue  Fea,  the 
Dwatfa.nd  Tall  Marrotvfat :  and  several  others.  All  the  sorts  may  be 
grown  in  America,  m//^ow/ s/ic/:^,  and  even  better  than  with.  I  have, 
this  year,  the  finest  peas  I  ever  saw,  and  the  crop  the  most  abundant. 
And  this  is  the  manner  in  which  I  have  sown  and  cultivated  them.  I 
ploughed  the  ground  into  ridges,  the  tops  of  which  (for  the  dwarf) 
were  four  feet  apart.  I  then  put  a  good  parcel  of  yard  manure  into 
the  furrows,  and  ploughed  the  earth  back  upon  the  dung  ;  I  then 
levelled  the  top  of  the  ridge  a  little,  and  drew  two  drills  upon  it,  at  six 
inches  distance  from  each  other.  In  these  I  sowed  the  peas.  When 
the  peas  were  about  three  inches  high,  I  hoed  the  ground  deep  and  well 
between  the  rows,  and  on  each  outside  of  them.  I  then  ploughed  the 
ground  from  tliem,  and  to  them  again,  in  the  same  way  as  in  the 
case  of  the  Swedish  Turnip.  In  a  week  or  two  afterv/ards  they  had 
another  ploughing,  and  soon  after  this  they  fell,  and  lay  downlhe  side  of 
the  ridges.  This  was  the  way  in  which  I  managed  all  the  sorts.  This 
was  of  every  sort  the  finest  crop  I  ever  saw  in  my  life.  The  culture  in 
the  garden  may  be  the  same,  except  that  the  work  which  was  done 
with  ih&plough,  must  be  done  with  the  spade. 

At  to  seasons,  the  early  peas  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  but  care  must 
1)6  taken  to  guard  against  the  mice.  Sow  about  four  inches  deep, 
and  tread  the  ground  well  down.  When  the  frost  sets  in  all  is 
safe  till  winter  breaks  up.  These  peas  will  be  earlier  by  ten  or  fifteen 
days  than  any  you  can  sow  in  the  spring.  If  you  sow  in  the  spring,  do 
it  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  go  upon.  Sow  the  May  pea, 
some  Charltons,  some  Hotspurs,  some  Blue  Peas,  and  some  Marrow- 
fats, they  will  come  one  after  another,  till  nearly  August.  In  June 
(about  the  middle)  sow  some  early  peas  again,  and  also  some  marrow- 
fats ;  these  will  give  you  peas  until  September.  Sow  some  of  each 
sort  middle  of  August,  and  they  will  give  you  green  peas  till  the  hard- 
ish  frosts  come.  But  these  two  last  sowings  ought  to  be  under  the 
south  fence,  so  as  to  get  as  much  coolness  as  possible. 

Penntroyal.  a  medicinal  herb.  It  is  perennial.  A  little  patch,  a 
foot  square,  is  enough. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  157 


HORTICULTURE. 


Peppers,  (or  Capsicum.)  An  annual  plant,  sown  early  in  fine  earth, 
in  drills  a  foot  apart,  and  at  six  inches  apart  in  the  drills.  It  is  hand- 
some as  a  flower,  and  its  pods  are  used  as  a  pickle. 

Pumpkin.  See  Cucumber.  The  cultivation  is  the  same,  and  every 
body  knows  the  different  qualities  and  the  different  sorts,  and  how  to 
preserve  and  use  them. 

Radish.  A  great  variety  of  sorts.  Sown  thin  in  little  drills,  six 
inches  asunder.  Sown  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring,  and  a  little 
bed  every  three  weeks  all  summer  long.  The  early  scarlet  is  the  best. 
Radishes  may  be  raised  early  in  a  hot  bed,  precisely  as  cabbage  plants 
are. 

Rhubarb.  This  is  one  of  the  capital  articles  of  the  garden.  The 
Dock  is  the  wild  Rhubarb.  Rhubarb  plant  comes  forth,  like  the  Dock, 
very  early  in  the  spring.  When  its  leaves  are  pretty  large,  you  cut 
them  off  close  to  the  stem,  and  if  the  plant  be  fine,  the  slalk  of  the  leaf 
will  be  from  eight  inches  to  a  foot  long.  You  peel  the  outside  skin  from 
the  stalky  and  tlien  cut  the  stalks  up  into  bits  about  as  large  as  the  first 
joint  of  a  lady's  third  finger.  You  put  these  into  puddings,  pies,  and 
tarts,  just  as  you  would  green  currants.  This  plant  is  very  hardy,  and 
is  raised  from  seed^  from  roots^  and  will  grow  in  any  ground,  and  the 
same  plants  will  last  for  an  age.  It  is  a  very  valuable  plant,  and  no 
garden  ought  to  be  without  it. 

Rosemary  is  a  beautiful  little  shrub.  One  of  them  may  be  enough  in 
a  garden.  It  is  propagated  from  slips  taken  off  in  the  ?pring,  and  plant- 
ed in  a  cool  place. 

Sage.  Is  raised  from  seed,  or  from  slips.  To  have  it  on  hand  for 
winter,  is  necessary  to  dry  it ;  and  it  ought  lo  be  cut  for  this  purpose, 
before  it  comes  into  bloom^  as  indeed  is  the  case  with  all  other  herbs. 

Spinach.  To  have  spinach  very  early  in  the  spring,  sow  on  or  about 
the  first  week  in  September,  in  drilk  a  foot  apart,  and  when  the  plants 
are  well  up,  thin  them  to  six  inches.  They  will  be  fine  and  strong  by 
the  time  the  winter  sets  in  ;  and,  as  soon  as  that  comes,  cover  them 
over  well  with  straw,  and  keep  it  on  till  the  breaking  up  of  frost.  Sow- 
more  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  groun,d  ;  and  this  will  be  in  per- 
fection in  June.  If  you  save  seed,  save  it  from  plants  that  have  stood 
the  winter. 

Squash  is,  in  all  its  varieties,  cultivated  like  the  cucumber,  which 
see. 

Tansey,  a  perennial,  culinary,  and  medicinal  herb,  propagated  from 
seed,  or  offsets.     One  root  in  a  garden  is  enough. 

Thvme.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  ;  both  are  perennial,  and  both 
may  be  propagated  either  from  seeds,  or  by  offsets. 

Turnip.  The  sorts  of  turnip  are  numerous,  but,  for  a  garden,  it  is 
quite  sufficient  to  notice  three  ;  the  earli/  white,  i\\f) fiat  yellow^  and  the 
Swedish  or  Ruta-baga,w\\xc\\\s  a  very  different  plant  from  the  two.  The 
two  former  sorts  should  be  sown  about  the  end  of  July,  in  rows  (in  a 
garden)  two  feet  apart,  and  thiniTed  out  to  a  foot  distance  in  the  rows. 

O 


158  FAMILY 


HORTICULTURE. 


Good  and  deep  hoeing  and  one  digging  should  take  place  while  they 
are  growing  ;  for,  a  large  turnip  is  better,  of  the  same  age,  weight  for 
weight,  than  a  small  one.  The  Swedish  turnip  so  generally  preferred 
for  table  use,  ought  to  be  sown  early  iti  June,  in  rows  at  a  foot  apart, 
and  thinned  to  three  inches  in  the  rows.  About  the  middle  of  July  they 
ought  to  be  transplanted  (in  a  garden)  upon  ridges  three  feet  apart,  and 
during  their  growth  kept  clean,  and  be  dug  between  twice  at  least,  as 
deep  as  a  good  spade  can  be  made  to  go. 


PROPAGATION,   PLANTING   AND    CULTIVATION  OF 
FRUITS. 

PROPAGATION. 

All  the  fruits  to  be  treated  of  here,  except  the  strawberry,  are  the  pro- 
duce of  trees^  or  of  woody  plants.  All  these  may  be  propagated  from 
seed,  and  some  are  so  propagated.  But  others  are  usually  propagated 
by  cuttings,  slips,  layers,  or  suckers  ;  or  by  budding  or  grafting  upon 
stocks.  When  the  propagation  is  frOm  seed,  the  sowing  should  be  in 
good  ground,  finely  broken,  and  the  seed  should  by  no  means  be  sown 
too  thick. 

Cuttings  are  short  pieces,  cut  in  the  spring,  from  shoots  of  the  last 
year  ;  and  it  is,  in  most  cases,  best,  if  they  have  a  joint  or  two  of  the 
former  year's  wood  at  the  bottom  of  them.  The  cuttings  should  have, 
altogether,  about  six  joints  or  buds;  and  three  of  these  should  be  under 
ground  when  planted.  The  cuts  should  be  performed  with  a  sharp 
knife,  so  that  there  be  nothing  ragged  or  bruised  about  the  wood  or 
bark.  The  time  of  taking  oiF  cuttings,  is  that  of  the  breaking  up  of 
the  frost.  They  should  be  planted  in  a  shady  place,  and  watered  with 
rain  water  in  dry  weather,  until  they  have  got  shoots  several  inches 
long.  When  they  have  such  shoots,  they  have  roots,  and  no  more  water- 
ing is  necessary.  Besides  these  occasional  waterings,  the  ground  should, 
especially  in  hot  countries,  be  covered  with  leaves  of  trees,  or  muck,  or 
something  that  will  keep  the  ground  cool  during  the  hot  and  dry 
weather. 

Slips  differ  from  cuttings  in  this,  that  the  former  are  not  cut^  but 
pulled  from  the  tree.  You  take  a  shoot  of  the  last  year,  and  pull  it 
downwards,  and  thus  slip  it  off.  You  trim  the  ragged  bark  off,  then 
shorten  the  shoot,  so  that  it  have  six  joints  left,  and  then  plant  it,  and 
manage  it  in  the  same  manner  directed  for  cuttings.  The  season  for 
doing  this  is  also  the  same. 

Layers.  You  take  a  limb,  or  branch  of  a  tree,  in  the  fall,  or  early 
in  the  spring,  and  pull  it  down  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  its  top,  or 
small  twigs  and  shoots  to  lie  on  the  ground.  Then  fasten  tlie  limb  down 
by  a  peg  or  two,  so  that  its  own  force  will  not  raise  it  up.  Then  prune 
off  all  its  small  branches  and  shoots  that  stick  upright ;  and  having  a 
parcel  of  shoots  laying  horizontally,  lay  earth  upon  the  whole,  all  along 
upon  the  limb,  from  the  point  where  it  begins  to  touch  the  ground,  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  159 


PROPAGATION,    &C.    OF    FRUIT    TREES^ 

also  upon  all  the  bottoms  of  all  the  shoots.  Then  cut  the  shoots  off 
at  the  points,  leaving  only  two  or  three  joints  or  buds  beyond  the  earth. 
The  earth  laid  on  should  be  good,  and  the  ground  freshly  dug,  and 
made  very  fine  and  smooth  before  the  branches  are  laid  upon  it.  The 
earth  laid  on  should  be  from  six  inches  to  a  foot  thick.  If  the  limb,  or 
mother  branch  be  very  stubborn,  a  little  cut  on  the  lower  side  of  it,  will 
make  it  the  more  easy  to  be  held  down.  The  ground  should  be  kept 
clear  from  weeds,  and  as  cool  as  possible  in  hot  weather.  These  layers 
will  be  ready  to  take  up  and  plant  as  trees,  after  they  have  been  laid 
a  year. 

Suckers  are,  in  general,  but  poor  things,  whether  in  the  forest,  or  in 
the  fruit  garden.  They  are  shoots  that  come  up  from  the  roots,  at  a 
distance  from  the  stem  of  the  tree,  or,  at  least,  they  do  not  come  out  of 
that  stem.  They  run  to  wood  and  suckers  more  than  trees  do  that  are 
raised  in  any  other  way.  Fruit  trees  raised  from  suckers  do  not  bear 
so  abundantly  or  as  good  fruit,  as  trees  raised  from  cuttings,  slips,  or 
layers.  A  sucker  is  in  fact  a  little  tree,  with  less  of  root  to  it,  and  is, 
of  course,  to  be  treated  as  a  tree. 

Budding.  To  have  fruit  trees  by  this  method,  or  by  that  of^rafting^ 
you  must  first  have  stocks,  that  is. to  say,  a  young  tree  to  graft  or  bud 
upon.  What  are  the  sorts  of  stocks  proper  for  the  sorts  of  fruit  trees 
respectively,  will  be  mentioned  under  the  names  of  the  latter.  The 
stock  is  a  young  tree  of  some  sort  or  other,  and  the  bud  is  put  into  the 
bark  on  the  side  of  this  young  tree  during  the  summer,  and  not  before 
the  bud  be  full  and  plump.  The  work  may  generally  be  done  all 
through  the  months  of  July  and  August,  and  perhaps  later. 

Grafting  is  the  joining  of  a  cutting  of  one  to  another  tree,  in  such  a 
way,  as  that  the  tree  on  which  the  cutting  is  placed,  sends  up  its  sap 
into  the  cutting,  and  makes  it  grow  and  become  a  tree.  Now  as  to  the 
way  in  which  this  and  budding  is  done,  they  cannot  become  matter  of 
written  description.  To  read  a  full  and  minute  account  of  the  act  of 
budding  and  grafting  would  require  ten  times  the  space  of  time  to  go 
to  a  neighbor's,  and  learn  the  operation  from  sight.  The  season  fc. 
taking  off  the  cuttings  for  grafts,  is  any  time  between  Christmas  and 
March. 

Stocks  must  be  of  different  ages  and  sizes  in  different  cases  ;  and 
even  the  propagation  of  the  stocks  themselves  is  not  to  be  overlooked. 
Stocks  are  formed  out  of  suckers,  or  raised  from  the  seed;  and  the  lat- 
ter is  by  far  the  best.  If  the  stocks  are  to  be  of  crabs  or  apples,  the 
seeds  of  these  should  be  collected  in  the  fall,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe. 
They  are  generally  got  out  by  mashing  the  crabs  or  apples.  When 
the  seeds  are  collected,  put  them  immediately  into  fine  earth  ;  or  sow 
them  at  once.  If  the  stocks  be  to  be  of  stone  fruit,  the  stones,  as  of 
cherries,  plums,  peaches  and  others,  must  be  got  when  the  fruit  is  ripe. 
The  best  way  is  to  put  them  into  fine  earth,  and  keep  there  till  spring. 
The  earth  may  be  placed  in  the  cellar.  When  the  winter  breaks  up, 
dig  a  piece  of  ground  deep  and  make  it  rich  ;  make  it  very  fine ;  form 
it  into  beds  three  feet  wide  ;  draw  drills  across  it  at  eight  inches  dis- 
tance ;  make  them  from  two  to  three  inches  deep  ;  put  in  the  seeds 
pretty  thick  ;  cover  them  completely  ;  tread  the  earth  down  upon  them 


160  FAMILY 


PROPAGATION,    &C.    OF    FRUIT   TREES. 

and  then  smooththe  surface.  When  the  plants  come  up,  thin  them 
to  about  three  inches  apart,  and  keep  the  ground  between  them  perfect- 
ly clean  during  the  summer.  These  seedlings,  if  well  managed,  will 
be  eight  inches  high  the  first  summer,  and  some  higher.  The  next 
spring  they  should  be  taken  up  ;  or  this  may  be  done  in  the  fall.  They 
should  be  planted  in  rows,  four  feet  apart,  and  at  two  feet  apart  in  the 
rows.  They  should  be  kept  clean  by  hoeing,  and  the  ground  between 
them  should  be  dug  in  the  fall,  but  at  no  other  season.  The  plants  will 
grow  fast  or  slowly  according  to  the  soil  and  management ;  and  he  who 
knows  how  to  bud  or  graft,  will  know  when  the  stock  is  arrived  at  the 
proper  size  for  each  purpose. 

Planting.  The  tree  to  be  planted,  should  be  as  young  as  circum- 
stances will  allow.  The  season  is  just  when  the  leaves  become  yellow, 
or,  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring.  The  ground  being  prepared  and 
the  tree  taken  up,  prune  the  roots  with  a  sharp  knife,  so  as  to  leave 
none  more  than  a  foot  long,  and  leave  no  bruises  or  ragged  parts.  Cut 
off  all  the  fibres  close  to  the  roots,  for  they  never  live,  but  mould,  and 
do  injury.  Dig  the  hole  to  plant  in  three  times  as  wide,  and  six  inches 
deeper,  than  the  roots  actually  need  as  mere  room.  And  now,  besides 
the  fine  earth,  have  some  good  mould  sifted.  Lay  some  of  this  six 
inches  deep  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole.  Place  the  roots  upon  this  in 
their  natural  order,  and  holding  the  tree  perfectly  upright,  put  more 
sifted  earth  upon  the  roots.  Every  root  should  be  closely  touched  by 
the  earth  in  every  part.  When  you  have  covered  all  the  roots  with 
the  sifted  earth,  fill  up  the  rest  of  the  hole  with  common  earth,  and 
when  you  have  half  filled  it,  tread  the  earth  that  you  have  put  in,  but 
not  very  hard.  Put  on  the  rest  of  the  earth,  and  leave  the  surface  per- 
fectly smooth.  Do  not  water  by  any  means.  Water  poured  on,  sinks 
rapidly  down,  and  makes  cavities  among  the  roots — lets  in  air — mould 
and  canker  follow  ;  and  great  injury  is  done. 


CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  fruit  trees  divides  itself  into  two  distinct  parts, 
the  management  of  the  tree  itself,  which  consist  of  pruning  and  tying  ; 
and  the  management  of  the  ground  where  the  trees  grow,  which  con- 
sists of  digging,  hoeing  and  manuring.  The  management  of  the  tree 
differs  with  the  sort  of  tree,  and  will  therefore  be  treated  of  under  its 
own  particular  name.  But  the  management  of  the  ground  is  the  same^ 
in  the  case  of  all  the  larger  trees. 

In  the  first  place,  the  ground  is  always  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  ; 
for  what  they  take  is  just  so  much  taken  from  the  fruit,  either  in  quan- 
tity or  quality,  or  in  both.  From  the  spring  to  the  fall  frequent  hoeing 
all  the  ground  over,  not  only  to  keep  away  weeds,  but  to  keep  the 
ground  moist  in  hot  and  dry  weather,  taking  care  never  to  hoe  but  when 
the  ground  is  dry  at  top.  This  hoeing  should  not  go  deeper  than  four 
or  five  inches  ;  for  there  is  a  great  difference  between  trees  and  herba- 
ceous plants,  as  to  the  renewal  of  the  roots.     The  roots  of  the  latter, 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  161 


LIST   OF    FRUITS. 


when  cut  off,  will  come  out  in  12  hours,  and  the  operation,  by  multi 
plying  the  mouths  of  the  feeders  of  the  plants,  gives  it  additional  force. 
But  roots  of  trees  consist  of  wood,  more  or  less  hard  ;  they  do  not 
quickly  renew  themselves  ;  and  they  must  not  be  much  mutilated  dur- 
ing the  time  that  the  sap  is  in  flow.  Therefore  the  ploughing  and  dig- 
ging between  trees  ought  to  take  place  only  in  the  fall,  which  gives 
time  for  a  renewal,  or  new  supply  of  roots  before  the  sap  be  again  in 
motion. 


LIST    OF    FRUITS. 

Apple.  Apples  are  usually  grafted  on  crah  stocks  ;  but  when  you  do 
not  want  the  trees  to  grow  lall  and  large,  it  is  better  to  raise  stocks  from 
the  seed  of  some  apple  not  much  given  to  produce  large  wood.  Per- 
haps the  Fall  Pippin  seed  may  be  as  good  as  any.  When  you  have 
planted  the  tree,  and  when  the  time  comes  for  shortening  the  head,  cut 
it  off  so  as  to  leave  only  five  or  six  joints  or  buds ,  These  will  send  out 
shoots,  which  will  become  limbs.  The  tree  will  be  what  they  call  in 
England  a  dwarf  standard^  and  of  this  description  should  be  all  trees 
in  gardens.     As  to  pruning,  see  Peach. 

Apricot.  This  is  a  very  delightful  fruit.  It  comes  earlier  than  the 
peach,  and  some  like  it  better.  It  is  a  hardier  tree,  and  bears  as  well 
as  the  preach ;  and  the  tree  when  well  raised,  planted  and  cultivated, 
will  last  a  century.  Apricots  are  budded  or  grafted  upon  plum  stock, 
or  upon  stocks  raised  from  Apricot  stones.  They  do  not  bear  as  soon 
as  the  peach  by  one  year.     For  the  pruning  of  them,  see  peach. 

Cherry.  Cherries  are  budded  or  grafted  upon  stocks  raised  from 
cherry  stones  of  any  sort.  If  you  want  the  tree  tall  and  large,  the 
stock  should  come  from  the  small  black  cherry  tree  that  grows  wild  in 
the  woods.  If  you  want  it  dwarf,  sow  the  stones  of  a  Morello  or  a  May 
duke.  To  preserve  cherries,  gather  them  without  hrusing  ;  take  oflf  the 
tails  ;  lay  them  in  the  sun,  or  on  dry,  deal  boards  ;  when  quite  dry,  put 
them  by  in  bags  in  a  dry  place.  They  form  a  variety  in  the  tart-mak- 
ing way. 

Currant.  These  are  rerf,  white.^  and  black,  all  well  known.  The 
propagation  and  cultivation  of  all  the  sorts  are  the  same.  The  currant 
tree  is  propagated  from  cuttings,  and  the  cuttings  are  treated  as  has 
been  seen  in  the  paragraph  headed  cuttings.  When  the  tree  has  stood 
two  years  in  the  nursery,  plant  it  where  it  is  to  stand,  and  take  care 
that  it  has  only  one  stem.  Let  no  limbs  come  out  to  grow  nearer  than 
six  inches  of  the  ground.  Prune  the  tree  every  year.  Keep  it  thin  of 
wood.  Keep  the  middle  open  and  the  limbs  extended,  and  when  these 
get  to  about  three  feet  in  length,  cut  off,  every  winter,  all  the  last  yearns 
shoots.  Cultivate  and  manure  the  ground  as  for  other  fruit  trees.  In 
this  country  the  currant  requires  shade  in  summer.  If  exposed  to  the 
full  sun,  the  fruit  is  apt  to  become  too  sour. 

FiLBERD.  This  is  a  sort  of  nut  oblong  in  shape,  very  thin  shell,  and 
superior  in  flavor.     The  filberd  is  a  tall  tree,  and  will,  under  favorable 

o* 


162 


FAMILY 


LIST    OF    FRUITS. 


circumstances,  reach  to  the  height  of  thirty  feet.  It  is  propagated  from 
layers^  or  from  suckers.  The  layers  are  treated  like  other  layers,  and 
soon  become  trees,  for  which  reason  they  are  preferable  to  suckers. 
Every  farmer  should  provide  himself  with  some  of  this  sort  of  tree. 

Gooseberry.  Various  are  the  sorts,  and  no  one  that  it  is  not  good. 
The  shrub  is  propagated  precisely  like  that  of  tlie  currant.  By  cultiva- 
tion, they  may  be  raised  as  large  as  pigeon's  eggs,  and  the  crops  the 
trees  .will  bear  are  prodigious. 

Nectarine.  As  to  propagation,  planting  and  cultivation,  the  Nec- 
tarine is,  in  all  respects,  the  same  as  the  peach,  which  see.  It  is  cer- 
tainly a  finer  fruit,  and  there  is  no  insurmountable  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  its  growth  in  this  country.  It  is  grown  in  England  very  well,  but 
it  is  not  grown,  or  but  very  little,  here.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  of 
fruit,  and  a  great  bearer. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  1. 


PEACH  TREES. 


Peaches.  Peaches  are  propagated  by  fewrfrfm^.  The  stock  should 
be  of  plum,  and  the  tree  is  to  be'  planted  agreeable  to  the  directions 
giv^en  under  the  head  Planting.  And  now  foi  the  pruning  and  forming 
the  tree.  Look  at  the  figures  above.  Fig.  1  and  2.  The  first  is  a  peach 
tree  such  as  it  should  be  at  four  or  five  years  old  ;  the  last  is  a  peach 
tree  such  as  we  generally  see  at  that  age.  The  practice  is  to  plant  the 
tree  and  let  it  grow  in  its  own  way.  The  consequence  is,  that  it  runs 
up  to  a  long  naked  stem,  with  two  or  three  long  naked  limbs,  having 
some  weak  little  boughs  at  the  top  :  this  is  Fig.  2.  Now  to  have  Fig. 
1,  this  is  the  way.  The  tree  should,  in  the  first  place,  be  budded  very 
near  to  the  ground.  After  it  be  planted,  cut  it  down  to  within  a  foot 
and  a  half  of  the  ground,  and  always  cut  sloping  close  to  a  bud.  In 
this  foot  and  a  half  there  will  be  many  buds,  and  they  will  the  first 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  163 


LIST    OF    FRUITS. 


summer  send  out  many  shoots.  Now,  when  shoots  begin  to  appear  rub 
them  all  off  but  three.  Leave  the  top  one,  and  one  on  each  side,  at  a 
suitable  distance  lower  down.  These  will  in  time  become  limbs.  The 
next  year  to  top  the  upright  shoot  (that  came  out  of  the  top  bud,)  again 
so  as  to  bring  out  other  horizontal  limbs,  pointing  in  a  different  direc- 
tion from  those  that  came  out  last  year.  Thus  the  tree  will  get  ti  spread. 
After  this  you  must  keep  down  the  aspiring  shoots,  and  every  winter  cut 
out  some  of  the  weak  wood,  that  the  tree  may  not  bo  overburdened 
with  wood.  If  in  time  the  tree  be  getting  thin  of  bearing  wood  towards 
the  trunk,  cut  some  of  the  limbs  back,  and  they  will  then  send  out  ma- 
ny ghoots,  and  fill  up  the  naked  places.  The  lowest  limb  of  the  tree 
should  come  out  of  the  trunk  at  not  more  than  nine  or  ten  inches  from 
the  ground.  By  this  management,  the  tree  is  always  in  a  stale  of  full 
bearing;  always  young. 

Pears.  Pears  are  grafted  on  pear  stocks,  on  quince  stoeks,  or  on 
those  of  the  white  thorn.  The  last  is  best,  because  most  durable  ;  and 
for  dwarf  trees,  much  the  best,  because  they  do  not  throw  up  wood  so 
big  or  so  lofty.  For  orchards,  pear  stocks  are  the  best ;  but  not  from 
suckers  on  any  account. 

Pldms.  This  tree  is  grafted  upon  plum  stocks,  raised  from  stones 
by  all  means  ;  for  suckers  send  out  a  forest  of  suckers. 

Quince,  should  grow  in  a  moist  place  and  in  very  rich  ground.  It 
is  raised  from  cuttings,  or  layers,  and  these  are  treated  like  other  cut- 
tings and  layers. 

Raspberry.  A  sort  of  tcooc?^  ^er6,  but  produces  fruit  that  vies,  in 
point  of  crop,  as  well  as  flavor,  with  that  of  the  proudest  tree.  They 
are  raised  from  suckers,  though  they  may  be  raised  from  cuttings. 
The  suckers  of  this  year,  are  planted  out  in  rows,  six  feet  apart,  and 
the  plants  two  feet  apart  in  the  rows.  This  is  done  in  the  fall  or  early 
in  the  spring.  At  the  time  of  planting  they  should  be  cut  down,  to 
within  afoot  of  the  ground.  They  will  bear  a  little,  and  they  will 
send  out  several  suckers  which  will  bear  next  year.  About  four  is 
enough  to  leave,  and  those  of  the  strongest.  These  should  be  cut  off 
in  the  fall  or  early  in  the  spring,  to  within  four  feet  of  the  ground,  and 
should  be  tied  to  a  small  stake.  To  have  fine,  you  must  dig  in  the 
same  manner  in  the  autumn. 

Strawberry.  This  plant  is  a  native  of  the  woods  and  fields. 
There  are  many  sorts,  and  all  are  improved  by  cultivation.  They  are 
propagated  from  young  plants  that  grow  out  of  the  old  ones.  In  the 
summer,  the  plant  sends  forth  runners.  When  these  touch  the  ground 
at  a  certain  distance  from  the  plant,  come  roots,  and  from  these  roots, 
a  plant  springs  up.     This  plant  is  put  out  early  in  the  fall. 

To  make  a  strawberry  bed,  plant  three  rows,  a  foot  apart,  and  at 
eight  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Keep  the  ground  clean,  and  the  new 
plants  coming  from  runners  will  fill  up  the  whole  ground,  and  will  ex- 
tend the  beds  on  the  side.  Cut  off  the  runners  at  six  inches  distance 
from  the  sides,  and  then  you  have  a  bed  three  feet  wide,  covering  all 
the  ground.  In  November  the  leaves  should  be  cut  off  with  a  scythe 
or  reap-hook,  and  there  should  be  a  little  mouldy  manure  scattered 
over  them.     They  will  last  in  this  way  for  many  years. 


164  FAMILY 


LIST    OF    FRUITS. 


Culture  of  Grape  Vines.  The  best  mode  of  raising  the  plants 
is  by  cuttings  taken  from  the  vines  at  the  Fall  pruning,  and  preserved 
in  earth  till  Spring.  These  may  be  made  either  of  one  eye  or  bud  or 
of  four  or  five,  attached  to  a  small  portion  of  the  two  years  old  wood, 
forming  a  cutting  in  the  shape  of  a  small  mallet. 

The  \st  year. — They  may  be  raised  in  a  small  nursery  bed,  prepared 
of  a  good  light  soil — set  in  the  ground  six  inches  distant  from  each 
other,  with  the  rows  wide  enough  apart  to  permit  them  to  be  weeded 
with  a  narrow  hoe  ;  or,  they  may  be  put  in  the  first  instance,  where 
they  are  to  be  reared,  and  left  to  grow,  at  the  distance  of  five,  six,  or 
seven  feet,  or  more,  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  cultivator.  In  this 
latter  case  there  should  be  three  cuttings  put  into  each  spot  six  inches 
apart,  to  insure  the  setting  of  one.  When  this  is  ascertained  with  cer- 
tainty, the  two  weakest  may  be  withdrawn,  leaving  the  rest  of  the 
three  to  grow.  If  the  cuttings  be  of  one  eye  each,  they  should  be 
from  the  last  year's  growth,  and  a  small  piece  of  the  branch  an  inch 
long  should  be  left  attached  to  the  bud  and  extending  half  an  inch  on 
each  side  of  it.  These  should  be  planted  two  inches  below  the  sur- 
face with  the  bud  uppermost,  and  a  small  stake  placed  by  the  side  of 
them  that  they  may  not  be  disturbed.  If  the  cuttings  are  of  several 
eyes,  they  should  be  laid  in  the  ground  sloping,  leaving  one  eye  level 
with,  or  only  just  above  the  surface.  They  should  be  kept  moist,  but 
not  wet,  as  this  will  rot  them.  A  spot  which  receives  the  morning 
sun  till  eleven  o'clock,  and  not  afterwards,  is  the  best  for  a  nursery 
bed  for  them,  but  for  permanency  they  should  be  planted  where  they 
will  receive  the  sun  longest,  and  in  this  case  they  should  be  shaded 
at  noon  day  until  they  have  entirely  put  out.  One  bud  only  should 
be  allowed  to  push  from  the  cutting  the  first  year ;  the  plant  should 
be  kept  free  from  weeds  ;  the  earth  kept  light  around  it,  and  as  soon  as 
the  shoot  has  attained  strength  enough  to  produce  laterals,  they  should 
be  rubbed  out,  and  the  shoot  tied  to  a  small  stake,  by  which  means  it 
will  gain  firmness,  and  the  admission  of  the  sun  and  air  to  the  shoot 
will  prepare  it  to  bear  the  frost  of  the  Fall,  and  prevent  its  imbibing 
the  moisture  which  it  would  otherwise  be  subject  to,  when  covered 
with  earth  in  the  winter.  By  the  first  of  November,  the  shoots  may  be 
cut  down  to  two  eyes,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  month,  if  it  be  dry 
weather,  they  may  be  covered  over  with  earth,  forming  a  slope  to  cast 
off"  the  wet  and  prevent  the  rains  from  penetrating — as  the  drier  the 
plant  is  kept  during  the  winter,  in  the  better  state  it  will  be  in  the  suc- 
ceeding spring. 

Th^  2rf  year. — The  plants  should  not  be  uncovered  in  this  climate 
till  the  middle  of  April.  Those  from  the  nursery  should  now  be  trans- 
planted to  the  places  where  they  are  to  remain  ;  a  shoot  from  each  eye 
should  be  permitted  to  push,  but  as  soon  as  you  have  ascertained  which 
of  the  two  will  be  the  strongest  and  the  best  situated,  you  will  preserve 
that,  and  rub  out  the  other.  The  shoot  preserved,  you  will  be  careful 
to  tie  up  to  a  small  stake  as  soon  as  it  has  length  enough  for  this  pur- 
pose, to  prevent  its  being  broken  by  the  wind  or  other  casualty.  During 
the  summer,  the  laterals  from  the  four  or  five  lowest  buds  must  be 
rubbed  out,  and  the  shoot  be  carefully  protected  by  being  kept  tied  ev- 
ery eight  or  ten  inches. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  165 


LIST    OF    FRUITS. 


The  next  Fall  you  may  cut  this  shoot  down  to  two  buds,  (not  count- 
ing the  one  in  the  crotch  of  the  plant  between  the  old  and  new  wood) 
and  cover  over  as  before. 

The  2d  year. — You  will  allow  ehoots  to  push  from  both  the  eyes, 
and  suffer  them  to  grow,  taking  care  of  them  as  recommended  above  ; 
but  the  bud  in  the  crotch  must  be  rubbed  out.  This  year  you  must 
rub  out  the  laterals  from  the  five  lowest  buds,  and  nip  in  the  other  lat- 
erals to  one  eye,  so  that  if  the  plant  grows  luxuriantly  the  sap  may 
burst  from  the  buds  of  the  laterals,  and  not  from  those  of  the  main 
branch,  as  it  would  do  if  the  vine  was  dressed  too  close.  Be  careful  to 
keep  the  branches  tied  up  that  they  may  not  be  broken.  In  Novem- 
ber, cut  down  the  two  branches  as  follows  :  the  most  feeble  of  the  two, 
to  two  buds,  to  produce  wood  branches  the  succeeding  season ;  and 
the  strongest,  to  three  buds,  for  fruit  branches,  and  cover  them  as 
usual. 

The  Atk  year. — If  you  keep  your  vines  properly  dressed,  you  may 
have  your  first  fruits  without  injury  to  your  plants.  Af^er  this  the 
system  to  be  pursued  must  depend  on  the  strength  of  your  vines,  and 
this  will  depend  on  the  goodness  of  the  soil  and  the  care  you  take  of 
your  plants.  But  as  a  general  rule,  the  following  points  must  be  at- 
tended to. 

Ist.  The  number  and  length  of  your  fruit  branches  must  always  de- 
pend on  the  strength  of  your  plant ;  the  wood  branches  are  always  to 
be  cut  down  to  two  eyes. 

2d,  No  more  branches  should  be  left  on  the  vine  than  it  can  uourish 
well,  and  abundantly ;  this  will  depend  on  its  age,  and  the  soil  in  which 
it  grows. 

3d.  The  branches  should  be  cut  in  alternately  for  wood  and  fruit 
branches,  observing  to  cut  for  wood  branches  as  low  down  on  the  plant 
as  possible,  so  as  to  renew  your  wood  near  the  bottom  annually.  No 
shoots  should  be  permitted  to  grow  from  the  old  wood,  unless  wanted 
for  this  purpose. 

4th.  No  more  shoots  should  be  permitted  to  grow  than  can  be  laid 
in  clear,  and  handsome,  and  without  confusion  on  the  trellis,  and  so  as 
to  admit  the  sun  and  air  freely  among  the  branches. 

6th.  The  laterals  should  be  rubbed  out  of  the  wood  branches  six  or 
eight  eyes  high,  and  those  that  are  permitted  to  remain  should  be 
pinched  into  one  bud.  The  laterals  on  the  fruit  branches  should  be 
rubbed  out  from  the  insertions  of  the  shoot  to  the  uppermost  fruit  in- 
clusive, and  the  others  pinched  in  as  above.  If  the  shoots  are  very 
strong,  the  upper  laterals  may  be  allowed  to  grow,  to  take  up  a  greater 
portion  of  the  sap  ;  but  this  should  not  be  done  unless  there  is  danger 
of  the  eyes  bursting  in  the  main  shoots.  Be  careful  always  to  keep 
the  shoots  tied  up  near  their  top. 

6th.  Never  leave  more  than  five  good  eyes  on  a  fruit  bearing  branch, 
unless  your  vine  is  confined  to  a  narrow  space,  and  you  are  obliged  to 
preserve  only  two  or  three  fruit  branches  ;  in  this  case  the  length  of  the 
branch  must  correspond  to  the  nourishment  it  will  receive  from  the 


166  FAMILY 


BEES. 


plant.  Select  the  roundest  and  fairest  branches  for  fruit,  and  the  low- 
est and  most  feeble  for  wood.  The  closer  the  buds  are  together,  or  the 
shorter  the  joints  of  the  branch,  the  belter  they  are  for  fruit ;  these 
may  in  general  be  cut  to  three,  four,  or  five  eyes  according  to  their 
strength.  But  in  vineries  covered  with  glass,  where  two  fruit  bearing 
branches  only  are  left  on  strong  vines ; — twenty,  thirty,  and  forty  buds 
are  sometimes  left  on  fruit  branches. 

The  foregoing  rules  will  be  sufficient  for  any  one  to  build  up  a  vine- 
yard sufficiently  large  to  supply  himself — his  friends,  and  the  market 
with  grapes.  But  to  promote  and  forward  their  maturity  and  size,  the 
following  course  may  be  pursued. 

The  first  of  July  you  will  be  able  to  see  the  state  of  your  fruit  which 
will  be  just  formed.  At  this  time  select  the  highest  fruit  branches  and 
those  which  have  the  finest  appearance  of  fruit  upon  them,  and  per- 
form the  following  operation  on  the  two  years  old  wood,  from  which 
these  branches  proceeded,  taking  care  not  to  cut  below  any  of  the 
wood  branches. 

Take  a  pruning  knife  with  a  smooth  edge,  and  hawk's  bill,  and  pass 
it  round  the  branch  where  the  bark  is  clear  from  knots,  cutting  deep 
enough  to  reach  the  sap  wood  of  the  plant ;  at  a  quarter  or  3-8ths  of 
an  inch  below  the  first  cut,  make  another,  running  parallel  with  the 
first ;  then  make  a  perpendicular  cut  through  this  section  of  the  bark 
the  same  depth,  and  you  may  take  out  the  ring  of  bark  clear  from  the 
branch.  This  will  not  prevent  the  sap  rising  into  the  upper  part  of 
the  branch,  but  it  will  prevent  its  descending  below  this  cut,  by  which 
means  it  will  be  retained  in,  and  distributed  throughout  the  upper  part 
of  the  branch,  in  a  greater  portion  than  it  could  otherwise  be,  and  the 
branch  and  fruit  will  both  increase  in  size  much  more  than  any  of  those 
that  are  not  thus  treated,  and  the  maturity  of  the  fruit  will  be  advan- 
ced very  much. 

This  has  been  denominated  Girdling.  If  the  plant  is  very  vigorous 
and  the  season  very  favorable,  the  wound  will  soon  be  closed,  so  that 
it  may  be  necessary  to  open  it  a  second  time.  The  process  does  not  in- 
jure the  plant,  as  you  only  girdle  the  fruit  bearing  branches,  which  you 
would  in  any  case  cut  out  at  the  Fall  pruning,  to  make  room  for  the 
branches  which  you  have  been  bringing  forward  to  give  you  fruit  the 
succeeding  year.  This  may  be  kept  up  from  year  to  year,  and  give 
you  a  succession  of  ripe  fruit  from  the  Ist  of  September  to  the  close  of 
the  season.  The  fruit  on  those  branches  which  are  not  girdled  will 
ripen  the  latest  of  course,  but  neither  those,  nor  those  which  have 
been  girdled,  should  be  shortened,  as  is  customary  on  vines  not  thus 
treated. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  BEES. 

Apiary.  By  an  apiary  is  meant  a  place,  where  bees  are  kept,  which 
may  consist  of  a  stand,  shed,  or  enclosure  appropriated  for  that  purpose. 
This  is  an  important  appendage  to  every  farmer's  establishment,  and 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 167 

BEES. 


a  delightful  accession  to  the  premises  of  every  horticulturalist.  The 
study  of  the  domestic  honey  bee  is  eminently  calculated  to  raise  our 
thoughts  of  the  wisdom  of  the  Great  Architect  who  has  infused  such 
I*  skill  divine  "  into  so  humble  an  architect  as  the  bee.  "  Besides,  there 
is  no  branch  of  husbandry,"  says  a  writer,  "  the  cultivation  of  which, 
furnishes  for, our  table,  a  more  innocent,  and  grateful  luxury,  than  that 
of  the  bee." 

It  is  not  important  what  be  the  situation  of  an  apiary,  provided  it  be 
in  a  quiet  and  sheltered  place,  free  from  weeds,  and  within  a  convenient 
distance  of  pasturage,  which  abounds  in  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers. — 
Some  writers  recommend  to  give  an  apiary  a  southern,  or  south-east- 
ern aspect ;  but  this  is  considered  by  no  means  essential. 

Bee.  The  bee  has  two  large  round  eyes,  one  on  each  side  of  its 
head  ;  also  two  teeth,  by  which  it  constructs  its  cells,  and  removes 
from  the  hive  all  obnoxious  substances.  A  little  below  the  teeth  is  sit- 
uated the  proboscis,  and  within  the  mouth,  a  tongue,  which  is  quite 
long.  It  has  four  wings,  and  six  legs.  In  the  third  pair  of  legs  is  a 
singular  provision  for  conveying  pollen,  or  the  dust  of  flowers — viz. 
two  triangular  cavities,  which  are  fllled,  and  often  more  than  filled  by 
means  of  a  kind  of  brush  on  each  of  the  second  pair  of  legs,  which  are 
used  by  the  bee  to  brush  off"  the  pollen,  after  she  has  rolled  herself  in  it, 
and  is  thus  conveyed  to  the  hive.  At  the  extremity  of  each  foot  are 
fangs,  by  which  the  bees  strongly  attach  themselves  to  whatever  they 
chance  to  light  upon.  Honey  is  collected  by  means  of  the  proboscis. 
The  stomach  consists  of  two  parts  connected  by  a  kind  of  tube.  In 
the  first,  or  honey  stomach,  the  nectar  of  the  flowers  is  elaborated  into 
honey  ;  in  the  second,  a  portion  of  the  honey  undergoes  the  action  of 
the  digestive  powers,  and  serves  to  sustain  the  bee.  Two  antennae  or 
feelers  project  forward  from  the  head,  which  serve  to  convey  to  the 
bees  a  knowledge  of  one  another,  and  enable  them  to  conduct  the  in- 
ternal operations  of  the  hive,  even  in  the  dark.  Each  swarm  consists 
of  three  kinds  of  bees,  viz.  females,  males,  and  workers,  each  of  which 
will  claim  a  more  particular  notice. 

FEMALE  OR  QUEEN  BEE. 

Each  swarm  has  one  female  bee,  which  takes  charge  of  them,  and 
from  this  circumstance  is  usually  called  the  queen  bee.  She  differs 
from  the  other  bees  in  that  she  is  about  eight  lines  and  a  half  long, 
while  the  males  are  seven,  and  the  workers  only  six.  Her  abdomen 
is  also  longer,  but  her  wings  are  so  short,  that  she  flies  with  difficulty. 
It  is  said  that  she  leaves  the  hive,  but  on  two  occasions — one,  when  she 
leads  forth  a  swarm  ;  the  other  for  the  purpose  of  being  impregnated. 
She  IS  the  only  one  that  breeds,  and  in  her  single  personage  resides 
the  prerogatives  of  sovereignty,  which  are  most  scrupulously  acknow- 
ledged by  all  her  subjects.  She  enjoys  their  uniform  affection,  and  is 
ever  treated  by  them  with  the  respect  due  to  her  exalted  station.  Some 
admmister  honey  to  her  ;  others  attend  upon  her,  as  if  to  guard  her ; 
while  others  still,  remove  from  before  her  any  thing  which  micrht  im- 
pede her  progress.  No  sooner  are  cells  constructed  by  a  newt's  warm 
than  the  queen  commences  laying  her  eggs,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  three 
hundred  a  day ;  and  probably  at  even  a  greater  rate,  accordincr  to  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  cells  are  constructed.     The  cells  designed  for 


168  FAMILY 


BEES. 


the  production  of  workers  are  horizontal  and  hexagonal  ;  those  for 
the  males  or  drones  are  more  irregular  ;  the  queen,  or  royal  cells  are 
circular,  and  uniformly  perpendicular.  Workers  arrive  to  maturity 
from  the  egg  in  twenty  days;  drones  in  twenty-four;  queens  in  six- 
teen. The  growth  of  queens  is  probably  accelerated  by  the  superior 
attention  which  they  receive,  and  the  richer  quality  of  the  food,  or 
jelly  administered  to  them.  Eggs  of  each  kind  are  hatched  in  three 
days,  from  the  time  they  are  deposited.  The  worms  are  immediately 
supplied  with  pollen,  or  the  farina  of  flowers,  and  this  supply  is  con- 
tinued so  long  as  necessary.  Royal  cells  exist  in  every  hive  ;  but  in 
case  of  the  loss  of  their  queen,  workers  have  the  power  of  effecting  a 
metamorphosis  of  one  of  their  own  species  to  supply  her  place.  This 
is  done  by  selecting  a  worm  three  days  old,  and  sacrificing  three  con- 
tiguous cells  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  one  of  royal  form  and  di- 
mensions. The  food  designed  for  the  royal  worm  consists  of  a  kind  of 
paste,  or  jelly  of  a  pungent  taste.  Although  several  queen  bees  are 
sometimes  brought  to  perfection  about  the  same  time,  but  one  only  can 
hold  the  reins  of  government,  and  she  that  is  strongest  claims  this  pre- 
rogative. No  sooner  does  she  mount  the  throne,  than  she  thirsts  for 
the  blood  of  her  royal  sisters,  and  nothing  can  appease  her  but  their 
death,  which  she  effects  with  singular  zeal. 

Mai-ks  or  Drones.  The  number  of  drones  in  an  average  swarm 
is  estimated  at  about  five  hundred.  They  may  be  easily  distinguished 
from  the  common  or  working  bees,  being  both  larger  and  longer.  They 
are  destitute  of  a  sting.  They  make  a  much  greater  nosie  when  on 
the  wing  thafl  other  bees.  Their  proboscis  is  not  adapted  to  collect 
honey.  The  precise  office  of  the  drones  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
dispute  ;  but  it  seems  to  be  at  length  conceded,  that  they  are  males, 
and  serve  the  purpose  of  impregnating  the  queen.  When  this  has  been 
effected,  they  are  of  no  further  use,  and  are  destroyed  by  the  neuters, 
who  sting  them  to  death.  They  make  but  little  resistance  ;  and,  as  if 
they  were  aware  of  having  accomplished  the  end  of  their  existence, 
die  without  repining.  Their  destruction  is  usually  accomplished  in 
the  months  of  July  and  August.  In  the  May  following  others  are 
hatched  to  supply  their  place. 

WoEKiNG  Bees  or  Neuters.  This  kind  of  bee  constitutes  the 
great  majority  in  every  swarm.  "  The  average  number  of  a  swarm  or 
hive,"  says  a  writer,  "  is  from  fifteen  to  twenty  thousand  bees.  Nine- 
teen thousand  four  hundred  and  ninety-nine  are  neuters,  or  working 
bees,  five  hundred  are  drones,  and  the  remaining  one  is  the  queen,  or 
mother.  About  five  tliousand  bees  weigh  a  pound.  Hence  it  is  easy 
to  determine  the  number  of  bees  in  any  given  swarm  by  ascertaining 
the  difference  in  weight  between  the  hive  and  the  bees  after  they  are 
hived. 

The  business  of  the  workers  consists  chiefly  in  constructing  the  cells, 
and  collecting  honey.  The  labor  of  the  hive  is  apportioned  to  several 
classes,  thougli  tbey  not  unfrequently  change  work.  One  class  is  em- 
ployed  in  attending  upon  the  sovereign  ;  another  cleans  the  hive  and 
prepares  it  for  the  comb  ;  some  gather  a  resinous  substance  called 
propolis  or  bee  glue,  with  which  they  seal  the  crevices  of  the  hive  ; 
others  construct  the  ceils  ;  others  still  bring  home   honey,  and  where 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


BEES. 


necessary,  pollen  for  the  young,  and  a  small  number  act  as  sentinels, 
both  by  day  and  by  night  at  and  around  the  entrance  of  the  hive. 

The  industry  of  bees  is  proverbial.  They  labor  from  morning's 
early  dawn  till  evening,  and  a  young  swarm  may  be  found  working  at 
the  cells  even  in  the  night.  The  quantity  of  honey  conveyed  by  a 
single  bee  at  a  time  is  but  a  small  drop  ;  but  the  aggregate  collected  by 
a  swarm  in  a  single  season,  if  favorable,  is  surprisuigly  great.  Of  a 
population  of  18,000,  it  has  been  ascertained  that  3000  return  from 
their  collections  in  a  single  hour.  Swarms  not  unfrequently  accumu- 
late from  60  to  100  pounds  in  a  single  season. 

Swarming.  Bees  seldom  swarm  until  they  become  overstocked, 
when  the  younger  portion  are  compelled  to  go  forth,  and  seek  a  habita- 
tion for  themselves.  Yet,  as  the  young  queen  may  be  supposed  inad- 
equate to  conduct  the  new  colony,  she  is  left  to  reign  over  the  old 
stock,  and  the  old  queen  leads  forth  the  young  swarm.  Before  her  de- 
parture, however,  she  deposits  eggs  for  queens  and  drones. 

Bees  seldom  swarm  before  May  nor  after  July.  The  earlier  swarms 
are  generally  esteemed  of  greater  value.  No  signs  which  are  infalli- 
ble precede  the  departure  of  the  colony.  Yet  it  is  said  that  on  the  eve- 
ning, previous  the  queen  is  heard  to  make  a  peculiar  kind  of  humming, 
called  tolling  or  calling.  The  more  certain  indications,  however,  are 
the  appearance,  for  some  days,  of  some  thousands  of  bees  on  the  out- 
side of  the  hive  in  an  inactive  state,  and  the  sudden  ingress  of  the 
whole  on  the  morning  of  some  fair  day.  They  may  then  be  supposed 
to  be  laying  in  a  stock  of  provisions  from  the  parent  hive  preparatory 
to  their  journey. 

On  the  appearance  of  a  swarm,  experience  has  proved  the  utter  in- 
utility of  beating  on  pans,  or  the  ringing  of  bells.  A  few  handfulls  of 
sand  or  earth,  or  some  jets  of  water,  will  more  effectually  settle  them 
than  the  jargon  of  a  thousand  voices,  or  the  deafening  clatter  of  a 
thousand  kettles.  Should  the  swarm  rise  high  and  indicate  a  deter- 
mination to  take  a  long  flight,  the  experiment  of  firing  a  few  guns 
loaded  with  peas  or  beans  at  them  might  well  be  made.  Not  unfre- 
quently the  queen,  unable  to  fly,  falls  to  the  ground  a  kw  rods  only 
from  the  hive.  In  such  a  case,  if  discovered,  she  may  be  carefully 
taken  and  placed  immediately  under  the  hive,  which  must  be  a  little 
raised,  and  the  swarm  will  settle  about  her.  If  by  any  means  she  is 
seriously  disturbed  at  the  time  of  swarming,  she  returns  with  her  sub- 
jects to  the  parent  hive,  from  which  she  may  be  expected  to  issue  in 
two  or  three  days.  Siiould  she  be  lost,  the  swarm  will  return,  and 
generally  again  come  forth  in  a  fortnight,  in  which  time  a  new  queen 
will  have  been  brouglit  to  perfection. 

Hiving.  A  few  hives  should  always  be  in  readiness  and  should  be 
made  of  nice  boards  and  bo  made  perfectly  tight.  This  will  save  the 
bees  much  toil,  as  every  crevice  must  needs  be  stopped,  and  every  par- 
ticle of  extraneous  matter  removed  before  the  comb  is  commenced. 

It  is  usual  to  rub  the  hive  previously  to  hiving  a  swarm,  with  a  solu- 
tion of  salt,  or  with  some  aromatic  herbs  :  but  if  otherwise  clean,  all 
such  practices  are  unnecessary.  A  sprinkling  of  milk  and  molasses 
may  be  acceptable. 

P 


170  FAMILY 


BE£S. 


Bees  may  be  hived  by  cutting  off  the  limb  on  which  they  have 
alighted  ;  or  they  may  be  shaken  into  the  hive,  if  the  limb  be  so  small 
as  to  admit  of  sufficient  agitation  to  dislodge  the  bess  at  once.  Should 
a  swarm  settle  in  some  inconvenient  place,  they  may  be  carefully 
brushed  into  the  hive.  Should  the  swarm  return  to  the  tree,  after 
hiving,  it  may  be  again  hived  ;  but  after  a  second  experiment,  it  will  be 
judicious  to  substitute  another  hive. 

When  a  swarm,  on  issuing,  divides,  and  settles  on  a  tree  in  two  sep- 
arate clusters,  the  ■presumption  is  that  each  cluster  has  its  queen.  If 
not  large,  or  the  season  be  advanced,  it  will  be  well  to  put  them  into 
one  hive  and  leave  the  queens,  if  there  be  two,  to  settle  which  shall 
occupy  the  throne. 

Bees  are  less  inclined  to  sting  during  swarming,  than  at  other  times  ; 
yet  prudence  will  suggest  the  j)ropriety  of  a  covering  for  the  face  and 
hands  of  those  who  may  be  employed  in  hiving  them.  Millinet  will 
answer  well  for  the  face  and  ueck,  and  a  pair  of  woollen  or  leather 
gloves  for  the  hands. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  unite  swarms,  especially  if  they  be  small. 
This  may  be  easily  effected  by  spreading  a  cloth  on  the  ground  in  the 
evening,  on  which  the  hive  containing  one  of  the  swarms  is  to  be  pla- 
ced, taking  care  to  raise  it  a  few  inches  by  means  of  a  stick.  In  this 
situation  a  few  smart  strokes  upon  the  hive  will  cause  the  bee.^  to  drop 
in  a  cluster.  At  this  moment  the  hive  containing  the  other  swarm 
should  be  placed  over  them  ;  into  this  they  will  readily  ascend  and 
take  up  their  permanent  abode. 

WAX-WORKER.  ^y^^^     j^^  ^^j^^   ^^  ^^jj^  ^j^^,  beautiful 

I  \  N    combs  which  every  one  nmst  have  repeat- 

^^^kgJ^BHBiy — -^.cdly  seen  and  admired,  it  is  indispensable 
^^yl^HHUPB*"^  that  the  architect  bees  should  be  provided 

^H^^3f  with  the  materials — with  the  wax  in  short 

^^^^^^  ^vith   which  they  are  princii'ally   formed. 

^O^'^  It  was  formerly  the  opinion  of  even  emi- 

nent naturalists,  that  wax  was  in  some  way  elaborated  from  the  pollen 
of  jflowers.  This  is  now  known  to  be  incorrect.  The  wax  having 
been  found  to  be  a  secretion  from  muscular  rings,  around  tlie  second 
stomach  of  the  bee,  which  resembles  a  cask  covered  with  hoops.  It  is 
within  these  rings  that  the  wax  is  produced,  but  the  secreting  vessels 
for  this  purpose  have  Jiitherto  escaped  the  researches  of  llio  acutest 
naturalists.  Iluber,  however,  plausibly  enough  conjectures  that  they 
are  contained  in  the  internal  lining  of  the  wax  pockets,  which  consist 
of  a  cellular  substance  reticulated  with  hexagons.  The  wax  pockets 
themselves  which  are  concealed  by  the  over-lapping  of  the  rings,  may 
be  seen  by  pressing  the  abdomen  of  a  worker-bee  so  as  to  lengthen  it, 
and  separate  the  rings  further  from  each  other.  W  hen  this  has  been 
done,  there  may  be  seen  on  each  of  the  four  intermediate  hoops  of  the 
belly,  and  separated  by  what  may  be  called  the  keel  {carina)  two  whi- 
tish-colored pouches,  of  a  soft  texture  ai'd  in  the  form  of  a  trapizium. 
Within,  the  little  scales  or  jilates  of  wax  are  produced  as  occasion  re- 
quires. We  may  remark  that  it  is  chiefly  the  wax-workers  which  pro- 
duce the  wax,  for  though  the  nurse-bees  are  furnished  with  wax  pock- 
ets, they  eecreto  it  only  in  very  small  quantities,  while  in  the  queen  bee 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  171 

BEES. 


and  the  males  or  drones,  no  pockets  are  discoverable.  It  may  be  sup- 
posed that  if  the  substance  found  lying  under  the  rings  be  really  the 
elements  of  wax,  it  undergoes  some  subsequent  preparation  after  it  is 
detached  ;  and  that  the  bees,  in  short,  are  capable  of  impregnating  it 
with  matter,  imparting  to  it  whiteness  and  ductility,  whereas  in  its  un- 
prepared state  it  is  only  fusible.* 

Propolis.  Wax  is  not  the  only  material  employed  by  bees  in  their 
architecture.  Besides  this,  they  make  use  of  a  brown,  oderiferous, 
resinous  substance  called  propolis^  more  tenacious  and  extensible  than 
wax,  and  well  adapted  for  cementing  and  varnishing.  This  it  appears 
from  satisfactory  experiments  made  by  Huber  and  others,  is  obtained 
from  the  wild  poplar  and  probably  from  other  trees.  The  use  of  this 
appeai-s  to  be  to  fill  up  such  interstices  as  may  happen  to  e'xist  in  the 
cell,  and  to  serve  as  a  varnish  for  any  place  which  may  require  it. 
But  this  is  not  the  only  use  to  which  bees  apply  the  propolis.  In  case 
of  the  ingress,  into  the  hive,  of  insects  which  they  are  unable  to  drag 
out  with  their  teeth,  having  killed  them,  to  prevent  the  noxious  smell 
which  would  arise  from  their  putrefaction,  they  immediately  embalm 
them  by  covering  every  part  of  their  body  with  propolis,  through 
which  no  effluvia  can  escape.  When  a  snail,  with  a  shell,  gets  entrance, 
to  dispose  of  it  in  this  way  gives  much  less  trouble  and  expense  to  the 
bees.  As  soon  as  it  receives  the  first  wound  from  a  sting,  it  naturally 
retires  within  its  shell.  In  this  case,  the  bees  instead  of  pasting  it  all 
over  with  propolis,  content  themselves  with  glueing  all  round  the  mar- 
gin of  the  shell,  which  is  sufficient  to  render  the  animal  forever  im- 
moveably  fixed. 

The  BCriLDiNo  o»  thh  cells.  When  bees  begin  to  build  the  hive, 
they  divide  themselves  into  bands,  one  of  which  produces  materials  for 
the  structure ;  another  works  upon  these,  and  forms  them  into  a  rough 
sketch  of  the  dimensions  and  partitions  of  the  cells.  All  this  is  com- 
pleted by  the  second  band,  who  examine  and  adjust  the  angles,  remove 
the  superfluous  wax,  and  give  the  work  its  necessary  perfection,  and  a 
third  band  brings  provisions  to  the  laborers,  who  cannot  leave  their 
work.  But  no  distribution  of  food  is  made  to  those  whose  charge  in 
collecting  propolis  and  pollen,  calls  them  to  the  field,  because  it  is  sup- 
posed they  will  hardly  forget  themselves  ;  neither  is  any  allowance 
made  to  those  who  begin  the  architecture  of  the  cells. 

The  secretion  of  wax,  it  would  appear,  goes  on  best  when  the  bees 
are  in  a  state  of  repose  ;  and  the  wax-workers  accordingly  suspend 
themselves  in  the  interior  in  an  extended  cluster,  like  a  curtain,  which 
is  composed  of  a  series  of  inter-twined  festoons  or  garlands,  crossing 
each  other  in  all  directions, — the  uppermost  bee  maintaining  its  position 
by  laying  hold  of  the  roof  with  its  fore-legs  and  the  succeeding  one 
laying  hold  of  the  hind  legs  of  the  first.  Here  is  a  curtain  of  wax 
workers  secreting  wax. 

*  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge. 


172  FAMILY 


BEEvS. 


CUETAIN  OP  WAX  WORKERS  SECRETING  WAX. 


The  manner  in  which  the  bees  hold  on  to  one  another  may  be  «till 
more  distinctly  apprehended  by  the  following  cut : 

As  the  wax  workers  secrete  only  a  limited  quantity  of  M^ax,  it  is  in- 
dispensably requisite  that  as  little  as  possible  of  it  should  be  con- 
sumed, and  that  none  of  it  should  be  wasted.  "Bees,  therefore,  as  M. 
Reaumur  well  remarks,  "  have  to  solve  this  difficult  geometrical 
problem  : — A  quantity  of  wax  being  given  to  form  of  it  similar  and 
equal  ceils  of  a  determinate  capacity,  but  of  the  largest  size  in  propor- 
tion to  the  quantity  of  matter  employed,  and  disposed  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  occupy  the  least  possible  space  in  the  hive.  This  problem  is 
solved  by  bees  in  all  its  conditions.  The  cylindrical  form  would  seem 
to  be  best  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  insect,  but  had  the  cells  been 
cylindrical,  they  could  not  have  been  applied  to  each  other  without 
leaving  a  vacant  and  superfluous  space  between  every  three  contiguous 
cells.  Had  the  cells,  on  the  other  hand,  been  square  or  triangular,  they 
might  have  been  constructed  without  unnecessary  vacancies,  but  these 


ENCYOLOPEDIA.  173 


BEES. 


CURTAIN  OP  WAX  WORKERS.  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  both  have  re.- 

quired  more  material  and 
.been  very  unsuitable  to  the 
Ishape  of  a  bee's  body.  The 
six-sided  form  of  the  cells 
obviates  every  objection; 
and  while  it  fulfils  the  con- 
ditions of  the  problem,  it  is 
equally  adapted  v/ith  a  cy- 
linder to  the  shape  of  the 
bee's  body." 

Honey  is  a  vegetable  se- 
cretion, which  bees  gather 
with  their  long  tongue  and 
proboscis  from  flowers.  It 
is  swallowed  into  the  first 
or  honey  stomach,  whence 
it  is  disgorged  by  the  mouth 
into  the  cells  on  their  return 
to  the  hive.  The  best  honey 
is  said  to  be  of  a  whitish 
color  inclining  to  yellow. 
"  As  an  article  of  food," 
according  to  Dt.  Thacher, 
"  when  immediately  used, 
it  is  pernicious  to  weak 
stomachs,  in  which  it  rea- 
dily ferments  and  occasions 
flatulency.  It  possesses, 
however,  salubrious  properties  ;  as  a  medicine,  it  is  a  very  useful  ape- 
rient and  expectorant,  especially  when  it  has  been  boiled,  in  which 
state  it  may  be  used  wiili  safety  and  advantage  by  asthmatic  patients 
to  promote  expectoration  of  tough  phlegm.^'  The  trees  which  afford 
honey  m  the  greatest  abundance  are  the  different  species  of  willow, 
maple,  and  chesnut,  white  mulberry,  peach,  apple,  palm  and  cherry 
tree.  Of  shrubs  and  plants  we  may  name  the  strawberry,  raspberry, 
mignonette,  thyme,  crocus,  and  white  clover.  The  blossoms  of  the 
red  clover  and  honey  suckle  yield  honey  in  abundance,  but  it  lies  be- 
yond the  reach  of  the  bee.  Buck  wheat  contains  more  than  most 
plants  ;  but  it  is  less  palatable.  It  answers  well  for  winter  stores  for 
the  bees  and  of  no  kind  are  they  more  fond. 

Bee  Bread,  as  already  noted  is  the  pollen  or  dust  of  flowers,  col- 
lected by  the  bees  in  the  manner  before  described.  Its  only  use  ap- 
pears to  be  for  feeding  the  young,  to  which  it  is  administered  by  the 
workers  grain  by  grain. 

Hives.  Until  witliin  a  few  years  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
construction  of  hives.  A  few  boards  put  together  at  the  moment  of 
necessity,  Were  all  that  were  deemed  essential.  They  were,  pf  ihaps, 
covered  with  dirt  and  full  of  flaws  and  cracks,  to  remedy  which  incon- 
veniences would  require  the  industry  of  the  new  colony  some  days,  if 
not  weeks.     More  enlightened  views  are  now  entertained  on  this  sub- 


174  FAMILY 


BEES. 


ject,  and  much  ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  constructing  tenements 
for  bees  to  render  them  comf9rtable — to  secure  them  from  the  invasion 
of  the  bee  moth,  and  to  admit  of  the  superabundant  honey  being  re- 
moved without  injuring  or  disturbing  the  bees.  For  a  luminous  view 
of  this  subject  we  would  refer  our  readers  to  the  excellent  practical 
treatise  on  Bees  by  Dr.  Thacher,  published  in  Boston. 

It  is  with  pleasure  that  we  introduce  tlie  following  account  from  the 
North  American  Review,  for  June  1828,  of  a  hive  invented  and  suc- 
cessfully employed  for  a  number  of  years,  by  Mrs.  Mary  Griffith,  of 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  which  is  likely,  according  to  that  Journal,  soon 
to  supersede  every  other  now  in  use. 

*'  The  Charlieshope  hive,  is  thirteen  inches  square  at  the  top  ;  but  as 
the  sides  decrease  in  width  to  the  bottom  the  base  is  narrower,  being  only 
seven  inches  on  the  flanks,  and  tliirteen  inches  in  front  and  at  the  back. 
The  hive  is  in  height  about  twenty-six  inches  in  front,  and  twenty  be- 
hind. Of  course  the  floor  is  an  inclined  plane.  It  is  fastened  behind 
with  hinges,  and  at  the  sides  with  hooks  and  staples.  The  roof  or 
cover  is,  like  the  rest  of  the  hive,  made  of  common  inch  board,  with 
cleats  screwed  on  the  top,  to  prevent  it  t>om  warping  ;  the  top  is  screw- 
ed to  the  hive  in  two  places  ;  three  holes  are  bored  in  this  cover  of  one 
inch  diameter,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart,  on  a  line  with  each 
other  and  parallel  with  the  front  of  the  hive  ;  three  holes  are  found  to 
be  necessary,  as  the  bees  would  otherwise  build  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
close  them  and  prevent  their  ascent  to  the  upper  box,  when  that  be- 
comes necessary. 

"The  under  part  of  the  top  or  cover  is  rough,  as  the  propolis,  or  bee 
glue,  does  not  at  all  times  adhere  sufficiently  well  to  a  smooth  surface. 

"  Every  other  part  of  the  hive  is  as  smooth  as  possible,  and  the 
whole  hive,  box  and  all,  is  well  made  and  joined.  The  upper  box  is 
thirteen  inches  square  and  the  width  of  a  board  deep,  from  eight  to  ten 
inches.  The  box  is  likewise  smoothly  planed,  excepting  the  inside  of 
the  top  board  which  is  rough. 

"  The  box  sits  snugly  on  the  top  of  the  hive  ;  and  the  cleats  are 
placed  in  such  a  manner  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  cover  as  to  fix 
the  box  firmly. 

"  When  it  is  ascertained  that  the  hive  is  full  of  honey,  the  plugs  in 
the  three  holes  are  taken  out.  The  bees  may  then  ascend,  and  if  the 
season  be  favorable,  they  will  fill  the  box  with  comb  and  honey. 

"About  three  'or  four  inches  from  the  top  of  the  front  and  back  of 
the  hive,  are  two  cleats  which  serve  to  sustain  tiie  hive  in  a  moveable 
frame,  made  of  narrow  slats  of  wood,  which  enables  any  one  to  carry 
the  hive  from  one  place  to  another,  as  the  hiving  and  other  operations 
make  it  necessary.  The  hives  are  likewise  suspended  on  permanent 
joists  or  scantlings  of  the  apiary.  Hives  thus  suspended,  are  out  of 
the  reach  of  mice,  and  they  are  also  better  on  a  variety  of  accounts. 
The  opening  and  shutting  of  the  floor  allows  of  daily  inspection. 
The  floor  can  be  cleaned  eften.  The  inclination  of  the  sides  and 
bottom  allows  the  perspiration  of  the  bees  to  flow  off*  rapidly. 

"  This  is  a  great  point  gained,  as  dysenteries  are  induced  by  the  ab- 
sorption of  auch  acrid  matter.     The  elope   of  the  floor  enables  the 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  175 


BEES. 


bees  to  remove  all  extraneous  matter,  and  to  defend  themselves  from 
robbers  and  intruders.  The  entrance  to  the  hive  is  about  three  inches 
wide,  and  half  an  inch  high.  A  door  of  wire,  the  meshes  of  which 
are  small  enough  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  the  miller,  rests  behind 
two  door  posts  made  of  needles.  These  needles  are  driven  into  the 
floor,  close  to  the  entrance.  The  little  doors  are  always  put  behind  the 
needles  as  soon  ^  the  bees  are  in  for  the  night,  and  are  removed  at  day 
light.  About  the  middle  of  April  the  doors  are  first  used,  and  they  are 
discontinued  in  about  two  months. 

"  After  the  middle  of  June  the  floors  are  let  down,  and  are  sufiered 
to  hang  until  day  light,  when  they  wee  gentli/  raised  and  hooked  up. 
The  floor  of  the  hive  projects  in  front  about  three  inches,  thus  forming- 
an  apron  or  platform,  on  which  the  bees  alight  before  they  enter  in  at 
the  little  door." 

Bee  Moth.  This  is  the  great  foe  of  the  honey  bee — one  which 
neither  the  instinctive  powers  of  self  preservation,  with  which  the  bee 
is  endued,  is  able  to  resist,  nor  the  ingenuity  and  skill  of  man  are  able 
effectually  to  provide  against.  And  to  the  depredations  of  this  single 
enemy  is  to  be  attributed  the  inditFerence  which  obviously  prevails  as 
to  attempts,  on  an  extended  scale,  to  foster  this  industrious  race. 

We  are  among  those  who  entertain  the  belief  that  no  effectual  rem- 
edy will  soon  be  found  for  the  evil  here  alluded  to  ;  at  least  none 
which  will  admit  of  so  universal  and  easy  application,  as  to  induce  any 
great  numbers  in  our  land  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  cultivation  of 
bees.     Still  something  may  be  done. 

Before  proceeding  to  tlie  few  suggestions  which  we  design  to  make, 
a  brief  description  of  the  bee  moth  may  be  proper.  It  appears  in  the 
form  of  a  small  miller,  of  a  grayish  color,  pale  towards  the  head,  of  a 
glossy  brown  near  the  outer  margin  of  the  wings.  It  has  four  winors, 
but  is  little  disposed  to  fly  much.  It  begins  to  molest  bees  about  the 
middle  or  last  of  April,  and  continues  its  persecutions  till  September. 
Its  depredations  are  chiefly  committed  towards  the  close  of  the  day, 
and  during  the  night.  Their  eggs  are  deposited  either  in  the  hive  it- 
self, or  in  the  crevices  around  about  it.  Those  eggs  are  hatched  in  a 
few  weeks,  and  produce  a  grub  or  worm  with  a  reddish  head,  which 
finds  its  way  into  the  hive,  where,  having  fortified  itself  by  means  of  a 
web,  it  feeds  upon  the  wax,  comb,  eggs,  and  young  brood  of  bees,  and 
continues  to  extend  its  ravages  with  a  Goth  and  Vandal  spirit,  until 
the  whole  internal  establishment  becomes  one  wide-spread  desolation. 

To  prevent  entirely  the  depredations  of  these  enemies  is  probably 
impossible.  Their  injurious  effects,  however,  may  in  a  measure  be 
prevented  by  destroying  the  millers,  which  may  be  eff*ected  in  a  degree 
by  placing  open  shallow  vessels  near  the  hives  containing  sweetened 
water  and  vinegar.  By  sipping  this  liquor,  of  which  they  are  fond 
they  become  intoxicated  and  drown.  Some  recommend  to  sprinkle 
spirits  of  turpentine  round  the  hives;  others  recommend  closing  the 
entrance  of  the  hive,  after  the  ingress  of  the  bees,  and  opening  it  early 
in  the  morning.  It  has  been  suggested  by  a  respectable  writer,  to 
place  the  hives  on  the  naked  ground,  or  which  is  thought  still  better,  to 
cover  the  floor  of  the  bee-house  with  earth  about  two  inches  in  depth. 
This  last  method  is  recommended  by  way  of  experiment,  by  Dr.  Thach- 


176  FAMILY 


LOCOMOTION. 


er,  in  the  work  to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  and  to  which  we 
would  refer  our  readers  for  other  important  hints  on  this  particular 
topic,  as  well  as  for  numerous  suggestions  in  reference  to  the  general 
management  of  bees. 


PART  VII. 


ARTS  OF  LOCOMOTION— OF  HEATING,  VENTILATION,  &c. 

LOCOMOTION. 

MoTro?»  OF  Ammals.  "  The  chief  obstacles  which  oppose  locomo- 
tion or  change  of  place,"  says  Dr.  Bigelow,*  "■  are  gravity  and  friction, 
the  latter  of  which  is  in  most  cases,  the  consequence  of  the  former. 
Friction  is  obviated  by  animals  that  walk,  by  substituting  points  of 
their  bodies  instead  of  large  surfaces,  and  upon  these  points  they  turn, 
as  upon  centres,  for  the  length  of  each  step,  raising  themselves  wholly 
or  partly  from  the  ground  in  successive  arcs,  instead  of  drawing  them- 
selves along  the  surface.  The  line  of  arcs  which  the  centre  of  gravity 
describes,  is  converted  into  an  easy  or  undulating  line,  by  the  compound 
action  of  the  different  joints)  As  the  feet  move  in  separate  lines,  the 
body  has  also  a  lateral,  vibratory  motion.  A  man,  in  walking,  puts 
down  one  foot  before  the  other  is  raised,  but  not  in  running.  Quadru- 
peds in  walking  have  tliree  feet  upon  the  ground  for  most  of  the  time  ; 
in  trotting,  only  two.  Animals  which  walk  against  gravity,  as  the  com- 
mon fly,  the  tree  toad,  &;c.,  support  themselves  by  suction,  using  cavities 
on  the  under  side  of  their  feet,  which  they  enlarge  at  pleasure,  till  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  causes  them  to  adhere.  In  other  respects 
their  locomotion  is  effected  like  that  of  other  walking  animals.  Birds 
perform  the  motion  of  flying  by  striking  the  air  with  the  broad  surface 
of  the  wings  in  a  downward  and  backward  direction,  thus  propelling 
the  body  upward  and  forward.  After  each  stroke  tlie  wings  are  con- 
tracted,'or  slightly  turned,  to  lessen  their  resistance  to  the  atmosphere, 
then  raised  and  spread  anew.  The  downward  stroke  also,  being  more 
sudden  than  the  upward,  is  more  resisted  by  the  atmosphere.  The  tail 
of  birds  serves  as  a  rudder  to  direct  the  course  upward  or  downward. 
When  a  bird  sails  in  the  air  without  mo\ing  the  wings,  it  is  done  in 
some  cases  by  the  velocity  previously  acquired,  and  an  oblique  direction 
of  the  wings  upward ; — in  others,  by  a  gradual  descent,  with  the  wings 
slightly  turned  in  an  oblique  direction  downward.  Fishes,  in  swim- 
ming forward,  are  propelled  chiefly  by  strokes  of  the  tail,  the  extremity 
of  which  being  bent  into  an  oblique  position,  propels  the  body  forward 
■  and  laterally  at  the  same  time.  The  lateral  motion  is  corrected  by  the 
next  stroke,  in  the  opj)osite  direction,  while  the  forward  course  con- 
tinues. The  fins  serve  partly  to  assist  in  swimming,  but  chiefly  to  ba- 
lance  the   body,   or  keep  it  upright;  for  the  centre  of  gravity  being 

*  Elements  of  Technology,  p.  192 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  177 


LOCOMOTION. 


nearest  the  back,  a  fish  turns  over,  when  it  is  dead, or  disabled.*  Some 
other  aquatic  animals,  as  leeches,  swim  with  a  sinuous  or  undulating 
motion  of  the  body,  in  which  several  parts  at  once  are  made  to  act  ob- 
liquely against  the  water.  Serpents  in  like  manner  advance  by  means 
of  the  winding  or  serpentine  direction  which  they  give  to  their  bodies, 
and  by  which  a  succession  of  oblique  forces  are  brought  to  act  against 
the  ground.  Sir  Everard  Home  is  of  opinion  that  serpents  use  their 
ribs  in  the  manner  of  legs,  and  propel  the  body  forwards  by  brining 
the  plates  on  the  under  surface  of  the  body  to  act  successively  like  feet 
against  the  ground.t  Some  worms  and  larvae  of  slow  motion,  extend 
a  part  of  their  body  forwards,  and  draw  up  the  rest  to  overtake  it,  some 
performing  this  motion  in  a  direct  line,  others  in  curves. 

"  When  land  animals  swim  in  water,  they  are  supported,  because 
their  whole  weight,  with  the  lungs  expanded  with  air,  is  less  than  that 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  water.  The  head,  however,  or  a  part  of  it,  must 
be  kept  above  water  to  enable  the  animal  to  breathe,  and  to  effect  this 
and  also  to  make  progress  in  the  water,  ihe  limbs  are  exerted  in  suc- 
cessive impulses  against  the  fluid.  Quadrupeds  and  birds  swim  with 
less  effort  than  man,  because  the  weight  of  the  head,  which  is  carried 
above  water,  is,  in  them,  a  smaller  proportional  part  of  the  whole,  than 
it  is  in  man." 

Human  Strength,  or  Power.  Desaguilliers:f  states  that  the  power 
of  a  man,  applied  in  various  ways,  will  produce  the  following  results : 

A  man  can  raise  by  a  good  common  pump,  a  hogshead— 63  galls. — 
of  water  10  feet  high  in  a  minute,  for  a  whole  day. 

A  man  of  ordinary  strength  can  turn  a  winch  with  a  force  of  30 
pounds,  and  with  a  velo«ity  of  3i  feet  in  a  second,  for  10  hours  a  day. 

Two  men  working  at  a  windlass  with  handles  at  right  angles,  can 
raise  70  lbs.  more  easily  than  one  can  raise  30. 

According  to  Mr.  Buchanan's  comparison,  the  force  exerted  in  turning 
a  winch  being  made  equal  to  the  unit,  or  standard, 

The  force  as  in  pumping  will  be  =       .61 

as  in  ringing,  =    1.36 

in  rowing,  =     1 .43 

Porters  are  commonly  able  to  carry  from  200  to  300  pounds  at  the 
rate  of  3  miles  an  hour. 

By  a  careful  adjustment  of  the  weight  low  upon  the  hips,  it  is  stated 
that  Porters  are  able  to  move  forward  under  a  load  of  from  700  to  900 
lbs. 

Coulomb  observes  that  the  most  advantageous  weight,  for  a  man  of 
common  strength  to  carry  horizontally,  is   111   pounds  ;  or  if  he  re- 

*  The  swimming  bladder  which  exist  in  most  fishes,  though  not  in  all,  is 
supposed  to  have  an  agency  in  adapting  the  specific  gra\ity  of  the  fish  to 
the  particular  depth  in  which  it  resides.  The  power  of  the  animal  to  rise 
or  sink  by  altering  the  dimensions  of  this  organ,  has  been,  with  some  reason, 
disputed. 

t  Lectures  on  Comparative  Anatomy,  vol.  i.  p.  116,  &c.  Sir  E.  Homo  de- 
duces this  fact  from  the  anatomy  of  the  animal,  and  from  the  movements 
which  he  perceived,  in  suffering  a  large  coluber  to  crawl  over  his  hand.  The 
ribs  appeared  to  be  raised,  spread,  carried  forward,  depressed  and  pushed 
backward,  successively. 

J  Allen's  Mechanics,  p.  150. 


178  FAMILY 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION. 


turn  unladen,  135  pounds.  With  wheel-barrows  men  will  do  half  as 
inucli  more  work  as  with  hods,  as  in  the  mode  previously  mentioned. 
Surprising  accounts  are  given  of  the  strength  of  men  to  sustain 
weights  of  above  2000  lbs.  by  means  of  proper  apparatus  adjusted  to 
the  hips.  The  weights,  however,  in  the  cases  stated,  do  not  appear  to 
have  been  sustamed  by  muscular  strength,  but  merely  by  placing  the 
legs  in  the  most  favorable  perpendicular  position,  whereby  the  bones 
receive  the  whole  stress,  with  but  little  more  muscular  exertion  than 
is  required  for  maintaining  them  in  an  erect  posture.  The  bones  of 
the  legs  and  the  arch  of  the  pelvis,  although  apparently  so  frail  in 
form  and  texture,  are  constructed  with  such  admirable  science  that  it 
is  supposed  by  anatomists  they  might  sustain  a  weight  of  nearly  4000 
pounds. 

Aids  to  Locomotion.  Although  the  bodily  strength  of  mau,  ac- 
cording to  the  preceding  article,  would  enable  him  to  accomplish  much, 
without  mechanical  contrivance  ;  yet  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  inde- 
pendent of  that  contrivance  but  little  comparatively  could  be  effected 
eitlier  as  to  moving  himself,  or  conveying  the  more  ponderous  articles 
of  commerce,  great  distances,  in  any  moderate  space  of  time.  The 
aids  to  locomotion,  discovered  by  the  ingenuity  of  man  are  quite  nu- 
merous. We  shall  find  room  to  notice  but  a  few,  and  those  quite 
briefly. — 

Wheels.  Wheels  are  designed  to  diminish  friction,  and  also  to  sur- 
mount obstacles  or  inequalities  of  the  road,  with  more  advantage  than 
bodies  of  any  other  form  in  their  place  could  do.  The  friction  being 
transferred  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  the  centre  of  the  wheel, 
is  lessened  in  the  proportion,  which  the  diameter  of  the  axletree  bears 
to  the  diameter  of  the  wheel.  The  rubbing  surfaces,  also,  being  polish- 
ed and  oiled,  are  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  resist  friction.  The 
best  composition  for  diminishing  friction  is  said  to  bo  common  soap- 
stone  or  steatite  reduced  to  powder  and  mixed  with  oil.  One  part  of 
black  lead  to  three  parts  of  laxd  forms  also  a  good  anti-attrition  com- 
pound. 

The  principle  upon  which  a  wheel  easily  eurmounts  the  common  ob- 
stacles found  in  the  road  is  obvious.  It  is  converted  into  a  lever,  by 
means  of  which  the  load  is  lifted  with  greater  case,  and  its  centre  of 
gravity  passes  over  in  the  direction  of  an  easy  arc,  the  obstacle  furnish- 
ing the  fulcrum,  on  which  the  lever  acts. 

From  this  last  remark,  it  might  in  truth  be  inferred  that  the  ease  with 
■whicli  wheels  surmount  stones  and  similar  obstacles,  is  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  This  arises  from  the  well  known  principle,  tliat  the  longer 
the  arm  of  a  lever  is,  on  wliicli  a  given  force  acts,  the  greater  is  the 
result.  It  may  also  be  added  in  favor  of  large  wheels,  Uiat  they  sink 
less  in  soft  ground  than  small  ones,  and  are  less  liable  to  wear  out ; 
since,  in  passing  over  a  given  space,  they  turn  round  a  proportionably 
less  number  of  times.  A  wlieel,  which  is  three  feet  in  diameter  will 
turn  round  twice,  while  a  wheel,  which  is  six  feet  in  diameter  turns  but 
once.  Hence,  the  tiro  of  the  former  must  come  in  contact  with  the 
ground  twice  as  often  as  that  of  the  latter.  It  may  be  mentioned  as 
a  diminution  of  the  advantages  of  large  wheels,  that  in  order  to  pre- 
serve the  requisite  strength,  they  are  necessarily  cumbersome,  and  too 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  179 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION. 


heavy  for  use.  But  could  this  objection  be  obviated,  a  limit  must  bo 
assigned  for  the  size  of  carriage  wheels,  which  is,  that  the  axle  should 
not  be  above  the  level  of  the  draught,  or  breast  of  the  horse.  Indeed 
in  practice,  it  is  found  expedient  to  place  the  point  of  draught  some- 
what lower  than  the  middle  of  the  horse's  breast.  According  to  Dr. 
Gregory,  a  power  which  moves  a  sliding  body  along  a  horizontal  plane, 
acts  with  the  greatest  advantage,  as  far  as  friction  is  concerned,  when 
the  line  of  direction  makes  an  angle  of  about  18^  degrees  with  the 
plane.  M.  Deparcieux  states  from  experiments  with  carriages,  that  the 
angle  made  by  Uie  trace  with  a  horizontal  line,  should  be  one  of  14  or 
15  degrees. 

Broad  Wheels.  Much  has  been  written  on  the  comparative  utility  of 
wheels  which  have  a  broad,  or  a  narrow  rim.  The  advocates  for  the 
former  kind  of  wheels  urge,  that  they  pass  more  easily  over  ruts  and 
holes,  and  sink  to  a  smaller  depth  in  soft  and  sandy  roads.  Hence,  while 
narrow  rimmed  wheels  render  a  road  uneven,  by  causing  deep  and  nar- 
row ruts,  the  broad  constantly  act  as  rollers  upon  the  surface.  The 
principal  objections  to  broad  wheels  are,  their  greater  weight,  greater  ex- 
pense, and  the  greater  number  of  obstacles,  which  they  meet  in  their 
passage. 

Form  of  Wheels.  Were  roads  in  all  cases  level  and  smooth,  the  pro- 
per form  of  wheels  would  obviously  be  an  exact  eylinder,  with  their 
spokes  set  precisely  parallel  to  the  same  plane.  But  experience  has 
proved  the  advantage  of  wheels,  which  are  somewhat  conical  or  dish- 
ing. In  this  case,  when,  by  reason  of  an  inequality  iu  the  road,  the 
weight  of  the  carriage  is  chiefly  thrown  on  one  v/heel,  the  spokes  on 
the  under  side  of  that  wheel  becoming  more  nearly  vertical,  are  better 
able  to  sustain  the  increased  pressure.  A  further  advantage  presented 
by  this  form  of  wheels  is,  that  the  circumference  being  farther  from  the 
body  of  the  carriage,  less  mud  is  thrown  upon  it,  and  the  passengers 
are  less  annoyed.  The  chief  objection  to  this  form  of  the  wheel  is 
presented  in  an  increase  of  friction,  it  being  found  that  the  degree  of 
lateral  motion  and  friction  increases  in  proportion,  as  the  wheel  is  coni- 
cal or  dishing. 

Mode  of  attaching  a  Horse.  In  cities,  it  is  the  general  custom, 
growing  probably  out  of  the  circumscribed  limits  of  wharves,  which 
draymen  much  frequent,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  alleys,  through 
which  they  pass,  to  harness  draught  horses  before  each  other,  in  a  sin- 
gle line.  This  is,  however,  a  bn,d  mode  of  attaching  horses,  since  only 
the  shaft  horse  has  an  advantageous  lino  of  draft.  The  other  horses 
draw  nearly  in  a  horizontal  line,  and  of  course  to  a  disadvantage.  Be- 
sides, the  foremost  horses,  drawing  at  the  ends  of  the  shaft,  do  not  act 
directly  upon  the  load,  but  expend  a  part  of  their  force  in  a  vertical 
pressure  upon  the  back  of  the  shaft  horse.  A  better  mode  of  attach- 
ing horses,  is  to  make  them  work  abreast — since  they  are  then  in  the 
same  line  of  traction,  and  are  equally  near  to  the  load. 

Rail  Roads.  By  the  term  rail  road  is  understood  a  road  formed  by 
laying  distinct  tracks  of  timber,  iron,  or  stone,  for  wheel  carriages  to 
run  upon.  They  are  of  modern  invention.  The  earliest  rail  roads 
were  constructed  of  wood  only.  Stone  is  sometimes  employed,  but 
iron  only  should  be  used  where  durability  is  expected. 


180  FAMILY 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION. 


Iron  rail  roads  are  of  three  kinds — the  Edge  rail — the  Tram  road — 
and  the  Single  rail. 

In  the  edge  rail  way,  the  rails,  as  indicated  by  the  term,  are  laid  with 
the  edge  upwards,  and  the  carriage  is  retained  upon  them  by  a.Jlange^ 
or  projecting  edge,  attached  to  the  wheels  instead  of  the  rail.  Tram 
roads  are  flat  rails,  made  usually  of  cast  iron,  with  an  elevated  edge  or 
fleuige  on  one  side,  to  guide  the  wheels  of  carriages  in  their  path.  Tram 
rails  are  weaker  than  edge  rails,  and  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
strengthen  them  with  ribs  underneath.  In  the  single  rail  way  the  car- 
riage consists  of  two  boxes  suspended  on  each  side  of  the  rail  by  an 
iron  frame,  and  having  two  wheels  placed  one  before  the  other. 

Where  the  amount  of  travel  is  very  great  the  rail  road  is  double,  one 
set  of  tracts  being  designed  for  carriages  moving  in  each  direction.  A 
single  road,  however,  is  generally  sufficient  if  it  be  provided  with  dou- 
ble places,  called  sidelings^  for  carriages  to  pass  each  other  at  conveni- 
ent distances. 

Horses  are  commonly  employed  for  drawing  loads  upon  rail  ways  ; 
and  it  is  estimated  that  a  horse  will  draw  eight  times  as  much  upon  a 
rail  way,  as  upon  a  common  road.  Within  a  few  years,  steam  engines 
have  been  employed  for  propelling  carriages,  especially  in  England,  by 
means  of  which  the  most  surprising  velocity  is  with  perfect  security  at- 
tained. 

Rail  Roads  in  the  United  States  have  not  been  attempted  to  any  con- 
siderable extent ;  yet  several  are  in  contemplation,  and  it  can  scarcely 
be  doubted,  but  that  in  a  few  years  this  mode  of  conveyance  will  be  ex- 
tensively adopted,  and  in  preference  to  canals. 

In  England,  rude  tram  roads,  constructed  of  wood,  were  m  use  nearly 
two  centuries  ago  ;  but  the  present  improved  mode  of  constructing  and 
laying  the  rails  with  iron  is  of  very  recent  date.  The  first  rail  road 
established  by  act  of  parliament  was  the  Stockton  and  Darlington,  a 
distance  of  twenty  five  miles.  The  act  was  obtained  in  1823,  and  the 
road  was  opened  in  September  1825.  It  consists  of  a  single  line  of 
rails,  with  sidelings,  every  quarter  of  a  mile,  for  carriages  to  pass  each 
other.  It  is  principally  used  for  the  conveyance  of  coals  and  tra- 
vellers. 

Still  more  recently  the  important  and  stupendous  undertaking  of 
constructing  a  rail  road  from  Liverpool  to  Manchester,  a  distance  of 
something  more  than  thirty  miles,  has  been  completed.  The  interest 
excited  in  this  rail  way  has  arisen  chiefly  from  the  excavation  of  a  tun- 
nel, some  account  of  which  must  be  interesting  to  our  readers. 

This  tunnel  commences  at  Wapping  near  the  Queen's  Dock,  and  ex~ 
tends  under  the  town  of  Liverpool,  a  distance  of  2250  yards,  or  rather 
more  than  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  It  was  constructed  in  seven  or  eight 
separate  lengths,  each  communicating  with  the  surface  by  means  of 
perpendicular  shafts.  The  opening  at  Wapping  is  by  cutting  22  feet 
deep,  and  46  wide.  The  whole  length  of  the  tunnel  is  white-washed, 
and  lighted  by  gas,  and  the  eSect  produced  is  very  singular  and  pic- 
turesque ;  but  the  atmosphere  is  cold  and  chill,  and  the  vapor  is  at 
times  so  thick,  that  the  mere  spectator  of  this  monument  of  human  la- 
bor and  ingenuity  will  generally  be  satisfied  with  one  visit,  and  not  be 
tempted  to  repeat  it.  On  the  sides  of  the  tunnel,  at  short  distances  are 
placed  Uttered  boards,  for  the  purpose  of  informing  the  visitor  what 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


181 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION. 


pan  ol*  the  town  he  is  then  under.  The  distance  from  the  roof  to  the 
surface  of  the  ground  above  varies  from  5  feet  to  70  feet.  The  railg 
used  on  this  road  are  made  of  forged  iron,  in  lengths  of  five  yards 
each,  and  weigh  35  lbs.  per  yard.  Every  three  feet,  the  rails  rest  on 
blocks  of  stone,  let  into  the  ground,  containing  each  nearly  four  cubic 
feet.  Into  each  block,  two  holes  six  inches  deep  and  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter are  drilled ;  into  these  are  driven  oak  plugs,  and  the  cast  iron 
chairs  or  pedestals  into  which  the  rails  are  immediately  fitted,  are  firm- 
ly spiked  down  to  the  plugs,  forming  a  structure  of  great  solidity  and 
strength.  On  the  embankments,  where  the  road  may  be  expected  to 
subside,  a  little,  the  rails  are  laid  on  oak  sleepers.  For  eighteen  miles 
of  the  road  the  rails  are  placed  on  stone  blocks,  and  for  the  other  thir- 
teen on  sleepers.  The  double  line  of  rails  for  the  carriages  are  laid 
down  with  mathematical  correctness,  and  consist  of  four  equidistant 
rails,  four  feet  eight  inches  apart,  about  two  inches  in  breadth,  and  ris- 
ing about  an  inch  above  the  surface.  In  the  formation  of  the  railway 
there  have  been  dug  out  of  the  different  excavations,  upwards,  of  three 
millions  of  cubic  yards  of  stone,  clay,  and  soil,  and  the  weight  of  the 
double  lines  of  rail  laid  down  is  more  than  4,000  tons. 

For  the  purpose  of  giving  to  our  readers  some  conception  of  a  steam 
carriage,  designed  to  be  used  either  on  a  rail  road,  or  on  the  common 
high  way,  our  engraver  has  copied  the  model  of  sych  a  carriage,  not 
long  since  exhibited  at  London. 

'V 


A,  Water  Cistern— B,  the  Boiler — C,  Steering  Wheel  with  the  Con- 
ductor— D,  Steel  Frame  .which  carries  the  Boiler — E,  the  Curved 
Steam  Pipe  to  supply  the  Engines — F,  Hand  Pamp  and  Pipe  to  fill  the 
Boiler— G,  Safety  Valve — H,  Notice  Cocks — I,  Eduction  Pipe  to  take 
the  steam  from  the  Engine  to  th©  Chimney — K,  the  Crank — L,  the 
Pan  for  the  Cinders. 

The  subject  of  Rail  Beads  is  exciting  much  interest  at  the  present 
time  in  the  United  States.  Several  short  ones  are  already  constructed  ; 
one  of  greater  length,  extending   from  Albany  to   Schenectady  is  ia 

Q 


182  FAMILY 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION, 

progress,  and  others  stiilaro  in  contemplation,  and  will  doubtless  in  due 
time  be  completed. 

Steam  Engine.  The  steam  engine,  now  extensively  employed  as 
an  aid  to  locomotion  on  rail  rdads,  and  in  steam  boats,  as  well  as  to 
assist  in  the  mechanic  arts,  is  generally  attributed  to  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester,  as  the  inventor  ;  but  the  perfecting  of  it  belongs  to  James 
Watt,  a  native  of  Greenock,  in  Scotland.  The  improvements  made  in 
the  construction  of  the  steam  engine  within  the  last  five'and  twenty 
years,  are  too  numerous  to  be  here  described.  We  must  content  our- 
selves with  giving  our  readers  a  brief  description  and  a  representation 
of  a  modern  steam  engine,  which  may  of  course  be  constructed  of  any 
required  power,  and  applied  to  any  purpose. 

In  the  following  representation,  A  represents  a  wrought  iron  boiler, 
about  three  parts  filled  witli  water  ;  the  bottom  is  considerably,  and 
the  sides  a  little,  concave,  that  it  may  receive  more  fully  the  force  of 
the  flame  circulating  around  it.  Boilers  are  usually  of  an  oblong  form, 
and  are  furnished  with  a  part  that  takes  off,  in  order  that  a  person  may 
get  in  to  clean  them  when  needful ;  they  have  also  a  valve,  called  the 
safety-valve,  opening  upwards,  which  is  loaded  so  that  tlie  sieam  es- 
capes when  it  i^  stronger  than  the  engine  requires,  and,  if  retained, 
would  hazard  the  bursting  of  the  boiler.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  have 
two  boilers,  one  of  which  is  a  reserve,  that  the  engine  may  not  be  stop- 
ped, when  the  other  requires  repair. 

B,  is  an  apparatus  for  regulating  the  fire,  and  giving  action  to  a  bell, 
which  regulates  the  quantity  of  coals  and  time  of  firing. 

C,  the  sleani-pipe  from  the  boiler  A  to  the  valve  I. 

D,  the  steam-cylinder,  generally  called  only  "•  the  cylinder  ;"  it  is 
connected  at  the  top  and  bottom  with  the  valve  I. 

E,  the  piston,  which,  by  its  connecting  rod  e,  gives  motion  to  the 
beam  F,  the  other  end  of  which,  by  another  connecting  rod,  gives  mo- 
tion to  the  heavy  fly-wheel  G,  by  means  of  a  crank.  Thus,  after  the 
engine  has  begun  to  work,  its  power  is  accumulated  in  the  fly-wheel, 
and  may  be  disposed  of  at  the  pleasure  of  the  mechanist. 

H,  an  eccentric  circle  on  the  axle  of  the  fly-wheel  G  ;  it  gives  mo- 
tion by  its  levers,  to  the  valve  I. 

I,  a  coffer-slide  valve,  which  requires  no  packing  to  make  it  steam- 
tight,  as  there  is  always  a  vacuum  under  it :  it  answers  the  purpose  of 
the  four  valves  used  in  double-power  engines,  and  from  the  simplicity 
of  its  construction,  when  well  made  at  first,  is  not  liable  to  get  out  of 
order. 

K,  the  steam-admisaion  valve  and  lever,  connected  with  a  governor, 
which  regulates  the  speed  of  the  engine. 

L,  the  cylinder  of  the  discharging  pump,  for  extracting  the  water 
and  uncondensed  vapor  from  the  condenser  M. 

N,  a  small  cistern,  filled  with  water.  Into  this  cistern  enters  a  pipe 
from  the  condenser  M,  the  top  of  which  pipe  is  covered  with  a  valve, 
which  is  called  the  blow-valve,  sometimes  the  shifting  valve.  Through 
this  valve  ti)e  air  contained  in  the  cylinder  D,  and  passages  from  it,  is 
discharged,  previously  to  the  engine  being  set  in  motion. 

O,  the  eduction  pipe,  which  conducts  the  steam  from  the  valve  I  to 
the  condenser  M. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


183 


STEAM    ENGINE. 


184  FAMILY 


AIDS    TO    LOCOMOTION. 


P,  the  pump  which  supplies  witli  water  the  cistern  SS,  in  which  the 
condenser  and  discharging  pump  stand. 

QQ,  iron  columns,  of  which  the  engine  has  four,  although  only  two 
are  shown  ;  they  stand  upon  one  entire  plate  seen  edgeway,  on  which 
the  principal  parts  of  the  engine  are  fixed  ;  by  this  means  the  beam 
and  its  accompaniments  are  supported  without  being  connected  with 
any  part  of  the  building,  except  tlie  recess  below  the  floor  on  which  they 
stand. 

RR,  the  recess  below  the  floor,  for  containing  the  cistern  of  the  dis- 
charging pump,  condenser,  &;c.  This  arrangement  enables  those  en- 
gines to  be  fixed  up  and  tried  at  the  manufactory  before  they  are  sent 
off,  which  renders  the  refixing  easy  and  certain. 

Before  the  engine  is  set  to  work,  the  cylinder  D,  the  condenser  M, 
and  the  passages  between  them,  are  filled  with  common  air,  which  it  is 
necessary  to  extract.  Te  effect  this,  by  opening  the  valves,  a  commu- 
nication is  made  between  the  steam-pipe  C,  the  space  below  the  piston 
in  the  cylinder  D,  the  eduction-pipe  O,  and  tlie  condenser  M.  The 
steam  will  not  at  first  enter  the  cylinder  D,  or  will  only  enter  it  a  little 
wa}',  because  it  is  resisted  by  the  air  ;  but  the  air  in  the  eduction-pipe 
O^and  the  condenser  M,  it  forcibly  drives  before  it,  and  this  part  of  the 
air  makes  its  exit  through  the  valve  and  water  in  the  cistern  N.  The 
steam-admission  valve  is  now  closed,  and  the  steam  already  admitted 
is  converted  into  water,  partly  by  the  coldness  of  the  condenser  M,  but 
principally  by  a  jet  of  cold  water  which  enters  it  through  a  cock  open- 
ing into  it  from  the  v.- ell  SS,  in  which  the  condenser  is  immersed. — 
"When  this  steam  is  condensed,  all  the  space  it  occupied  would  be  a 
vacuum,  did  not  the  air  in  the  cylinder  D  expand,  and  fill  all  the  space 
tlie  original  quantity  of  it  filled  ;  but  by  the  repetition  of  the  means 
for  extracting  a  part  of  the  air,  the  remainder  is  blown  out,  and  the 
cylinder  becomes  filled  with  steam  alone.  Suppose  then  the  cylinder 
beneath  the  piston  to  be  filled  with  steam,  and  the  further  admission  of 
steam  to  that  part  of  it  be  cut  ofl:',  while  the  communication  between  it 
and  the  condenser  remains  open,  it  is  obvious  that  there  will  soon  be  a 
vacuum  in  the  cylinder,  because  as  fast  as  the  steam  reaches  the  con- 
denser, it  is  converted  into  water  by  the  coldness  of  that  vessel  and  the 
jet  playing  within  it.  At  this  moment,  therefore,  the  steam  is  admitted 
above  the  piston,  which  it  immediately  presses  down.  As  soon  as  the 
piston  reaches  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  the  steam  is  admitted  to 
the  under  side  of  it ;  and  as  the  communication  from  the  upper  side  of 
the  piston  to  the  condenser  is  opened,  while  the  further  admission  of 
steam  to  that  side  during  the  upper  stroke,  is  prevented,  the  steam 
vvhich  had  pressed  the  piston  down  passes  into  the  condenser,  and  is 
converted  into  water. 

The  motion  of  the  piston  E,  by  this  alternate  admission  and  extrac- 
tion of  the  steam  on  eacli  side  of  it,  is  thus  necessarily  continued,  and 
the  distance  of  its  upward  and  downward  range  is  called  the  length  of 
its  stroke.  It  commimicates  its  reciprocating  motion,  by  the  connect- 
ing rod  c,to  the  great  beam  F,  and  thence,  by  another  connecting-rod 
and  a  crank,  to  the  fly-wheel  G. 

To  explain  the  rapid  accumulation  of  power  with  an  increase  of  the 
size  of  the  engine,  it  must  be  observed,  that  the  force  of  the  steam  gen- 
erally used,  is  somewhat  greater  than  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere ; 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 185 

AIDS    TO   LOCOMOTION. 


bat  supposing  it  to  be  no  greater,  as  the  atmospheric  pressure  is  fifteen 
pounds  on  each  sqare  inch,  a  piston  16  inches  in  diameter,  containing 
201  square  inches  of  surface,  will  alternately  be  raised  and  depressed 
by  a  force  equivalent  to  a  weight  of  3015  pounds.  Here  no  allowance  is 
made  for  friction,  but  after  the  requisite  deduction  on  this  account, 
which  may  be  reckoned  at  one  third,  the  disposable  part  of  the  engine, 
derived  from  each  stroke,  will  still  be  very  great. 

The  condeaser  M,  and  the  discharging-pump  L,  communicate  by 
means  of  a  horizontal  pipe  containing  a  valve  j/ opening  towards  the 
pump;  the  piston,  Z,  of  this  pump,  also  contains  two  valves,  and  the 
cistern  T,  at  the  top  of  the  pump-cylinder,  contains  other  two  valves, 
which,  like  those  of  the  piston  /,  open  upwards.  When  the  piston  E  of 
the  cylinder  is  depressed,  the  piston  /,  of  the  discharging-pump,  it  will 
be  obvious  to  inspection,  is  depressed  likewise,  and  its  valves  open, 
while  the  valve  y  closes  ;  hence  the  water  from  the  condensed  steam, 
as  well  as  the  injection-water,  and  any  permanent  elastic  vapor  or  gas, 
which  may  be  present,  having  passed  through  the  valve  y,  passes 
through  the  piston  I  :  and  when  that  piston  is  drawn  up,  its  valves 
close,  and  prevent  their  return,  as  in  ordinary  pump- work.  The  water 
and  gas  that  have  thus  got  above  the  piston,  as  the  latter  rises,  open 
the  valves  at  the  bottom  of  the  cistern  T,  in  which  the  water  remains 
till  it  is  full,  but  the  gas  passes  into  the  atmosphere.  As  the  water  in 
the  cistern  T  is  in  a  very  hot  state,  it  is  sometimes,  for  the  purpose  of 
economizing  fuel,  pumped  up,  and  returned  to  the  boiler,  tlie  pump-rod 
being  attached  to  the  great  beam.  The  utility  of  the  discharging-pump 
L,  will  now  be  appreciated,  and  it  must  be  perceived  how  much  more 
materially  it  contributes  to  the  perfection  of  the  vacuum  in  the  cyl- 
inder D,  than  if  the  water  from  the  condenser  merrily  ran  off  by  a 
pipe. 

The  steam  constantly  rushing  into  the  condenser  M,  has  a  perpetual 
tendency  to  heat  that  vessel,  as  well  as  the  water  of  the  cistern  SS,  in 
which  it  stands  :  the  whole  of  the  steam,  if  this  were  unchecked,  would 
not  be  condensed,  or  the  condensation  would  not  be  sufficiently  rapid, 
because  the  injection-water  itself  flows  out  of  this  cistern.  A  part  of 
the  water  is  therefore  allowed  to  flow  from  this  cistern  by  a  waste 
pipe,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  cold  is  constantly  sunplied  by  the  pump 
P. 

In  Newcomen's  engine,  which,  as  it  acted  by  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, is  often  called  an  atmospherical  engine,  the  cylinder  was 
open  at  the  top,  and  therefore,  during  the  descent  of  the  piston,  the  air 
exerted  a  great  power  in  cooling  it ;  but  in  the  modern  engines,  where 
steam  is  the  active  power  both  in  raising  and  depressing  the  piston,  the 
top  of  the  cylinder  is  closed  with  an  iron  lid,  and  not  an  atom  of  steam 
can  escape,  except  at  the  proper  time,  into  the  condenser.  In  order 
that  the  connecting  rod  e,  may  work  freely,  and  yet  possess  this  de- 
sirable property  of  being  steam-tight,  it  passes  through  what  is  called  a 
stuffing:  or  packing  box.  This  stuffing  consists  of  some  naaterial  which 
the  steam  will  rather  adapt  to  its  office  than  injure  ;  leather,  which  is 
used  for  the  stuffing  or  collars  of  machines  never  to  be  subjected  to 
heat,  will  not  answer  here  ;  hempen  yarn  is  the  material  usually  em- 
ployed.   The  rod  of  the  piston  /,  passes  through  a  stuffing  box  of  the 

Q* 


186  FAMILY 


AIDS  TO  LOCOMOTION. CANALS. 

same  kind  as  that  of  the  piston  E  ;  and  the  pistons  themselves  are  sur- 
rounded with  stuffing. 

7'he  cylinder  D  is  surrounded  by  a  case,  to  keep  it  from  being  cooled 
by  contact  with  the  external  air.  The  extremity,  or  any  given  point 
removed  from  the  centre  of  the  great  beam,  can  describe  only  the  arc 
of  a  circle  ;  but  it  is  necessary  that  the  piston  rod  e  should  rise  and  fall 
verticalh'.  Nevvcomen  effected  this  object,  by  fixing  the  end  of  the 
beam  into  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  radius  of  which  was  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance from  the  centre  of  the  beam  :  a  chain  went  over  this  arc,  and  was 
fastened  on  the  higher  end  of  it  ;  this  simple  contrivance  effectually 
answered  his  purpose,  because  in  his  engine  the  effective  stroke  was 
only  downwards ;  but  here,  in  a  double-power  engine,  where  the 
stroke  is  both  upwards  and  downwards,  a  chain  would  yield  in  rising, 
and  be  altogether  unsuitable.  An  apparatus  is  therefore  used,  called 
the  parallel  joint,  which  is  easily  understood  by  inspection.  By  this 
means  the  rod  c,  not  only  rises  and  falls  perpendicularly,  but  is  perfect- 
ly rigid,  and  communicates  all  its  motion  to  the  great  beam  in  each  di- 
rection of  its  motion.  The  connecting  rod  g  does  not  require  the  same 
contrivance,  because  it  does  not  rise  and  fall  perpendicularly  ;  its  lower 
end,  with  the  outer  end  of  the  crank,  describing  a  circle  :  it  has  there- 
fore only  a  simple  joint,  admitting  of  this  deviation. 

Canals.  A  canal  is  an  artificial  channel  filled  witli  water  from  riv- 
ers, fee.  in  order  to  make  a  Jiavigable  communication  from  one  place  to 
another.  .The  operations  necessary  for  making  artificial  navigations 
depend  on  many  circumstances ;  as  the  situation  of  the  ground,  its  vi- 
cinity or  connexion  with  rivers,  the  ease  or  difficulty  with  which  a 
proper  quantity  of  water  can  be  procured,  with  a  variety  of  other 
points,  ivhich  must  be  taken  into  consideration,  before  such  a  work 
can  be  entered  upon.  When  the  ground  is  naturally  level  and  uncon- 
nected with  rivers,  the  execution  is  easy,  and  the  navigation  is  not  li- 
able to  be  disturbed  by  floods  ;  but  when  the  ground  liscs  and  falls, 
and  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  level,  artificial  methods  of  raising  and 
lowering  vessels  must  be  used,  which  vary  according  to  circumstan- 
ces. 

it  cannot  be  expected  in  a  work  of  the  present  kind,  that  we  should 
find  room  to  describe  the  various  parts  of  a  canal — its  embankments — 
its  culverts,  aqueducts— tunnels,  gates  and  weirs,  locks,  &:c.  For  an 
account  of  these,  we  nmst  refer  oiir  readers  to  the  treatises,  which  par- 
ticularly relate  to  them,  and  which  are  now  common  in  tlio  country. — 
The  remainder  of  this  article  will  be  devoted  to  a  general  account  of 
some  of  tile  more  considerable  works  of  this  sort,  which  are  to  be  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  globe. 

Canals  of  Egypt.  This  country  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  ca- 
nals— the  principal  of  which  are,  however,  the  canal  of  Alexandria,  ex- 
tending from  that  city  to  Rtjsetta  and  the  Nile  ;  the  canal  of  Jessuf,  on 
the  western  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  parallel  to  it, — and  that  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  Nile,  across  the  isthmus  of  Suez. 

Canals  of  China.  The  empire  of  China  is  supposed  to  have  a  more 
extensive  inland  navigation  than  any  other  nation  ;  if  not  greater  than 
all  other  nations.  The  course  of  the  Chinese  canals  is  generally  in  a 
northerly  and  southerly  direction,  between  the  two  principal  rivers  of 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  187 


CANALS. 


the  country — the  Yang-tse  and  Yellow  liver.  The  summits  to  be  pass- 
ed over  by  boats  are  often  very  great.  This  is  effected,  in  that  coun- 
try, chiefly  by  means  of  inchned  planes  and  rollers,  over  which  they  are 
drawn  by  men.  Some  of  the  most  noted  of  these  works  have  been  in 
operation  about  2000  years,  having  been  completed  nearly  a  fcentury 
before  the  Christian  Era;  and,  about  A.  0.  605,  it  is  stated,  there 
were  completed  in  the  empire  1600  leagues  of  canal.  The  most  cele- 
brated is  the  Imperial  canal,  by  which  a  communication  is  opened  he- 
tween  Pekin  and  Canton.  Malte-Brun  estimates  the  length  of  this  to 
be  1660  miles ;  but  it  is  stated  by  others  to  be  considerably  less.  The 
navigation  of  the  whole  line  occupies  about  three  months.  None  but 
the  emperor's  boats,  estimated  at  1000,  of  100  tons  burthen  each,  are 
permitted  to  pass  upon  it. 

Canals  of  Italy.  To  the  Italians  we  are  indebted  for  the  great  im- 
provements in  respect  to  locks  and  sluices  found  in  modern  canals  ; 
but  which  were  wanting  in  those  of  ancient  times,  and  in  those  of  Chi- 
na, at  tlie  present  da}'.  These  were  the  invention  of  two  engineers  of 
Viterbo,  brothers,  whose  names  have  not  been  handed  dov\rn.  The  ca- 
nals of  Italy  are  too  numerous  to  be  specified  here. 

Canals  of  Russia.  Canals  in  Russia  owe  their  existence  to  Peter 
the  Great,  who  had  observed  their  beneficial  effects  in  Holland.  He 
commenced  three;  of  which  we  may  notice — the  canal  of  Ladoga^  be- 
gun 1718,  and  finished  by  the  Empress  Anne,  67^  miles  long,  uniting 
the  Volk  and  the  Neva;  the  canal  o?  Vishnei-Volosholk^  forming  a 
communication  by  water,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Wolga  and  several 
other  rivers,  between  Astracan  and  Petersburg,  or  between  tho  Caspi- 
an and  tiie  Baltic.  Through  this  latter  canal,  3485  barques  are  said  to 
have  passed  in  a  single  year.  By  means  of  the  canals  and  rivers  of 
Russia,  goods  may  be  transported  from  the  frontiers  of  China  to  Pe- 
tersburg, a  distance  of  4472  miles;  and  the  line  of  navigation  from  As- 
tracan to  the  capital  is  1434  miles. 

Canals  of  Sweden.  Inland  navigation  has  for  many  years,  been  a 
subject  of  much  interest  to  the  government  of  Sweden.  Several  of  the 
modern  canals  are  quite  long  and  well  constructed.  We  may  specify 
the  canal  of  Stromsholm,  GO  miles  long,  with  25  locks  ;  the  Kindac  ca- 
nal and  the  Goiha  canal,  designed  to  open  a  communication  between 
lake  Wenner  and  the  Baltic  ;  and  the  canal  ofTrolhatla^  making  a  nav- 
igable channel  round  the  rapids  of  Trolhatta,  in  the  river  Gotha.  This 
last  canal,  which  is  but  two  miles  in  length,  is  a  stupendous  work.  It 
has  nine  locks,  which  rise  and  fall  1 14  feet,  mostly  hewn  from  a  solid 
rock. 

Canals  of  Denmark.  The  principal  canal  in  Denmark  is  that  of 
KeiL  which  unites  the  Baltic  with  the  German  ocean.  It  was  begun  in 
1777,  and  completed  in  1785.  It  is  100  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  57  at 
the  bottom.     The  least  depth  of  water  is  10  feet. 

Canals  of  Holland.  Canals  intersect  this  country,  as  is  well  known, 
in  every  direction.  They  sen^e  for  navigation  in  summer,  and  roads 
of  ice  in  winter.  The  most  celebrated  canal  is  tlie  great  ship  canal  of 
Amsterdam,  extending  from  this  city  to  NieweDiep,on  the  north  coast 
of  Holland,  a  distance  of  41  miles,  by  a  circuitous  route  of  50i  miles. 
At  the  top  the  breadth  is  124i  English  feet ;  at  the  bottom  36— with  a 


188  FAMILY 


CANALS. 


depth  of  20  feet  9  inches.  The  canal  is  sufficiently  wide  to  admit  of  one 
frigate  passing  another. 

Canals  of  Germany.  Canal  navigation  in  Germany  is  quite  limited, 
considering  the  extent  and  resources  of  the  country.  This  is  chiefly 
attributed  to  the  division  of  the  territory  into  numerous  small  and  inde- 
pendent states.  The  two  principal  canals  are  those  of  Vienna^  between 
that  city  and  Newstadt,  40  miles  long ;  and  Francis^  of  the  same  length, 
between  the  Danube  and  the  Jeysse. 

Canals  of  France.  There  are  probably  not  less  than  50  canals  in 
France,  which  furnish  an  inland  navigation  of  about  900  miles.  The 
first  great  canal  constructed  in  France  was  the  canal  of  Briare,  between 
the  Loire  and  Seine.  It  is  34^  miles  in  length,  and  was  37  years  in 
executing.  The  bottom  of  this  canal  is  25  feet  wide  ;  the  number  of 
locks  40  or  42.  The  estimated  cost  was  $3,700,000.  The  Lnnguedoc 
canal,  which  opens  a  communication  between  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Atlantic,  is  also  a  stupendous  work,  of  148  miles  in  length  ;  64  feet 
wide  at  the  surface  ;  34  at  the  bottom,  rising  at  the  summit  640  feet, 
which  are  passed  by  means  of  1 14  locks.  This  canal  passes  under  a 
mountain  at  Beziers,  by  a  tunnel  720  feet  in  length.  It  is  crossed  by  92 
road  bridges,  and  has  55  aqueduct  bridges.  Its  cost  was  $6, 1 60,000. 
Besides  the  above,  we  may  mention,  as  works  of  great  importance,  the 
canal  of  Orleans — of  Loing — of  the  Centre — and  of  St.  Q^uitin. 

Canals  of  Great  Britain.  The  English  were  a  century  after  the 
French  in  commencing  the  construction  of  canals  upon  a  large  scale, 
the  act  for  the  first  canal  being  passed  by  parliament  in  )735  ;  but 
since  that  time,  numerous  works  of  this  kind  have  been  completed,  and 
every  year  is  adding  to  the  number.  In  1823,  the  total  length  of  canals 
in  the  United  Kingdom  was  2589  miles.  One  of  the  principal  canals 
in  England  is  denominated  the  Grand  Trunk,  which  passes  through  the 
centre  of  the  country,  and  connects  the  Mersey  with  the  Trent,  99 
miles  ;  thence  to  the  Severn,  40  miles.  A  branch  of  this  canal,  called 
the  Oxford  canal,  extends  90  miles  to  that  city.  From  the  upper  part 
of  this  latter  canal,  another  branch,  of  100  miles  in  length,  extends  to 
the  Thames,  a  short  distance  above  London,  called  the  Grand  Junction. 
In  Scotland,  the  principal  canal  is  the  Caledonian  canal,  which  connects 
the  Murray  Frith,  on  the  eastern  coast,  with  the  Atlantic  ocean  on  the 
west.  It  is  59  miles  in  length  (37  of  which  are  in  natural  waters)  and 
is  navigable  for  frigates  of  32  guns.  This  canal  cost  $36,500  per  mile. 
In  Ireland,  the  chief  canal  is  called  the  Grand  canal.  It  extends  from 
the  LifFey,  at  Dublin,  83  miles,  to  the  river  Shannon. 

American  canals.  The  first  canal  of  any  magnitude  constructed  in 
the  United  States,  was  the  Middlesex  tana/,  uniting  the  Merrimac  with 
Boston  harbor.  This  canal,  which  is  22  miles  in  length,  was  commen- 
ced in  1790.  Since  that  date,  and  indeed  within  14  or  15  years,  a  great 
extent  of  inland  navigation,  by  means  of  canals,  has  been  opened  in 
the  country.  At  the  present  time,  (1831,)  there  is  probably  not  far 
from  2500  miles  of  canal,  either  constructed,  or  in  progress  of  execution 
among  us.  In  the  single  state  of  Pennsylvania,  the  canals  constructed, 
or  in  contemplation,  have  been  estimated  at  a  length  of  900  miles — al- 
most equal  to  that  of  France.  Among  the  principal  canals  in  the  United 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  189 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 


States,  we  may  briefly  mention,  besides  tlie  Middlesex,  the  Blackstone, 
connecting  Worcester  and  Providence,  45  miles  ;  the  Farmington  canal, 
connecting,  when  fully  completed,  New  Haven  and  Northampton,  65 
miles  ;  the  Hudson  and  Erie  Canal,  connecting  Albany  and  Lake 
Erie,  363 ;  to  which  we  may  more  briefly  add  the  Champlain  canal, 
the  Hudson  and  Delaware,  Morris  and  Ohio  state  canal,  besides  several 
others. 

No  friend  to  his  country  can  regard  with  indiff'erence  these  numerous 
channels  of  internal  communication,   whether  viewed  as  evidences  of 
a  spirit  of  enterprise,  or  considered  as  sources  of   wealth  and  con 
venience. 


HEATING  AND  VENTILATION. 

Fuel.  In  a  climate  like  that  of  the  United  States,  especially  that 
of  the  middle  and  northern  portion,  where  fires  are  essential  to  comfort, 
for  a  considerable  part  of  the  year,  the  subject  of  fuel  is  not  without 
its  importance  to  all.  Wood  is  probably  annually  diminishing  in  the 
more  populous  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  gradually  increasing  in 
price,  unless  it  be  in  those  places,  the  inhabitants  of  which  can  avail 
themselves  of  coal.  But  even  coal  must  have  its  limits  ;  and,  after 
the  lapse  of  an  indefinite  period,  will  itself  be  enhanced  in  price.  Con- 
sidered prospectively,  every  patriot  and  every  benevolent  man  must 
.perceive  the  importance  of  economy  in  respect  to  fuel — for  even  if  now 
there  be  an  abundance,  prodigality  such  ag  has  been  practised  would, 
with  the  increased  demand,  arising  from  an  increased  population,  and 
the  multiplication  of  machinery  in  the  country,  at  no  distant  day,  so 
diminish  the  quantity  of  fuel  in  the  country,  as  to  bring  distress  upon 
most  classes,  especially  upon  the  poor.  Indeed,  as  a  writer,  whom  we 
shall  have  occasion  more  particularly  to  notice  presently,  remarks, 
'•■  the  savings  of  a  large  portion  of  the  poor,  during  tlA  summer,  are 
now  often  inadequate  to  purchase  a  sutficient  supply  of  fuel  for  the 
winter."  "  Hence,"  ho  remarks,  •-*  it  must  obviously  be  highly  impor- 
tant to  ascertain  the  comparative  efliciency  of  difl:erent  kinds  of  fuel ; 
as  without  this  knowledge,  those  who  are  desirous  of  economizing 
may  be  prodigal  through  ignorance. 

To  the  writer  above  alluded — Mr.  Marcus  Bull,  of  Philadelphia,  we 
are  indebted  for  a  course  of  experiments  upon  the  combustion  of  fuel, 
founded  upon  the  quantity  of  heat  or  temperature  imparted  to  the  air 
of  a  small  chamber,  and  maintained  for  a  certain  time.  In  his  experi- 
ments, a  pound  of  fuel  was  burned  in  a  small  stove,  provided  with  a 
crooked  funnel  or  pipe,  of  sufiicient  length  to  give  out  all  the  heat,  be- 
fore the  draught  passed  it  off"  out  of  the  apartment,  leaving  the  last  end 
of  the  pipe  always  cold.  Of  the  memoir  published  by  Mr.  Bull,  it 
gives  us  pleasure  to  record  the  opinion  of  Professor  Silliman  :  "  It  is 
replete  with  interesting  information,  and  is  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  important  contributions  of  science  to  the  arts,  and  to  domestic 
economy,  which  has  been  made  for  a  long  time  in  this  country." 

"The  chamber,  which  Mr.  Bull  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  his  ex- 
periments," observes  Mr.  Allen,  in  his  Mechanics,  to  which  work  we 
are  indebted  for  the  following  epitome  of  Mr.  Bull's  course  of  experi- 
ments, "  was  eight  feet  square,  containing  512  cubic  feet  of  air.     It  was 


190  FAMILY  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 

constructed,  within  a  larger  room,  of  boards  grooved  together  in  the 
most  perfect  manner  for  rendering  it  tight,  and  cutting  off  the  com- 
munication with  the  air  of  the  external  room.  The  fuel,  upon  which 
he  made  his  experiments,  was  consumed  in  a  small  cylindrical  stove, 
twelve  inches  high,  and  four  inches  in  diameter,  made  of  common  sheet 
iron  lined  with  clay.  The  pipe  of  the  stove,  made  of  extra  thin  black 
tin,  for  radiating  as  well  as  communicating  heat  in  the  most  favorable 
manner,  was  two  inches  diameter,  and  forty-two  feet  long,  with  several 
elbows.  The  standard  taken  by  him  was  shell  bark  hickory,  which  is 
heavier  than  any  other  wood  in  his  table,  and  disengages  during  its 
combustion,  an  equal  quantity  of  heat  from  any  given  weight.  The 
comparative  numbers  express  the  value  of  one  cord  of  each  of  the 
woods,  one  ton  of  the  anthracite  coals,  and  one  hundred  bushels  of  the 
bituminous  coals,  charcoal,  and  coke.  The  column  of  comparative 
values  he  found  in  this  manner :  "  The  value  of  a  given  quantity  of 
fuel  is  directly  proportioned  to  the  time  that  a  given  weight  of  it  main- 
tained the  air  of  the  room,  at  a  given  temperature,  and  also  its 
weight." 

"  The  comparative  value  for  producing  heat,  of  the  different  sort^ 
of  fuel  in  the  table,  may  be  found,  by  assuming  a  price  for  the  hickory, 
as  sold  in  the  market  for  one  cord  of  128  cubic  feet.  Supposing;  the 
cord  of  shell  bark  hickory  to  be  six  dollars,  it  is  required  to  ascertain 
by  the  table  the  equivalent  price  for  a  cord  of  red  heart  hickory.  The 
comparative  value  of  the  former  is  100  and  of  the  latter  81.  Then,  as 
100:  600  :  :  81 :  4  86=  four  dollars  eighty-six  cents  ;  at  which  price 
the  red  heart  hickory  would  be  as  cheap  as  the  shell  bark  Ixickory. 

"  A  mere  examination  of  the  comparative  numbers,  will  show  that  a 
cord  of  white  birch  is  52  per  cent,  less  in  value  than  a  cord  of  shell 
bark  liickory,  and  the  difference  per  cent,  may  be  calculated  from  the 
comparative  numbers  between  any  two  articles  sold  at  the  same  price." 

"  In  like  manRer  the  comparative  value  of  a  ton  of  Lehigh  coal  may 
be  found  by  the  rules  of  proportion.  As  100,  the  standard  of  a  cord 
of  hickory,  is  to  g6  00,  tlie  price  of  it  in  the  market,  so  is  99  the  com- 
parative value  of  this  coal  for  emitting  heat,  to  the  answer  ^5  94, 
which  shows  them  to  be  nearly  of  the  same  value,  supposing  each  ar- 
ticle to  be  consumed  under  nearly  the  same  circumstances. 

"  The  comparison  of  a  ton  of  Lehigh  coal,  at  seven  dollars,  with 
one  hundred  bushels  of  Newcastle  coal  at  thirty-five  dollars,  the  price 
of  each  description  of  coal  at  that  time  in  the  Philadelphia  market, 
will  give  the  following  result,  greatly  in  favor  of  the  American  article. 
As  99  :  ^7  00  :  :  198  :  $14  00,— that  is,  one  hundred  bushels  of  New- 
castle coal,  costing  thirty-five  dollars,  will  impart  twice  aa  much  heat 
to  a  room  when  burned  in  a  close  stove,  as  one  ton  of  Lehigh  coal,  by 
which  a  ton  of  Lehigh  coal  at  seven  dollars,  appears  to  be  of  equal 
value,  for  tliie  purpose,  to  50  bushels  of  Newcastle  coal,  costing  seven- 
teen dollars  and  fifty  cents.  The  American  coal  is  therefore  actually 
cheaper,  when  used  for  heating  rooms  by  close  stoves,  than  the  Eng- 
lish coal  by  150  per  cent. 

Indeed  the  value  of  anthracite  coal  for  heating  rooms  by  means  of 
close  stoves,  has  been  found  by  experience,  so  evidently  superior  in 
point  of  economy,  to  that  of  other  sorts  of  fuel,  that  it  has  already 
come  into  very  general  use. 


EXTRACT  FROM  Mr.  BULL'S  TABLE. 


1 

Product 

iBushel 

Timel0«o 

I  Value  of  spe- 

Specific jAvoirdu 

of  Char 

lofchar 

heat  were 

cified  quanti 

Comnion  names  of 

Gravi- 

poise lbs 

coal  from 

coal 

maintainei 

ties  of  each 

Woods  and  Coale 

ties  of 

of  dry 

100  parts 

froml 

by  the  com 

article  com- 

Dry 

wood  in 

of  dry 

cord  of 

bustionof] 

pared  with 

Wood. 

one  cord 

wood  by 

dry 

lb.  of  each 

shell-bark 

weight. 

wood. 

article. 

Bickory. 

H.  M. 

Cord. 

White  Ash, 

.778 

3450 

25.74 

31 

6    40 

Apple  Tree, 

.697 

3115 

25 

33 

6    40 

70 

White  Beach, 

.724 

3236 

19.62 

23 

6 

65 

Bl.ick  Birch, 

.697 

3115 

19.40 

27 

6 

63 

Whit*  Birch, 

.530 

2369 

19. 

24 

6 

48 

Butter-Nut, 

.567 

2534 

20.79 

50 

6 

51 

Red  Cedar, 

.565 

2525 

24.72 

30 

6    40 

56 

American  Chesnut, 

.522 

2333 

25.29 

27 

6    40 

S3 

Wild  Cherry, 

.597 

2668 

21.70 

26 

6    10 

55 

Dog  Wood, 

.815 

3643 

21. 

34 

6    10 

75 

White  Ehn, 

.580 

2592 

24.85 

36 

6    40 

58 

Shell-Bark  Hickory, 

1.000 

4469 

26.22 

32 

6    40 

100 

Pig-Nut  Hickory, 

.949 

4241 

25.22 

32 

6    40 

95 

Red-Heart  Hickory, 

.829 

3705 

22.90 

.39 

6    30 

81 

Witch-Hazel, 

.784 

3505 

21.40 

25 

6    10 

73 

American  Hornbeam, 

.720 

3218 

19. 

30 

6 

65 

Hard  Maple, 

.644 

2878 

21.43 

27 

6    10 

60 

Soft  Maple, 

.597 

2668 

20.64 

28 

6 

54 

Chesnut  White  Oak, 

.885 

3955 

22.76 

36 

6    30 

86 

White  Oak, 

.855 

3821 

21.62 

39 

6    20 

81 

Shell-Bark  White  Oak, 

.775 

3464 

22.50 

32 

6    20 

74 

Barren  Scrub  Oak, 

.747 

3339 

21.27 

38 

6    30 

73 

Pin  Oak, 

.747 

3339 

22.22 

32 

6    20 

71 

Scrub  Black  Oak, 

.728 

3254 

23.80 

38 

6    30 

71 

Red  Oak, 

.728 

3254 

22.43 

30 

6    20 

69 

Barreu  Oak, 

.694 

3102 

22.37 

29] 

6    20 

66 

Rock  Chesnut  Oak, 

.678 

3030 

20.86 

28* 

6 

61 

Yellow  Oak, 

.653 

2919 

21.60 

41 

6    10 

60 

Yellow  Pine,  (Soft,) 

.551 

2463 

23.75 

33 

6    30 

54 

Pitch  Pine, 

.426 

1904 

26.76 

33 

6    40 

43 

White  Pine, 

.418 

1868 

24.35 

30 

6    40 

43 

Yellow  Poplar, 

.563 

2516 

21.81 

27 

6    10 

53 

Lombardy  Poplar, 

.397 

1774 

25. 

34 

6    40 

40 

Sassafras, 

.618 

2762 

22.58 

28 

6    20 

59 

Sycamore, 

.535 

2391 

23.60 

29 

6    30 

53 

Black  Walnut, 

.681 

3044 

22.56 

31 

6    ^ 

65 

Specific 

Lbs.  of 

Gravi- 

dry coal 

ties  of 

in  one 

dry  coal 

bushel. 

Ton. 

Lehigh  Coal, 

1.494 

78.61 

13    10 

09 

Lacawaxen  Coal, 

1.400 

73.67 

13    10 

99 

Rhode-Island  Coal, 

1.438 

75.67 

9    30 

71 

Schuylkill  Coal, 

1.453 

76.46 

13    40 

103 

Susquehanna  Coal, 

1.373 

72.25 

13    10 

99 

Swatara  Coal, 

1.459 

76.77 

11    20 

85 

Worcester  Coal, 

2.104 

110.71 

7    50 

59 
100  bushels. 

Cannel  Coal, 

1.5M0 

65.25 

10    30 

230 

Liverpool  Coal, 

1..331 

70.04 

9    10 

215 

Newcastle  Coal, 

1.204 

63.35 

9    20 

198 

Scotch  Coal, 

1.140 

59.99 

9    30 

191 

Karthaus  Coal, 

1.263 

66.46 

9    20 

208 

Richmond  Coal, 

1.246 

65.56 

9    20 

205 

Stony  Creek  Coal, 

1.396 

73.46 

9    50 

243 

Hickory  Charcoal, 

.625 

32.89 

}6 

136 

Maple  Charcoal, 

.431 

S2.68 

15 

114 

Oak  Charcoal, 

.401 

21.10 

15 

106 

Pine  Charcoal, 

.285 

15. 

15 

75 

Coke, 

.557 

29.31 

12    50 

126 

Composition  of  two] 

parts  Lehigh    Coal,  1 

13    30 

one    Charcoal,  and  { 

one  Clay,  by  weight,  J 

i 

i 

192  FAMILY 


HEATING   AND   VENTILATION. 


In  the  preceding  table  the  weight  of  the  mineral  coal  is  giren  in  its 
dry  stat«.  In  ordinary  calculations  the  weight  of  coals  is  estimated  in 
the  damp  state,  as  commonly  used  from  the  mines.  The  anthracite 
from  its  peculiarly  close  glassy  texture,  imbibes  but  little  moisture. 
The  weight  of  a  bushel  of  bituminous  coals  will  generally  average 
nearly  one-seventh  more  when  damp  than  when  dry,  as  stated  in  Mr. 
Bull's  table. 

A  bushel  of  Richmond  coal  under  ordinary  circumstances  is  suppo- 
sed to  weigh  ...  76  lbs. 
Do.        New-Castle  Coal,              .            .            about  80  do. 
Do.         Anthracite  Coal,         .             :            .  81  do. 

Mr.  Bull  also  extended  his  inquiries  into  the  comparative  advantages 
of  close  stoves  and  open  fire  places  for  heating  the  air  of  his  little 
chamber.  He  considered  that  when  the  same  stove  and  pipe  was  used, 
as  in  his  preceding  experiments,  that  the  whole  heat  given  out  by  the 
burning  fuel  was  imparted  to  the  air  of  the  room,  and  that  there  was 
consequently  no  loss  of  heat  by  the  flue  or  otherwise.  Assuming  then- 
this  stove  and  long  funnel  as  the  standard,  he  has  given  the  following 
results  : 

Each  apparalus  required,,  to  maintain  the  room  at  the  same  temperature,, 

and  for  the  same  time. 
Sheet  Iron  Cylinder  Stove,  as  before  described,   with  42      Weight 
feet  of  2  inch  pipe  as  used  in  the  course  of  experiments     ^^^g'^^' 
on  fuel.  .  .  .  .  .  ,  J  " 

No.  1.  Open  Chimney  Fire  Place,  of  ordinary  construction 

for  burning  wood.  .  .  .  .         .  10. 

2.  Open  Parlor  Grate,  of  ordinary  construction,  for 
burning  .Anthracite  coal,  .  .  .  5.55 

3.  Open  Franklin  Stove,  with  one  elbow  joint,  and  5 

feet  of  nipc,  diameter  6  inches.  .  .  2.70 

4.  Cast  Iron  Ten  Plate  Stove,  with  one  elbow  joint 

and  5  feet  of  pipe.  ....  2.22 

5.  Sheet  Iron  Cylinder  Stove,  inside  coated  with 
clay  with  one  elbow  joint,  and  five  feet  of  pipe,  diam- 
eter 2  inches.  .  .  .  .  ,1.49 

6.  Sheet  Iron  Cylinder  Stove,  with  3  elbows  and 

1 3i  feet  of  pipe,  diameter  2  inches.  .  .  1.28      , 

7.  Sheet  Iron  Cylinder  Stove,  with  3  elbows  and 

13^  feet  of  pipe,  all  horizontal.  .  .  1.22 

8.  Sheet   Iron  Cylinder  Stove,  with  9  elbows  and 

135  feet  of  pipe.  .  .  .  .  1.05 

The  preceding  table  shows  that  it  costs  ten  times  as  much  to  heat 
rooms  by  means  of  ordinary  open  fire  places,  as  by  close  stoves  with 
long  pipes  or  funnels  ;  and  that  an  open  parlor  grate  comparatively  re 
quires  five  times  the  expense  for  fuel,  and  an  open  Franklin  stove  near- 
ly three  times  the  expense,  to  impart  an  equal  degree  of  heat  to  the  air 
of  an  apartment. 

Some  sorts  of  green  wood  were  found  by  Mr.  Bull  to  contain  42  per 
cent,  of  moisture.  In  burning  JOG  lbs.  of  gr&sn  wood  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  convert  into  steam  42  lbs.  of  water,  which  must  absorb  a 
very  considcTable  proportion  of  all  the  heat  produced. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  198 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 


But  few  persons  are  aware  of  the  great  loss  attending  the  use  of 
green  wood  for  fuel ; — otherwise  more  attention  would  certainly  b« 
bestowed  in  procuring  perfectly  seasoned  wood,  not  only  for  boilen 
and  furnaces,  but  also  for  purposes  of  domestic  economy.  Taking  Mr. 
Bull's  statement  of  the  quantity  of  water  contained  in  green  wood  at 
42  per  cent,  the  following  calculations  will  demonstrate  how  little  heat 
will  be  actually  given  out  during  combustion.  It  has  been  before  sta- 
ted that  one  pound  of  New -Castle  coal  is  required  to  convert  6  lbs.  of 
water  into  steam,  and  that  2^  lbs.  of  wood  will  impart  as  much  heat  as 
one  pound  of  coals.  To  convert  42  pounds  of  water  into  steam  will 
therefore  require  all  the  heat  produced  by  the  combustion  of  17^ 
pounds  of  wood.  Deducting  42  pounds  of  water  from  the  gross 
weight  of  100  lbs.  of  green  wood  leaves  but 
58  lbs.  of  dry  wood. 
I7i  lbs.  of  do.  required  to  evaporate  42  lbs.  of  water. 

40i  lbs.  of  wood  only  remains  from  which  heat  is  obtainable. 

Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  green  wood  is  therefore  entirely 
lost,  and  it  is  accordingly  found,  that  unless  such  wood  be  kept  con- 
stantly piled  upon  the  hearth,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  heat  produ- 
ced to  maintain  combustion,  and  the  fire  will  expire  among  the  black- 
ened brands. 

The  principal  objection  urged  against  the  use  of  close  stoves  is  the 
confined  dry  air  produced  by  them.  It  is  well  known  that  air,  which 
passes  over  iron  or  bricks  heated  red  hot,  acquires  a  disagreeable  odor, 
and  produces  a  harsh  sensation  upon  the  lungs,  accompanied  by  a  ten- 
dency to  cough.  The  clay  or  fire  bricks,  with  which  anthracite  coal 
stoves  are  lined,  being  slow  conductors  of  heat,  are  peculiarly  well 
adapted  for  keeping  the  external  parts  of  the  stove  at  a  temperature 
which  will  not  have  the  disagreeable  effect  upon  the  air  above  men- 
tioned. Whenever  the  heat  of  a  stove  does  not  exceed  300°,  the  air  is 
not  rendered  unpleasant  for  respiration.  On  this  account  steam  pipes 
produce  a  temperature  at  once  mild  and  agreeable. 

The  objection  to  the  confined  and  unpleasant  air,  usually  proceeding 
firom  close  stoves  in  small  apartments,  may  be  in  a  great  measure  obvi- 
ated by  introducing  the  hot  air  from  a  stove  or  furnace  placed  in  th« 
basement  of  the  building.  The  stove  in  this  case  is  inclosed  by  brick- 
work with  an  interstice  around  it  for  the  free  circulation  of  the  air, 
which  is  admitted  to  come  in  contact  with  the  heated  sides  of  it.  Af- 
ter becoming  heated  the  air  ascends,  and  is  conveyed  by  means  of  flues 
or  pipes  to  the  several  apartments,  into  which  it  is  commonly  dischar- 
ged through  an  aperture  in  the  wall  near  the  floor.  A  shutter  of  soap 
stone,  sliding  in  a  groove,  serves  to  exclude  the  hot  air  when  not  re- 
quired. Much  incovenience  and  danger  sometimes  attend  the  attempts 
to  adapt  this  apparatus  to  warming  houses  not  originally  calculated 
for  it.  The  same  object  may  be  more  economically  attained  by  pla- 
cing the  stove  in  the  principal  entry  or  hall  of  a  dwelling-house.  The 
warm  air  will  diffuse  itself  through  every  apartment,  which  communi- 
cates with  the  hall  or  entry,  with  surprising  regularity.  The  circula- 
tion of  the  currents  of  warm  air  into  each  room  may  be  shown  by 
holding  the  blaze  of  a  candle  near  the  top  of  the  doorway,  and  placing 
another  directly  under  it  upon  the  floor.  The  uppermost  flame  will 
R 


194  FAMILY 


HEATI>G    AND    VENTILATING 


be  drawn  into  the  apartment  by  the  current  of  warm  air  entering,  while 
the  cold  air  rushing  out  will  cause  the  flame  of  the  lower  candle  to  in- 
cline in  an  opposite  direction.  Several  rooms  and  chambers  may  thus 
be  rendered  comfortably  warm  by  one  lire.  The  stove  pipe  may  be 
safely  conducted  through  the  floors  or  partitions  to  the  nearest  ctiim- 
ney,  by  inserting  in  them  blocks  of  free  stone  with  circular  apertures 
adapted  to  the  size  of  the  pipe.  Should  the  plan  of  the  dwelling  house 
admit  of  placing  the  stove  in  the  basement  or  cellar  immediately  be- 
low the  entry,  the  inconveniences  arising  from  the  light  dust  and  ashes, 
usually  attendant  upon  the  burning  of  anthracite  coal,  may  be  also 
avoided.  The  stove  in  this  case  is  inclosed  in  a  sort  of  brick  closet,  as 
before  described,  with  proper  apertures  for  the  admission  of  the  cold  air, 
and  for  supplying  the  necessary  fuel.  The  aperture  in  the  free  stone, 
let  into  the  floor,  must  be  made  not  only  sufliciently  large  to  admit  the 
pipe,  but  also  to  allow  about  two  inches  space  around  it,  for  the  ascent 
of  the  warm  air. 

Chimnies.  a  common  opinion  concerning  the  ascent  of  smoke  is, 
that  it  is  drawn  up  ;  but  the  truth  is,  the  smoke  is  pressed  up  by  the 
cold  air,  which  is  coming  to  the  fire  place  from  the  room.  The  warm 
air  rises  upon  the  principle  of  specific  gravity,  and  carries  the  smoke 
with  it,  although  at  certain  times  the  smoke  may  be  heavier  than  the 
air  itself.  The  great  art  then  in  making  a  chimney  carry  smoke  well, 
is  to  produce  this  current  of  air  in  sufficient  force  to  lake  off  the  smoke. 
To  effect  this  it  is  obvious  that  the  funnel  should  be  made  as  smooth  as 
possible,  and  should  be  plastered,  and  kept  free  from  soot.  Various 
causes  have  been  assigned  by  Dr.  Franklin,  Count  Rumford  and  others, 
which  prevent  chimnies  from  conducting  smoke  well,  and  the  remedies 
have  been  pointed  out  by  the  same  gentlemen.  We  shall  avail  our- 
selves of  their  suggestions  in  the  following  article,  as  collected  and 
abridged  by  the  Editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer.* 

Chimneys  in  new  buildings  frequently  smoke  for  want  of  air  to  sup- 
ply the  current,  which  should  constantly  ascend  the  flue.  This  is  the 
case  when  the  room  is  tight,  and  no  passage  is  left  open  for  the  air  to 
enter,  except  the  key -hole,  and  even  that,  perhaps,  closed  by  a  little 
dropping  shutter.  No  air  can  then  be  had  to  supply  what  is  called  the 
draught  of  the  chimney.  The  fire  will  burn  but  dimly,  and  the  smoke 
will  be  diffused  through  the  apartment.  Those,  therefore,  who  stop 
every  crevice  in  a  room  to  prevent  the  admission  of  fresh  air,  and  yet 
would  have  their  chimney  carry  smoke,  require  inconsistencies  and  ex- 
pect impossibilities.  The  remedy,  in  this  case,  is  to  admit  more  air, 
with  as  little  inconvenience  as  possible. 

Another  cause  why  chimneys  smoke  is  the  improper  dimensions  of 
the  throat,  or  the  space  immediately  over  the  fire.  This  space  should 
be  so  contracted,'  that  the  v\  hole  current  of  air  may  bo  well  heated ; 
in  which  case  the  smoke  can  hardly  fail  to  ascend.  But  in  order  t« 
effect  this,  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  lower  the  mantel,  so  that 
the  opening  in  the  chimney  may  he  brought  nearer  the  fire.  A  piece 
of  sheet  iron  or  tin,  fastened  on,  and  extending  somewhat  lower  than 
the  mantel,  will  commonly  answer  this  purpose.  By  lowering  the 
mantel,  however,  we  lose  tiie  heat  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  the 


New  England  Farmer,  Vdl.  iv.  No.  17. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  105 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 


draug^ht ;  and  it  is  an  expedient  which  should  not  be  adopted,  if  any 
other  remedy  can  be  conveniently  applied. 

Chimneys  often  smoke  in  consequence  of  the  shortness  of  their 
funnels.  The  difference  of  the  weight  of  the  heated  air  within,  and 
the  cooler  air  without  the  funnel,  is  the  cause  of  the  ascent  of  smoke. 
If  the  funnel  be  short,  the  difference  will  be  small,  and  the  draught 
will  of  course  be  slight. 

"  This  defect  is  often  found  in  low  buildings,  or  the  upper  story  of 
high  ones,  and  is  not  easily  avoided  ;  for  if  the  flue  be  raised  high  above 
the  roof  to  strengthen  its  draught,  it  is  in  danger  of  being  blown  down, 
and  crushing  the  roof  beneath  it.  The  remedy  in  this  case  is  to  con- 
tract the  opening  of  the  chimney,  (which  may  be  done  by  lowering  the 
mantel)  so  as  to  oblige  the  entering  air  to  pass  through  or  very  near 
the  fire,  by  which  means  it  will  be  considerably  heated,  and  by  its  great 
rarefaction  cause  a  powerful  draught,  and  compensate  for  the  shortness 
of  its  column.  The  case  of  too  short  a  funnel  is  more  general  than 
would  be  imagined,  and  often  found  where  one  would  not  expect  it; 
for  it  is  not  uncommon  in  ill  contrived  buildings,  instead  of  having  a 
separate  funnel  for  each  fire  place,  to  bend  and  turn  the  funnel  of  an 
upper  room  so  as  to  make  it  enter  the  side  of  anotlier  flue  that  comee 
from  below.  By  this  means  the  funnel  of  the  upper  room  is  made 
short  of  course,  since  its  length  can  only  be  reckoned  from  the  place 
where  it  enters  the  lower  funnel,  and  that  flue  is  also  shortened  by  all 
the  distance  between  the  entrance  of  the  second  funnel  and  the  top  of 
the  stack  ;  for  all  that  part  being  readily  supplied  with  air  through  the 
second  flue,  adds  no  strength  to  the  draught,  especially  as  that  air  is 
cold  when  there  is  no  fire  in  the  second  chimney.  The  only  easy  rem- 
edy here,  is  to  keep  the  opening  shut  of  that  flue  in  which  there  is  no 
fire. 

Another  very  common  cause  of  the  smoking  of  chimneys  is,  their 
overpowering  one  another.  For  instance,  if  there  be  two  chimneys  in 
one  large  room,  and  you  make  fires  in  both  of  them  you  will  find  that 
the  greater  and  stronger  fire  will  overpower  the  weaker,  and  draw  air 
down  its  funnel  to  supply  its  own  demand,  which  air  descending  in 
the  weaker  funnel  vvill  drive  down  its  smoke,  and  force  it  into  the  room. 
If,  instead  of  being  in  one  room,  the  two  chimneys  are  in  two  different 
rooms  communicating  by  a  door,  the  case  is  the  same  whenever  the 
door  is  open.  The  remedy  is,  to  take  care  that  every  room  have  the 
means  of  supplying  itself  from  without,  with  the  air  its  chimney  may- 
require,  so  that  no  one  of  them  may  be  obliged  to  boi-row  from  anoth- 
er, nor  Tinder  the  necessity  of  lending. 

Another  cause  of  smoking  is,  when  the  tops  of  chimneys  are  com- 
manded by  higher  buildings  or  by  a  hill,  so  that  the  wind  blowing  over 
such  eminences  falls  like  water  over  a  dam,  sometimes  almost  perpen- 
dicularly on  the  tops  of  chimneys  that  lie  in  its  way  and  beats  down 
the  smoke  contained  in  them.  The  remedy  commonly  applied  in  this 
case  is,  a  turn-cap  made  of  tin  or  plate  iron,  covering  the  chimney 
above  and  on  three  sides,  open  on  one  side,  turning,  on  a  spindle,  and 
which  being  guided  or  governed  by  a  vane,  always  presents  its  back  to 
the  wind.  This  method  will  generally  be  found  effectual,  but  if  not, 
raising  the  flues  where  practicable,  so  as  their  tops  may  be  on  a  level 


196  FAMILY 


HEATING    AND    VENTILATION. 


with  or  higher  than  the  commanding  eminence,  is  more  to  be  depended 
on. 

There  is  another  case,  in  which  the  eminence  is  to  the  leeward  of  the 
chimney.  Suppose  the  chimney  to  be  so  situated  that  its  top  is  below 
the  lovel  of  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  which,  when  the  wind  blows  against 
it,  forms  a  kind  of  dam  against  its  progress.  In  this  case  the  wind 
being  obstructed  by  this  dam,  will  like  water,  press  and  search  for  pas- 
sages through  it,  and  finding  the  top  of  the  chimney  below  the  top  of 
the  dam  or  ridge,  it  will  force  itself  down  that  funnel  and  if  there  be  a 
fire  in  such  chimney  its  smoke  is  of  course  beat  down  and  fills  the 
room.  The  only  remedy  for  this  inconvenience  is  to  raise  the  funnel 
higher  than  the  roof,  supporting  it,  if  necessary,  by  iron  bars  ;  for  a 
turn-cap  in  this  case  has  no  effect,  the  impeded  air  passing  down 
through  it  in  whatever  position  the  wind  may  have  placed  its  opening. 

Chimneys  otherwise  drawing  well  sometimes  smoke  in  consequence 
of  the  improper  situation  of  a  door.  When  the  door  and  chimney  are 
placed  on  the  same  side  of  a  room,  if  the  door  is  made  to  open  from 
the  chimney,  and  only  partly  opened,  a  current  of  air  is  admitted  and 
ilirccted  across  the  opening  of  the  chimney,  which  is  apt-to  draw  out 
•ome  of  the  smoke. 

Chimneys,  which  generally  draw  well,  do  nevertheless  sometimes 
give  smoke  into  the  room,  it  being  driven  down  by  strong  wind  pas- 
sing over  the  tops  of  their  flues,  though  not  descending  from  any  com- 
manding eminence.  To  understand  this,  it  may  be  considered  that  the 
rising  light  air,  to  obtain  a  free  issue  from  the  funnel,  must  push  out  of 
its  way,  or  oblige  the  air  that  is  over  it  to  rise.  In  a  time  of  calm,  or 
of  little  wind,  this  is  done  visibly  ;  for  we  see  the  smoke  that  is  brought 
up  by  that  air  rise  in  a  column  above  the  chimney.  But  when  a  vio- 
lent current  of  wind  passes  over  the  top  of  a  chimney,  its  particles 
have  received  so  much  force,  which  keeps  them  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion, and  follow  each  other  so  rapidly,  that  the  rising  light  air  has  not 
strength  sufficient  to  oblige  them  to  quit  that  direction,  and  move  up- 
wards to  permit  its  issue.  Add  to  this,  that  some  of  the  air  may  im- 
pinge on  that  part  of  the  inside  of  the  funnel  which  is  opposed  to  its 
progress,  and  be  thence  reflected  downwards  from  side  to  side,  driving 
the  smoke  before  it  into  the  room.  The  simplest  and  best  remedy  in 
this  case  is  the  application  of  a  chimney-pot  which  is  a  hollow  trunca- 
ted cone  of  earthen  ware  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  flue.  The  inten- 
tion of  this  contrivance  is,  that  the  wind  and  eddies  which  strike 
against  the  oblique  surface  of  these  covers  may  be  reflected  upwards 
instead  of  blowing  down  the  chimney.  The  remarkable  chimneys 
observed  at  Venice,  in  which  the  top  of  the  flue  islarged  and  rounded 
in  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  seem  also  intended  as  a  remedy  to  this  incon- 
venience, that  the  wind  blowing  over  one  of  the  edges  into  the  funnel 
may  be  slanted  out  again  on  the  other  side  by  its  form." 

Other  causes  which  occasion  chimneys  to  smoke  might  be  added  ; 
but  for  an  account  of  these  we  would  refer  our  readers  to  Rees'  Cyclo- 
pedia, article  "  Chimney^''^  and  also  to  the  philosophical  papers  of  Dr. 
Franklin  and  Count  Rumford. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  197 


TELEORA.PH. 


COMMUNICATION. 

Telegraph,  literally  means  that  which  writes,  or  is  used  for  wri- 
ting, at  a  distance ;  and  is  the  term  applied  to  an  apparatus  used,  for 
some  time  past,  by  several  European  governments  to  convey  informa* 
tion  to  distant  places  almost  instantaneously.  Although  this  invention 
was  only  brought  into  use  during  the  late  French  Revolution,  some  sort 
of  telegraphic  intelligence  was,  it  is  said,  known  to  the  Greeks.  The 
Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  1 663,  mentions  a  kind  of  telegraph  in  his 
"  Century  of  Inventions,"  but  it  was  reserved  for  our  own  times  to  ren- 
der such  a  mode  of  communication  at  once  speedy  and  correct.  The 
modern  telegraph,  first  used  by  the  French  in  1794,  by  M.  Chappe, 
was  thus  exercised  ;  at  the  first  station,  which  was  on  the  roof  of  the 
Louvre,  he  received  in  writing,  from  the  committee  of  public  safety, 
the  words  to  be  sent  to  Lisle,  near  which  the  French  army  at  that 
time  was.  An  upright  post  was  erected  at  the  Louvre  ;  at  the  top  of 
this  were  two  transverse  arms  moveable  in  all  directions  with  much  ra- 
pidity. The  different  positions  of  these  arms  stood  as  signs  for  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  Having  received  the  sentence  to  be  conveyed, 
he  gave  a  signal  to  the  second  station  to  prepare.  At  each  station  was 
a  watch  tower  on  which  telescopes  were  fixed,  and  the  person  on  the 
watch  gave  the  signal  of  preparation  which  he  had  received,  which 
was  communicated  successively  through  all  the  line.  The  person  at 
the  second  station  then  received  letter  by  letter  the  sentence  from  the 
Louvre,  which  he  repeated  by  his  own  machine,  and  thus  throughout 
the  whole  line  of  .stations  it  was  repeated  with  almost  inconceivable 
rapidity  to  the  final  station  at  Lisle. 

The  most  common  telegraph  in  England  was,  till  lately,  composed  of 
six  moveable  boards  about  three  feet  square  each,  turned  by  means  of 
ropes,  so  as  to  exhibit  twenty -four  different  characters,  and  nine  figures; 
such  a  telegraph  was  for  many  years  at  the  Admiralty,  at  Whitehall ; 
but  for  some  time  past  another  telegraphic  method  has  been  adopted 
there  ;  it  consists  of  a  tall  pole,  or  hollow  cylinder  with  projecting 
arms  that  can  be  moved  and  withdrawn  at  pleasure. 

The  principal  line  of  telegraphs  in  the  United  States,  it  is  believed, 
is  in  the  city  of  New  York,  from  the  Exchange,  in  Wall  street  to 
Sandy-hook.  "  It  consists  of  a  pole,"  says  the  author  of  the  picture  of 
New  York,  "  rising  from  the  cupola,  with  two  arms,  with  which  12 
different  positions, can  be  assumed,  the  first  ten  to  represent  the  nine 
digits  and  the  cypher,  the  eleventh  as  a  separator  of  words  and  senten- 
ces, and  the  twelfth  to  excite  attention. 

The  marine  or  ship  signals  are  thirteen  in  number,  the  first  also 
standing  for  the  digits  and  cypher,  and  the  other  three  denominated 
first,  second,  and  third  repeaters.  The  object  of  the  repeaters  is  to 
obviate  the  necessity  of  duplicates  and  triplicates  of  the  same  signal. 

A  dictionary  of  the  signals  is  printed.  It  is  divided  into  five  parts, 
the  first  embracing  all  the  questions  and  replies  requisite  between  ves- 
sels and  telegraphic  stations,  together  with  the  alphabet  and  points  of 
the  compass,  and  occupying  the  numbers  from  1  to  1000  ;  the  second 
part  containing  sea  phrases  ;  the  third  part  consists  of  a  vocabulary  of 
all  the  words  in  the  language  essential  to  be  used.     The  fourth  is  a  list 


W8  FAMILY 


DEAF    AND    DUMB    ALPHABET. 


of  vessel's  names  ;  and  the  fifth  a  list  of  couniries,  ports,  cities,  and 
harbors. 

Much  utility  has  been  already  derived  from  the  marine  signals,  by 
enabling  ships  to  communicate  with  each  other  at  sea;  and  on  ap- 
proaching the  shore,  with  the  land  telegraphs." 

Deaf  aiIid  Dumb  Alphabet.  The  present  is  emphatically  denom- 
inated the  age  of  benevolence  and  improvement ;  and  perhaps  in  noth- 
ing are  tliese  features  more  strikingly  manifested,  than  in  the  institu- 
tions which  are  founding  in  the  various  civilized  and  enlightened  coun- 
tries of  the  globe,  and  which  are  designed  to  contribute  to  the  welfare, 
and  exalt  the  condition  of  mankind — especially  the  unfortunate  portion 
of  it.  To  this  class  certainly  belong  the  dumb  and  deaf,  and  a  more 
numerous  class  they  are,  than  perhaps  any  of  our  readers  are  aware, 
who  may  not  have  turned  their  attention  to  the  subject.  In  some  of 
the  countries  of  Europe,  it  is  estimated  that  there  is  one  deaf  mute  to 
1500  or  1700  inhabitants.  In  the  United  States,  the  proportion  is 
thought  to  be  one  to  every  2000  ;  or  1000  for  every  2,000,000  inhabit- 
ants. 

To  pour  light  into  these  darkened  minds — to  form  them  for  useful- 
ness in  society — and  especially  to  guide  them  in  the  way  of  "  life  eter- 
nal," must  be  worthy  of  the  philanthropist  and  the  Christian.  This 
attempt  has  been  made,  and  with  great  success.  There  are  not  less 
than  8 1  establishments  for  deaf  mutes  in  Europe — 62  of  which  have 
been  established  within  the  last  30  years.  Most  of  these  are  conduct- 
ed according  to  the  system  of  De  I'Epe'e  and  Sicard,  who  may  bo  con- 
sidered as  the  filUnders  of  the  modern  art. 

Within  ^^inr  years,  the  system  of  these  men  has  been  introduced 
into  th<B  United  Stales,  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  H.  Gallaudct,  aided  by 
Mr.  Laurent  Clerc,  a  distinguished  pupil  of  Sicard.  Important  im- 
provements, it  is  understood,  have  been  made  by  Mr.  Gallaudet,  and- 
such  results  produced  as  '•'■  have  excited  surprise  in  Europe,  and  have 
even  been  declared  to  be  utterly  improbable  from  their  superiority  to 
those  usually  produced."  Several  institutions  growing  out  of  that 
originally  established  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  Gallaudet  and  others 
at  Hartford,  have  been  projected,  and  are  now  in  operation  in  other 
parts  of  the  United  States — all  of  which  have  adopted  the  system  of 
the  parent  institution.  The  mode  of  spelling  words  is  by  means  of 
the  hand  and  figures,  according  to  the  cuts  subjoined  : 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


199 


DEAF   AND    DUMB    ALPHABET. 


<^ 


m  n  o 


200 


FAMILY 


CIVIL   POLITY. 


& 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  201 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


PART  VIII. 

CIVIL  POLITY. 

SECTION   I. 
OJ  GOVERNMENT. 

Society.  Men  either  tacitly,  or  by  consent,  have,  in  all  ages,  asso- 
ciated together  for  their  pleasure,  or  their  convenience  ;  hence  it  has 
been  laconically  but  aptly  stated,  that  the  origin  of  society  is  our  wants. 
Whether  in  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world  formal  contracts  were  entered 
into  in  regard  to  mutual  association,  cannot  now  be  known  ;  but  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  a  conviction  of  the  weakness  of  individual  effort 
to  promote  human  happiness  first  led  to  the  union  of  the  efforts  of 
numbers,  for  its  more  complete  accomplishment  The  first  and  most 
probable  association  was  that  of  persons  of  the  same  family  ;  as  fami- 
lies multiplied,  their  relationship  of  consanguinity  decreased  in  inten- 
sity, and  social  relations,  independently  of  blood,  necessarily  and 
naturally  grew  up.  This  appears  to  be  in  perfect  accordance  with  the 
revealed  accounts  of  the  primitive  origin  of  mankind,  where  single 
families  formed  the  first  society  among  themselves,  which  every  day 
extended  its  limits  ;  and  when  it  grew  too  large  to  subsist  with  con- 
venience in  that  pastoral  state,  in  which  the  patriarchs  appear  to  have 
lived,  it  necessarily  subdivided  itself  by  various  migrations.  Afler- 
wards,  as  agriculture  increased,  migrations  became  less  frequent ;  and 
various  tribes,  which  had  formerly  separated,  re-united  ;  sometime* 
by  compulsion  and  conquest,  sometimes  by  accident,  and  sometimes 
perhaps  by  compact.  But  though  society  had  not  its  formal  beginning 
from  any  convention  of  individuals  actuated  by  their  wants,  yet  it  is  a 
sense  of  their  weakness  and  imperfection  that  keeps  mankind  togeth- 
er ;  that  demonstrates  the  necessity  of  tins  union ;  and  that,  therefore, 
ia  the  solid  and  natural  foundation,  as  well  as  the  cement  of  society. 
This  is  what  is  meant  by  the  original  contract  of  society  ;  which, 
though  perhaps  in  no  instance  ever  formally  expressed  at  the  first  in- 
stitution of  a  state,  yet  in  nature  and  reason  it  must  always  be  under- 
stood and  implied  in  the  very  act  of  associating  together,  that  the 
whole  should  protect  all  its  parts,  and  that  every  part  should  pay  obedience 
to  the  will  of  the  whole;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the  community  should 
guard  the  rights  of  each  individual  member,  and  that  in  return  for  this 
protection,  each  individual  should  submit  to  the  laws  of  the  commu- 
nity. 

GovERMMENT.  As  socicty  arises  from  our  wants,  so  arises  govern- 
ment from  our  errors,  vices,  and  crimes.  Wore  man  a  perfect  being  he 
would  not  need  government.  Individual  security  and  happiness  being 
the  true  end  and  design  of  government,  whatever  form  insures  it  with 
the  least  expense,  consistent  also  with  the  general  security  and  happi- 
ness, is  to  be  preferred.  Government  being  therefore  necessary  for 
the  preservation  •  of  social  order,  it  is  obvious  that  the  exercise  of  it 


202  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLICY. 


should  be  committed  to  persons  in  whom  those  qualities  are  most  likely 
to  be  found,  the  perfection  of  which  is  among  the  attributes  of  him, 
who  is  emphatically  styled  the  Supreme  Being ;  namely,  wisdom^ 
goodness^  and  power  :  wisdom,  to  discern  the  real  interest  of  the  com- 
munity ;  goodness,  to  endeavor  always  to  pursue  that  real  interest  ; 
and  strength,  or  power,  to  carry  this  knowledge  and  intention  into  ac- 
tion. These  are  the  natural  foundations  of  sovereignty  ;  and  these 
are  the  requisites  that  ought  to  be  found  in  every  well-constituted 
government. 

Different  Forms  of  Government.  The  political  writers  of  an- 
tiquity will  not  allow  above  three  regular  forms  of  government ;  the 
first,  where  the  sovereign  power  is  lodged  in  an  aggregate  assembly 
consisting  of  all  the  members  of  a  community,  is  called  democracy ; 
the  second,  where  it  is  lodged  in  a  council  composed  of  select  members, 
when  it  is  styled  aristocracy ;  the  last,  where  it  is  intrusted  to  the  hands 
of  a  single  person,  and  then  it  takes  the  name  of  monarchy.  All  oth- 
er species  of  government,  they  say,  are  either  corruptions  of,  or  reduci- 
ble to  these  three.  By  sovereign  power  is  meant  that  which  makes  and 
executes,  or  directs  the  execution  of  the  laws.  Wherever  this  power 
resides,  all  others  must  conform  to,  and  bo  directed  by  it  For  it  is 
always  at  the  option  of  such  power  to  alter  the  form  and  administra- 
tion by  new  laws,  and  to  put  the  execution  of  the  laws  generally  into 
whatever  hands  it  pleases  ;  and  all  the  other  powers  of  the  state  must, 
of  course,  obey  it  in  the  execution  of  their  several  functions,  or  else 
the  constitution  is  at  an  end. 

In  a  Democracy,  where  the  right  of  making  laws  resides  in  the  peo- 
ple at  large,  public  virtue,  or  goodness  of  intention,  is  more  likely  to  be 
found  than  in  either  of  the  other  forms  of  government.  Popular  as- 
semblies are,  however,  frequently  weak  in  their  plans,  and  slow  in  their 
execution  ;  though  they  generally  mean  to  do  the  thing  that  is  right 
and  just,  and  have  always  a  certain  degree  of  patriotism  or  public 
spirit. 

In  Aristocracies  there  is  more  coolness  and  deliberation  than  in,  per- 
haps, any  other  form  of  government  ;  and  from  their  being  composed 
usually  of  the  richest  members  of  the  state,  they  have  opportunities 
for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  which  are  denied  to  the  ordinary 
citizen  ;  yet,  from  the  absence  of  motive  to  excite  their  intellects,  it 
does  not  ordinarily  follow  that  the  aristocracy  constitutes  the  wisest 
portion  of  a  state  ;  the  persons  composing  the  aristocracy  are,  besides 
generally  removed  by  their  situation,  from  that  sympathy  necessary  to 
enable  them  to  consult,  without  prejudice,  the  interests  of  the  main 
body  of  the  people  ;  and  hence  of  all  forms  of  government,  aristocra- 
cy appears  to  be  the  worst. 

An  absolute  monarchy  is  the  most  powerful  of  any  ;  and,  provided 
it  were  possible  to  have  a  perfect  man  as  a  monarch,  we  could  not  hes- 
itate as  to  the  choice  between  these  three  kinds  of  government.  As, 
however,  an  absolute  monarch  is  very  likely  to  employ  his  power  to  the 
great  injury  of  a  state,  such  a  government  cannot  be  approved. 

State  Governments.  The  several  state  governments  included 
within  the  United  States  are  representative  republics^  inasmuch  as  the 
people  are  governed  by  those  whom  they  choose  to  represent  them. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  203 


CIVIL  POLICY. 


And  all  these  governments  have  written  constitutions,  excepting  the 
state  of  Rhode  Island,  where  the  government  is  still  administered 
according  to  the  provisions  of  its  ancient  colonial  charter.  It  is  pjco- 
posed  to  exhibit  the  prominent  features  of  the  respective  constitutions 
of  the  States,  with  the  more  obvious  peculiarities  of  each. 

Maijte.  The  constitution  of  this  State  was  formed  in  1819 ;  but 
did  not  go  into  operation,  until  1820. 

Legislature.  This  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, the  members  of  which  are  chosen  annually,  on  the  second  Mon- 
day in  September.  Meeting  at  Portland^  on  the  first  Wednesday  in 
January.  The  number  of  Senators  cannot  be  less  than  twenty,  nor 
more  than  thirty-one.  Number  of  Representatives,  not  less  than  one 
hundred,  nor  more  than  two  hundred.  The  qualifications  for  repre- 
sentatives are,  citizenship  for  five  years,  and  residence  in  the  State  one 
year.  Senators  must  possess  like  qualifications, ' and  be  twenty-five 
years  of  age. 

Executive.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor,  chosen 
annually  by  the  people,  on  the  second  Monday  in  September.  He 
must  have  the  same  qualifications  as  Senators,  and  be  thirty  years  of 
age.  A  council  of  seven,  chosen  annually  by  joint  ballot  of  the  Senate 
and  Representatives.  The  Executive  has  the  power  of  appointment 
and  pardon,  and  a  qualified  negative  on  acts  of  the  Legislature,  as  in 
Massachusetts. 

Judiciary.  The  judicial  power  resides  in  a  Supreme  Judicial  Court, 
and  county  Courts.  Judges  appointed  by  the  governor  and  council- 
hold  their  office  during  good  behavior ;  but  are  disqualified  at  the  age 
of  seventy. 

Rii^ht  of  suffrage.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  nearly  universal ;  being 
granted  to  all  male  citizens  of  twenty  one  years  of  age  and  upwards, 
who  have  resided  in  the  State  for  three  months  next  preceding  the 
election.  Paupers,  persons  under  guardianship,  and  Indians  not  taxed, 
are  excepted. 

New  Hampshire.  Constitution  established  in  1784;  altered  and 
amended  in  1792. 

Legislature.  Consists  of  two  branches — House  of  Representatives 
and  Senate,  styled  the  General  Court  of  New  Hampshire.  Representa- 
tives are  chosen  by  towns,  at  the  rate  of  one  representative  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  polls ;  three  hundred  additional  polls  entitle  to  an- 
other representative.  Representatives  must  have  been  inhabitants  two 
years  ;  have  an  estate  of  one  hundred  pounds,  half  of  which  must  be 
freehold.  The  Senate  consist?  of  twelve.  Persons  to  be  eligible  to  the 
Senate  must  have  a  freehold  of  two  hundred  pounds;  be  thirty  years 
of  age,  and  have  resided  in  the  State  seven  years.  They  are  chosen 
by  districts. 

Executive.  The  executive  consists  of  a  Governor,  who  must  have 
resided  in  the  State  seven  years,  and  have  an  estate  of  five  hundred 
pounds,  one  half  freehold,  and  a  council  of  five,  elected  by  the  people. 
Powers  and  duties  as  in  Maine.  Annual  election,  at  which  the  Gover- 
nor, Council,  Senators,  and  Representatives  are  chosen,  second  Tues- 


204  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLICY. 


day  in  March.  Meetings  of  the  General  Court  at  Concord  iirst 
Wednesday  in  June. 

Judiciary.    As  in  Maine. 

Right  of  Suffrage.  Granted  to  all  males  of  twenty  one  years  of  age 
and  upwards,  excepting  paupers,  and  persons  excused  from  paying 
taxes  at  their  special  request. 

Vermoht.  The  first  constitution  of  Vermont  was  framed  in  1777  ; 
the  present  constitution  was  adopted  in  1793. 

Legislature.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentative, styled  the  General  Assembly  of  Vermont.  Each  town  sends 
one  Representative.  Election  annual,  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  Sep- 
tember. Seat  of  government  at  Montpelier.  Meeting  second  Tuesday 
of  October.  The  quahfications  of  Representatives  are  two  years  resi- 
dence in  the  State. 

Executive.  Governor,  Lieutenant  Governor,  and  a  Council  of 
twelve  persons,  all  chosen  annually  by  the  people.  The  Executive 
commission  all  ofiicers,  try  impeachments,  revise  and  propose  amend- 
ments to  the  laws,  and  can  suspend  a  proposed  law  until  the  next 
General  Assembly. 

Judiciary.  A  Supreme  Court,  consisting  of  three  Judges,  and  a 
•onnty  Court  of  three  Judges  for  each  county.  Judges,  sheriffs,  and 
justices  of  the  peace,  may  be  elected  annually  by  the  General  Assembly. 

Council  of  Censors.  Once  in  seven  years  a  Council  of  Censors  is 
chosen,  consisting  of  thirteen  persons,  whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  the 
various  departments  of  the  government,  and  to  inquire  whether  they 
have  faithfully  discharged  their  duty,  according  to  the  constitution,  &c. 

Rifht  of  suffrage.  This  extends  to  all  males  of  twenty-one  years  of 
age  and  upwards,  who  have  resided  one  year  in  the  State  next  preced- 
ing the  election,  and  are  of  a  "  quiet  and  peaceable  behavior." 

Massachusetts.  The  constitution  of  this  State  was  formed  in 
1780,  and  altered  and  amended  in  1821. 

Legislature.  This  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, styled  the  General  Court  of  Massachusetts.  Qualifications  of  Re- 
presentatives, residence  one  year  in  the  town,  in  which  they  are  chosen, 
and  a  freehold  of  one  hundred  pounds,  or  a  taxable  estate  of  two  hun- 
dred pounds.  Senators  must  have  resided  five  years  in  the  district  in 
which  they  are  chosen — iiave  a  freehold  of  three  hundred  pounds,  or 
a  taxable  estate  of  six  hundred  pounds.  The  Senate  consists  of  forty 
members,  chosen  annually.  One  hundred  and  fifty  ratable  polls  enti- 
tles a  town  to  one  Representative,  and  two  hundred  and  twenty-five 
additional  ratable  polls  to  anoliier. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  elected  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  first 
Monday  of  April,  and  a  Council  of  nine  members,  chosen  from  the 
Senators,  by  the  joint  ballot  of  the  General  Court.  If  any,  or  all  the 
Council,  thus  chosen,  decline  the  appointment,  the  deficiency  is  sup- 
plied from  the  people  at  large.  A  Lieutenant  Governor  is  elected  at 
the  same  time  with  Governor.  Both  these  must  have  been  seven 
years  resident  in  the  State  and  have  a  freehold  of  one  thousand  pounds. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  Ofe 


CIVIL  POLITY. 


Judidury,  A  Supreme  Court,  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  &c.  The 
Judges  are  appointed  by  the  Governor,  by  and  with  the  advice  and 
consent  of  his  council.     They  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior. 

Right  of  suffrage.  Every  male  citizen  twenty-one  years  of  age  and 
upwards,  paupers  and  persons  under  guardianship  excepted,  has  the 
right  of  suftrage,  provided  he  has  resided  within  the  Commonwealth 
one  year,  and  within  the  town  or  district  in  which  he  may  claim  a  right 
to  vote,  six  calendar  months,  next  preceding  any  election,  and  who  has 
paid  a  State  or  county  tax  assessed  upon  him  within  two  years,  next 
preceding  such  election,  and  also  every  citizen,  who  may  be  by  law 
exempted  from  taxation,  and  who  may  be,  in  all  other  respects  qualified 
as  above  mentioned. 

Connecticut.  The  colonial  charter  granted  by  Charles  II.  in  1662 
was  the  basis  of  the  government  till  the  year  1818,  when  the  present 
constitution  was  adopted. 

Legislature.  This  consists  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives, styled  the  General  Assembly  of  Connecticut.  The  Senate  must 
consist  of  not  less  than  eighteen,  nor  more  than  twenty-four  members, 
chosen  by  districts.  Members  of  the  House  of  Representatives  are 
chosen  by  towns;  old  towns  elect  two;  newly  incorporated  towns  but 
one.  Annual  election  first  Monday  in  April.  Stated  annual  session 
of  the  General  Assembly  first  Wednesday  in  May,  alternately  at  Hart- 
ford and  at  New  Haven. 

Executive.  A  Governor  chosen  annually  by  the  people,  on  the  first 
Monday  in  April.  He  must  be  an  elector,  and  have  arrived  at  the  age 
of  thirty  years.  All  commissions  issued  in  the  name  and  by  the  au- 
thority of  the  State,  receive  his  signature.  He  has  a  qualified  nega- 
tive upon  the  acts  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  has  power  to  grant 
reprieves,  but  cannot  pardon,  that  power  residing  in  the  General  As- 
sembly.    The  Lieutenant  Governor  is  President  of  the  Senate. 

Judiciary.  A  Supreme  Court  of  Errors,  a  Superior  Court,  and  such 
other  Courts  as  the  General  Assembly  may  establish.  All  Judges  are 
appointed  by  the  General  Assembly.  Those  of  the  Supreme  and  Su- 
perior Courts  hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  but  are  disquali- 
fied at  the  age  of  seventy. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  extends  to  all  white  males  of  twenty- one 
years  of  age  and  upwards,  who  are  resident  citizens  for  six  months, 
and  have  a  freehold  of  seven  dollars  yearly  value,  or  who  shall  have 
perfomed  military  duty  for  one  year,  or  paid  a  tax,  provided  they  sus- 
tain a  good  moral  character. 

Rhode  Island.  This  state  is  without  a  written  constitution  ;  and 
in  this  respect  forms  an  exception  to  the  other  States  of  the  Union. 
The  government  of  this  State  is  administered  according  to  the  charter 
granted  to  the  colony  by  Charles  11.  in  1663. 

Legislature.  A  General  Assembly  composed  of  a  Senate  and  House 
ofRepresentatives.  The  latter  consists  of  seventy-two  members,  six 
from  Newport,  four  from  each  of  the  towns  of  Providence,  Portsmouth, 
and  Warwick,  and  two  from  each  of  the  other  towns  in  the  State. 
Election  semi-annual,  in  April  and  August.  The  Senate  consists  of 
ten  members.    Election  annual  in  April. 

S 


206  FAMILY 


CIVIL   POLITY. 


Executive.  A  Governor  elected  annually  in  April.  Powers  very 
limited.  In  case  of  his  disability,  the  executive  duties  devolve  on  a 
Lieutenant  Governor. 

Judiciary,  A  Supreme  Court  and  Courts  of  Common  Pleas ;  the 
latter  established  in  the  several  counties.  Judges  appointed  annually 
by  the  General  Assembly,  which  meets  four  times  a  year ;  first  at 
Newport,  in  May,  and  at  the  same  place  in  June.  In  October  alter- 
nately at  Providence  and  South  Kingston  ;  and  by  adjournment  in 
January  at  East  Greenwich,  Bristol,  or  Providence. 

New  York.  This  State  adopted  a  constitution  in  1777,  which  was 
amended  in  1801.     A  new  constitution  was  framed  in  1821. 

Legislature.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives and  a  Senate,  the  members  of  the  former  of  which  must  be 
citizens  resident  for  a  certain  time,  and  cannot  exceed  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  in  number.  The  members  of  the  Assembly  are  chosen  by 
the  counties,  and  are  apportioned  according  to  the  population.  The 
Senate  consists  of  thirty-two  members,  who  are  chosen  in  eight  dis- 
tricts ;  one  is  elected  in  each  district  every  year.  The  annual  election 
is  held  sometime  in  the  month  of  October  or  November.  Meeting  of 
the  Legislature  first  Tuesday  in  January,  at  Albany. 

Executive.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Governor,  who  is 
chosen  every  two  years.  He  must  be  a  native  citizen — a  freeholder 
and  resident  in  tlie  State  five  years,  and  must  have  attained  to  the  age 
of  thirty  years.  He  has  the  right  of  nominating  judicial  and  executive 
officers  to  the  Senate — has  a  qualified  negative  upon  the  acts  of  the 
Legislature,  and  the  power  of  pardoning,  except  in  cases  of  treason.  A 
Lieutenant  Governor  is  elected  at  the  same  time  with  the  Governor, 
and  in  case  of  the  impeachment,  resignation,  death,  or  absence  of  the 
latter,  assumes  the  government.     He  is  President  of  the  Senate. 

Judiciary.  This  branch  of  the  government  comprises  too  many 
tribunals  to  admit  of  a  particular  notice  of  each.  The  Chancellor  and 
all  the  Judges  of  the  State  receive  their  appointment  from  the  Gover- 
nor, with  the  consent  of  the  Senate.  The  Chancellor  and  Justices  of 
the  Supreme  and  Circuit  Courts  retain  their  offices  daring  good  beha- 
vior, but  are  disqualified  at  sixty  years  of  age.  Judges  of  the  county 
Courts  or  Courts  of  Common  Pleas,  are  appointed  for  five  years. 
Justices  of  the  Peace  are  chosen  by  the  people  in  their  respective  towns, 
once  in  four  years,  but  if  a  Justice  becomes  an  inn-holder,  he  is  thereby 
disqualified. 

Right  of  suffrage.  In  the  constitution  adopted  by  this  State  in  1821, 
the  right  of  suffrage,  in  the  election  of  public  officers,  was  granted  to 
every  white  male  citizen  of  the  age  of  twenty- one  years,  who  should 
be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  one  year  preceding  any  election,  and  for 
Uie  preceding  six  months  a  resident  in  the  county,  where  he  should 
offer  his  vote  ;  but  in  November,  1826,  this  rule  was  set  aside,  and  the 
principle  of  universal  suffrage  adopted.  Free  colored  people  only  must 
be  freeholders  to  be  electors. 

New  Jersey.  The  constitution  of  New  Jersey  was  formed  in  the 
year  1776,  since  which  it  has  continued  without  alteration  to  the  pre- 
««nt  time,  except  that  the  word  Colony  has  been  changed  to  State ;  but 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  207 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


Hie  legislature  has  at  various  times  explained  its  provisions  in  relation 
to  particular  parts. 

Legislature.  This  body  in  New  Jersey  comprises  the  Governor, 
Legislative  Council,  and  General  Assembly.  The  General  Assembly 
consisted,  until  1829,  of  forty-three  members,  but  in  that  year  seven 
members  were  added.  All  the  members  of  the  General  Assembly,  as 
well  as  the  members  of  the  Legislative  Council,  are  elected  annually, 
on  the  second  Tuesday  of  October.  The  number  of  this  latter  body  is 
fourteen,  one  from  each  county.  These  must  be  worth  at  least  one 
thousand  pounds  each.  Members  of  the  Assembly  must  be  worth  five 
hundred  pounds.  Meeting  of  the  Legislature  annually,  on  the  fourth 
Tuesday  in  October,  at  Trenton. 

Executive,  A  Governor  is  chosen  by  the  Council  and  Assembly, 
annually,  in  joint  ballot.  The  Governor  presides  in  the  Council ;  but 
a  Vice  President  is  chosen  from  the  Council,  who  presides  in  the  Go- 
vernor's absence.  The  Governor  exercises  the  office  of  Chancellor,  of 
Military  Chief,  &c.  With  the  Council,  he  forms  a  court  of  appeals, 
and  in  them  the  power  of  pardoning  criminals  after  condemnation  ia 
vested. 

Judiciary.  A  Supreme  Court  and  the  usual  Inferior  Courts. 
Judges  receive  their  appointment  from  the  Legislature,  those  of  the 
supreme  court  for  seven  years  ;  those  of  the  lower  courts  for  five  years. 

Right  of  suffrage.  The  language  of  the  constitution  on  this  point  is 
"  That  all  persons  of  full  age  shall  have  a  right  to  vote,  who  are  worth 
fifty  pounds  proclamation  money,  clear  estate  in  the  same,  and  have 
resided  in  the  county  in  which  they  claim  to  vote  for  twelve  months 
immediately  preceding  the  election."  By  a  special  act  of  the  Legisla- 
ture every  white  male  inhabitant,  of  lawful  age,  and  who  had  paid  a 
tax,  is  considered  worth  fifty  pounds,  and  therefore  entitled  to  vote. 

Pennsylvania.  The  first  constitution  of  Pennsylvania  was  adopted 
in  1776  :  the  present  in  1790,  and  has  not  since  been  altered. 

Legislature.  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  compose  the 
General  Assembly,  in  which  the  legislative  power  resides.  The  an- 
nual election  of  representatives  is  on  the  second  Tuesday  in  October. 
Number  of  Representatives  not  less  than  sixty  nor  more  than  one 
hundred,  chosen  by  districts.  The  qualifications  which  are  necessary 
to  a  seat  are,  twenty-five  years  of  age,  citizenship  and  residence.  The 
number  of  Senators  shall  never  be  less  than  one  quarter,  nor  greater 
than  one  third,  the  number  of  Representatives.  They  are  chosen  for 
four  years,  one  quarter  being  elected  annually.  Senators  must  be 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  have  been  citizens  and  inhabitants  four 
years,  before  they  are  elected,  and  the  last  year  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict in  which  they  are  elected.  Annual  meeting  of  the  General  As- 
sembly, first  Tuesday  in  December. 

Executive.  A  Governor  elected  by  the  people,  on  the  second  Tues- 
day in  October ;  holds  his  office  three  years,  and  can  be  chosen  only 
thrice  in  twelve  years.  Nearly  all  officers  are  appointed  by  him. 
There  is  no  Lieutenant  Governor  ;  but  the  President  of  the  Senate 
succeeds  in  case  a  vacancy  occurs  in  the  office  of  Governor.  The 
Governor  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  and  have  been  a  citizen  and 
resident  of  the  State  seven  years  next  before  his  election.  He  may 
grant  reprieves  and  pardons,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 


208  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLITY" 


Judiciary.  The  judicial  power  is  vested  in  a  Supreme  Court,  in 
Courts  of  Oyer  and  Terminer,  and  general  Gaol  delivery  ;  in  a  Court 
of  Common  Pleas,  Orphan's  Court,  Register's  Court,  and  a  Court  of 
Quarter  Sessions  of  the  Peace,  and  in  such  other  courts  as  the  Legis- 
lature may  from  time  to  time  establish.  Judges  receive  their  appoint- 
ment from  the  Governor,  and  hold  their  office  during  good  behavior. 
They  may,  however,  be  removed  on  impeachment,  or  on  address  to 
the  Governor  by  two  thirds  of  the  legislature. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  pertains  to  citizens  of  the  age  of  twenty-one 
years,  wlio  have  resided  in  the  State  two  years  next  before  the  election, 
and  within  that  time  paid  a  Stale  or  county  tax  assessed  at  least  six 
months  before  the  election. 

Delaware.  The  constitution  of  this  State  was  adopted  in  1792, 
since  which  time  it  has  not  been  materially  altered. 

Legislature.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  General  Assembly, 
consisting  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives.  The  Represen- 
tatives are  chosen  annually,  and  consist  of  seven  from  each  county,  or 
twenty-one  in  the  whole.  Senators  are  chosen  for  three  years ;  three 
from  each  county,  or  nine  in  the  whole.  One  from  each  county  is 
chosen  annually.  Representatives  must  be  twenty-four  years  of  age, 
have  a  freehold  in  the  county,  and  have  been  citizens  and  inhabitants 
of  the  State  for  three  years  next  preceding  the  election.  Senators 
must  be  of  the  age  of  twenty-seven  years,  with  a  freehold  of  two 
hundred  acres  of  land,  or  personal  property  to  the  amount  of  one 
thousand  pounds.  Annual  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly,  on  the 
first  Tuesday  in  January,  at  Dover. 

Executive.  Governor  elected  by  the  people  for  three  years ;  but 
cannot  hold  the  office  more  than  three  years  in  six.  He  must  be  at 
least  thirty-six  years  of  age,  have  been  a  citizen  and  inhabitant  of  the 
United  States  twelve  years,  and  the  last  six  an  inhabitant  of  that 
State.  He  has  the  power  of  appointing  all  officers,  and  the  power  of 
pardoning,  except  in  impeachments. 

Judiciary.  The  same  as  in  Pennsylvania,  with  the  addition  of  a 
Court  of  Chancery.  The  Chancellor  and  Judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  hold  their  office  during  good  be- 
havior, but  may  be  removed,  as  in  Pennsylvania. 

Right  of  suffrage.     The  same  as  in  Pennsylvania. 

Maryland.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  adopted  in  1776.  It 
has  undergone  various  amendments.  It  grants  the  singular  power  of 
amending  the  constitution  to  the  Legislature,  independently  of  the 
express  vote  of  the  people. 

Legislature.  This  consists  of  two  distinct  branches,  a  Senate  of 
fifteen  members,  and  a  house  of  Delegates  of  eighty  members,  which 
united,  are  styled  the  General  Assembly  of  Maryland.  Senators  are 
chosen  every  fifth  year  by  Electors,  who  are  chosen  by  the  people  a 
year  before  hand.  Senators  must  be  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and 
have  resided  three  years  next  preceding  the  election  in  the  State.  De- 
legates must  be  citizens,  and  have  resided  in  the  State  one  year  next 
preceding  the  election.  The  latter  are  chosen  annually  by  the  people. 
Meeting  on  the  last  Monday  of  December. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 209 

CIVIL    POLITY. 

Executive.  Governor  elected  annually  on  the  first  Monday  of  Jan- 
uary, by  a  joint  ballot  of  both  houses  of  the  Generaf  Assembly.  He 
may  be  chosen  successively  for  three  years,  and  is  then  ineligible  for 
four  years.  He  must  be  of  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  have 
been  a  resident  citizen  for  five  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Council  of 
five  members,  chosen  annually  by  joint  ballot  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Delegates.  The  Governor  nominates  to  office,  and  the  Council 
appoints. 

Judiciary. .  The  Chancellor  and  Judges  are  appointed  by  the  Go- 
vernor and  Council,  and  may  be  removed  by  address  of  two  thirds  of 
the  Legislature,  and  by  conviction  on  an  indictment  in  a  court  of  justice. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  pertains  to  every  free  white  male  citizen  of 
tlie  State  above  twenty-one  years  of  age,  who  has  resided  twelve 
months  in  the  State,  and  six  months  in  the  county,  or  in  the  city  of 
Baltimore  or  Annapolis,  next  preceding  the  election  at  which  he  offers 
to  vote. 

Virginia.  The  first  constitutioii  of  this  State  was  formed  in  1776. 
An  amended  constitution  was  adopted  by  a  Convention  on  the  four- 
teenth of  January,  IJiSO,  and  has  gone  into  operation  the  present  year, 
1831. 

Legislature.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  General  Assembly, 
composed  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Delegates.  The  number  of  the 
former  is  thirty-two,  chosen  from  two  districts,  into  which  the  State  is 
divided.  They  are  elected  for  four  years.  One  fourth  are  annually 
renewed  by  popular  election.  The  House  of  Delegates  consists  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty-four  members,  apportioned  in  four  districts — 
chosen  annually  by  the  people.  '  Members  of  both  Houses  must  be 
freeholders.  Their  meeting  is  annual,  but  the  time  is  to  be  fixed  by 
the  General  Assembly.  After  the  year  1841,  the  number  of  Delegates 
may  be  one  hundred  and  fifty  and  the  Senators  thirty- six. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  elected  by  a  joint  vote  of  the  two  Houses 
of  the  General  Assembly — holds  his  office  for  three  j'ears,  can  be 
elected  but  once  in  six  years,  must  be  of  the  age  of  thirty,  &;c.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  Council  of  three,  chosen  as  the  Governor  is,  the  senior  of 
whom  is  Lieutenant  Governor. 

Judiciary.  The  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Appeals,  and  of  the 
Superior  Courts  are  elected  as  is  the  Governor — hold  their  offices  dur- 
ing good  behavior,  but  may  be  removed  on  address,  or  impeachment. 

Right  of  suffrage.  The  law  on  this  subject  is  so  constructed  as  to 
make  this  right  nearly  universal.  "  Every  white  male  citizen  of  the 
Commonwealth,  of  the  age  of  twenty-one,  resident  therein,  has  the 
right,  who  is  qualified  according  to  the  former  constitution  and  laws ; 
or  who  owns  a  freehold  of  the  value  df  twenty-five  dollars  ;  or  who  has 
a  joint  interest  to  the  amount  of  twenty  five  dollars  in  a  freehold ;  or 
who  has  a  life  estate  in,  or  a  reversionary  title  to,  land  of  the  value 
of  fifty  dollars,  having  been  so  possessed  for  six  months  ;  or  who 
shall  own  and  be  in  actual  occupation  of  a  lease-hold  estate,  having 
the  title  recorded  two  months  before  he  shall  offer  to  vote — of  a  term 
originally  not  less  than  five  years,  and  of  the  annual  value  or  rent  of 
two  hundred  dollars,  or  who  for  twelve  months  before  offering  to  vote, 


210  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


has  been  a  house-keeper  and  head  of  a  family,  and  shall  have  been 
assessed  with  a  part  of  the  revenue  of  the  Commonwealth,  within  the 
preceding  year,  and  actually  paid  the  same." 

North  Carolina.  The  constitution  of  North  Carolina  was  framed 
in  1776,  and  has  never  been  amended,  and  is  silent  as  to  any  provi- 
sions for  amendment. 

Legislature.  A  General  Assembly  composed  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Commons,  both  elected  annually  by  the  people.  Each  of  the  sixty- 
two  counties  in  the  State  sends  one  Senator,  and  two  Delegates,  and 
the  towns  of  Edenton,  Newbern,  Wilmington,  Salisbury,  Hillsbo- 
rough, and  Halifax,  send  one.  Senators  and  Representatives  must  be 
freeholders,  and  been  residents  one  year. 

Executive.  Governor  chosen  annually  by  a  joint  vole  of  the  two 
Houses — is  eligible  for  three  years  only  in  six— must  be  a  freeholder, 
tliirty  years  of  age,  and  a  resident  five  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a 
Council  of  seven,  chosen  annually  by  the  General  Assembly.  The 
executive  have  the  power  of  pardon.  They  may  be  removed  by  im- 
peachment, and  what  may  be  considered  singular,  by  presentment  of  a 
grand  jury. 

Judiciary.  The  Judges  of  the  higher  Courts  are  appointed  by  the 
General  Assembly,  and  hold  their  office  during  good  behavior.  They 
may  be  removed  on  impeachment,  or  indictment. 

Right  of  suffrage.  To  vote  for  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
a  freeman  must  be  of  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and  have  resided  in 
the  State  twelve  months  immediately  preceding  the  election.  To  vote 
for  Senator,  he  must  in  addition,  possess  a  freehold  of  50  acres  of  land. 

South  Carolina.  A  constitution  was  adopted  by  this  state  in  1775  ; 
the  present  constitution  was  adopted  in  1790.  This  latter  has  been 
twice  amended,  first  in  1808,  and  again  in  1816. 

Legislature.  A  general  assembly  consisting  of  a  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives.  The  former  consists  of  45  members,  chosen  in 
election  districts  for  four  years,  one  half  renewed  biennially.  The  lat- 
ter consists  of  1 24  members,  elected  for  two  years,  and  are  chosen  by 
districts.  Senators  must  be  resident  citizens  for  five  years,  30  years 
of  age  and  freeholders  ;  Representatives  must  be  resident  citizen's  for 
three  years.  Meeting  of  the  general  assembly  annually  at  Columbia^ 
fourth  Monday  in  November. 

Executive.  Governor,  elected  by  the  general  assembly  for  two  years 
— re  eligible  after  four  years — must  be  a  freeholder — a  citizen  resident 
for  ten  years — 30  years  of  age.  He  has  the  power  of  pardoning.  A 
Lieutenant  Governor  of  like  qualifications  is  chosen  in  the  same  man- 
ner, and  for  the  same  period  ;  but  has  no  power,  or  duty,  unless  a  va- 
cancy happens  in  the  office  of  Governor. 

Judiciary.  The  Judicial  power  is  vested  in  superior  and  inferior 
courts  of  law  and  equity.  The  Chancellor  and  Judges  are  chosen  by 
the  general  assembly  in  joint  ballot,  and  hold  their  office  during  good 
behavior. 

Right  of  Suffrage.  This  is  granted  to  every  free,  white  male  citi- 
zen, of  the  age  of  21  years,  resident  two  years,  a  freeholder  of  fifty 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 211 

CIVIL    POLITY. 

acres  of  land,  or  has  paid  a  tax  the  preceding  year  of  three  shillings 
sterling  towards  the  support  of  government. 

Georgia.  Georgia  first  formed  a  constitution  in  1777  ;  a  second  in 
1785  ;  and  a  third,  which  is  now  in  operation,  in  1798.  This  last  has 
been  amended  in  respect  to  one  judicial  provision. 

Legislature.  A  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives.  The  annual  election  is  on  the  first  Monday 
in  Oct.  Each  county  elects  one  senator.  The  representatives  are  in 
proportion  to  population,  adding  three  to  three-fifths  of  the  colored  po- 
pulation. Each  county  has,  however,  the  privilege  of  sending  one, 
and  no  county  more  than  four.  The  meeting  of  the  general  assembly 
takes  place  on  the  first  Monday  of  November. 

Executive.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  Governor,  elected 
by  the  people  on  the  first  Monday  in  Oct. — holds  his  oflice  for  two  years. 
He  must  have  been  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  twelve  years — inha- 
bitant six  years — 30  years  of  age — a  freeholder  of  500  acres  of  land  or 
other  property  to  the  amount  of  ^4,000.  He  has  the  power  of  granting 
reprieves  for  offences  against  the  state,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
and  to  respite  execution  for  treason  or  murder,  till  the  next  general  as- 
sembly. 

Judiciary.  Superior  court,  and  in  inferior  jurisdictions.  Judges  of 
the  superior  court  appointed  by  the  General  Assembly  for  three  years — 
removable  by  address  and  impeachment. 

Right  of  Suffrage.  The  right  of  suffrage  extends  to  all  citizens  and 
inhabitants,  who  have  attained  the  age  of  21  years,  and  have  paid  all 
the  taxes  which  may  have  been  required  of  them,  and  which  they  may 
have  had  opportunity  of  paying,  agreeably  to  law,  for  the  year  prece- 
ding the  election,  and  shall  have  resided  six  months  within  the  county. 

Kentucky.  The  constitution  of  Kentucky  was  first  formed  in  1790 ; 
a  new  one  was  framed  in  1799. 

Legislature.  A  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  styled  The 
General  Assembly  of  the  Commonicealth  of  Kentucky.  The  senators  are 
38  in  number— cannot  fall  short  of  24 — must  be  resident  citizens  six 
years,  and  35  years  of  age — are  chosen  for  four  years — one  quarter 
renewed  annually.  The  number  of  representatives  is  100 — cannot 
be  lower  than  58 — must  be  resident  citizens  two  years — 24  years  of 
age — are  elected  annually  by  the  people,  by  districts.  Meeting  of  the 
general  assembly  annually  at  Frankfort.,  on  the  first  Monday  of  Nov. 

Executive.  Governor,  elected  by  the  people  for  four  years,  then  in- 
eligible for  seven.  His  qualifications  are  citizensip — residence  six 
years — age  35  years.  He  has  the  power  of  nominating  to  the  Senate 
all  judicial,  and  other  important  officers  ;  also,  the  power  of  pardoning, 
except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  and  of  reprieving  in  treason,  until  the 
next  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly.  A  lieutenant  Governor  is  al- 
so chosen,  who  is  president  of  the  Senate,  and  who  acts  as  Governor, 
in  case  of  a  vacancy  in  that  office. 

Judiciary.  The  judges  hold  their  office,  and  may  be  removed  as  in 
Massachusetts. 


212  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


Right  of  suffrage.  This  extends  to  every  free,  male,  white  citizen  of 
the  age  of  21  years,  who  has  resided  in  the  slate  two  years,  or  in  the 
county  where  he  votes  one  year  next  preceding. 

Tennessee.  The  constitution  of  Tennessee  was  adopted  in  1796, 
since  which  time  it  has  not  been  amended. 

Legislature.  A  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  both  elected  biennially,  on  the  first  Thursday 
and  Friday  in  August.  Number  of  representatives  never  to  exceed 
40,  apportioned  among  the  different  counties,  according  to  the  taxable 
inhabitants.  The  number  of  senators,  who  are  similarly  apportioned, 
can  never  be  more  than  half,  nor  less  than  one  third,  of  the  House. 
The  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly  is  biennial,  on  the  third  Monday 
in  September,  at  JVashviUe. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  elected  by  the  people,  at  the  same  time 
with  the  senators  and  representatives,  by  a,  plurality  of  votes — holds  his 
office  for  two  years — may  be  elected  only  three  times  in  eight  years — 
must  be  a  freeholder — a  resident  citizen  for  four  years,  and  35  years  of 
age.  He  has  the  power  of  pardonmg,  except  in  impeachment.  A  Ueu- 
tenant  Governor,  with  the  same  qualifications,  is  chosen  at  the  same 
time.  The  executive  has  the  power  of  appointing  to  office  only  in  ca- 
ses of  vacancy. 

Judiciary.  The  Judges  of  the  several  courts  of  law  and  equity,  are 
appointed  by  joint  ballot  of  both  houses  of  the  Assembly.  They  hold 
their  office  during  ^ood  behavior. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  right  belongs  to  every  freeman  of  the  age  of 
21  years,  and  upwards,  possessing  a  freehold  in  the  county,  wherein  he 
may  vote,  and  being  an  inhabitant  of  the  state,  and  to  every  freeman 
being  an  inhabitant  of  the  county  in  which  he  shall  vote,  six  months 
immediately  preceding  the  day  of  election. 

Ohio.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  adopted  in  1802.  It  may  be 
amended  by  a  convention,  but,  as  yet,  has  experienced  no  change. 

Legislature.  A  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  styled,  the 
General  Assembly  of  Ohio.  The  Senators  cannot  be  less  than  one 
third,  nor  more  than  one  half,  the  number  of  Representatives.  They 
are  chosen  for  two  years  ;  one  half  being  renewed  annually.  Qualifi- 
cations the  same  as  for  representatives,  viz.  residence  one  year — age  25 
years,  and  payment  of  taxes.  The  number  of  representatives  can  nev- 
er be  less  than  36,  nor  more  than  72.  They  are  elected  annually,  on 
the  second  Tuesday  in  October,  by  counties,  according  to  the  number 
of  white  male  inhabitants,  of  21  years  of  age.  Meeting-  of  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  annually  at  Columbus^  on  the  first  Monday  in  Decem- 
ber. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  who  is  elected  by  the  people  for  two  years 
— eligible  six  years  in  eight — must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  be  a  resident 
citizen  four  years.  He  has  the  power  of  pardoning,  except  in  im- 
peachments. The  president  of  the  Senate  is  his  successor,  in  case  of 
his  disability. 

Judiciary.  A  superior  court,  courts  of  common  pleas  for  each  coun- 
ty, &c.  Judges  are  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly,  in  joint  ballot, 
for  seven  years, — may  be  removed  by  impeachment. 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  213 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


Right  of  suffrage.  This  privilege  extends  to  white  male  inhabitants, 
above  21,  who  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year  immediately  prece- 
ding the  election,  and  who  have  paid  a  state  or  county  tax. 

Indiana.  The  constitution  of  Indiana  was  adopted  in  1816 — may 
be  amended  by  convention ;  but  has  not  yet  been  altered. 

Legislature.  A  General  Assembly,  consisting  of  a  Senate  elected 
for  three  years — one  third  renewable  annually  ;  and  a  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, elected  annually.  Qualifications  of  senators  and  dele- 
gates, viz,  residence,  and  payment  of  taxes  ;  they  are  chosen  in  coun- 
ties and  districts,  and  apportioned  to  the  numbers  of  white  male  in- 
habitants, above  21.  Delegates  can  never  be  less  than  36,  nor  more 
than  100 — Senators  not  less  than  one  third,  nor  more  than  one  half  the 
number  of  Representatives.  Anrmal  general  election,  first  Monday  in 
August.  Annual  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly,  at  Indianapolis, 
first  Monday  in  December. 

Executive.  Governor,  elected  by  the  people,  for  three  years — eligi- 
ble six  years  in  nine — must  be  30  years  of  age,  and  have  been  a  resident 
citizen  five  years.  He  nas  the  power  of  pardon  as  in  Ohio,and  a  quali- 
fied negative  on  the  acts  of  the  assembly,  as  in  Massachusetts.  It  be- 
longs to  him  to  nominate  most  of  the  officers  of  the  state  to  the  Sen- 
ate. A  lieutenant  Governor  is  chosen  by  the  people,  who  presides  in 
the  senate,  and  succeeds  to  the  powers  and  duties  of  governor,  in  case 
of  the  disability  of  the  latter. 

Judiciary.  A  supreme  court,  circuit  courts,  &;c.  The  supreme 
court  has  three  judges  ;  and  each  of  the  circuit  courts  a  president,  and 
two  associate  judges.  The  judges  hold  their  offices  for  seven  years — 
those  of  the  supreme  court  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  and  Senate  ; 
the  presidents  of  the  circuit  courts  by  the  assembly  in  joint  ballot ;  and 
the  associate  judges  are  chosen  by  the  people. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  is  granted  to  all  male  citizens,  of  the  age  of 
21,  and  upwards,  whojiave  resided  in  the  state  a  year,  immediately 
preceding  an  election. 

Louisiana.  The  constitution  of  this  state  was  formed  in  1812  ;  pro- 
vision is  made  for  its  amendment  by  a  convention,  chosen  by  the  peo- 
ple. 

Legislature.  House  and  Senate,  styled  General  Assembly.  Repre- 
sentatives are  elected  for  two  years — cannot  be  less  than  25,  nor  more 
than  50,  and  are  chosen  on  the  basis  of  the  qualified  electors,  as  ascer- 
tained by  enumeration  every  four  years.  They  must  be  citizens,  and 
residents  two  years,  and  freeholders.  The  Senators  are  16  in  num- 
ber, chosen  by  districts,  for  four  years — half  to  be  renewed  every  two 
years.  They  must  have  been  resident  citizens  four  years — 27  years  of 
age,  and  possess  a  freehold  worth  $1000.  Annual  meeting  of  the  As- 
sembly, first  Monday  in  January. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  ineli- 
gible the  next  four  years.  He  is  chosen  by  the  General  Assembly  in 
joint  ballot,  who  elect  one  of  the  two  candidates,  who  have  had  the 
greatest  number  of  votes  from  the  qualified  electors.  Qualifications 
— residence  six  years— 30  years  of  age — and  a  freehold  of  $5000  val- 
ue.    With  the  assent  of  the  Senate,  he  has  the  power  ef  pardoning ; 


214  FAMILY 

CIVIL    POLITY. 


but  not  in  cases  of  impeachment.    The  president  of  the  senate  is  his 
successor,  in  case  of  vacancy. 

Judiciary.  Supreme  court,  and  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Legis- 
lature may  establish.  The  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Governor,  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  senate — they  hold  their  offices  during 
good  behavior. 

Right  of  suffrage.     This  is  practically  universal. 

Mississippi.  Constitution  adopted  1817,  with  provisions  for  its  be- 
ing amended  by  convention. 

Legislature.  House  of  Representatives  and  Senate,  styled  General 
Assembly.  The  number  of  Representatives  can  never  be  less  than  36, 
nor  more  than  100.  They  must  be  resident  citizens  two  years — 22 
years  of  age,  and  possess  a  freehold  to  the  value  of  $500.  Senators 
are  elected  for  three  years — one  third  renewable  annually — are  chosen 
in  districts,  being  apportioned  on  the  taxable  inhabitants — can  never 
be  more  than  one  third,  nor  less  than  one  fourth,  of  the  delegates — 
must  be  resident  citizens  four  years — 26  years  of  age— freehold  or 
other  estate  of  1000  dollars.  Annual  session,  first  Monday  in  Novem- 
ber. 

Executive.  A  Governor,  elected  by  the  people,  for  two  years — must 
be  30  years  of  age — a  citizen  20  years — a  resident  five  years — and 
have  a  freehold  of  the  value  of  |2000.  He  has  no  power  of  appoint- 
ment, but  can  pardon,  except  in  cases  of  treason,  or  impeachment.  A 
lieutenajit  Governor  is  appointed,  who  acts  in  case  of  the  death,  resig- 
nation, or  absence  of  the  Governor.  He  is  president  of  the  Sen- 
ate. 

Judiciary.  One  supreme  court,  and  such  superior  and  inferior 
courts  of  law  and  equity,  as  the  Legislature  may  from  time  to  time  es- 
tablish. Number  of  the  supreme  and  superior  courts  not  less  than 
four,  nor  more  than  eight.  All  judges  are  appointed  by  the  General 
Assembly — hold  their  office  during  good  behavior — are  disqualified  at 
the  age  of  65. 

Right  of  suffrage.  This  extends  to  every  free  white  male  person,  21 
years  of  age,  or  upwards — who  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and 
shall  have  resided  in  this  state  one  year  next  preceding  the  election — 
and  the  last  six  months  within  the  county,  city,  or  town,  in  which  he 
offers  to  vote,  and  shall  be  enrolled  in  the  militia  thereof,  unless  ex- 
empted by  law  from  military  service  ;  or  having  the  aforesaid  qualifi- 
cations of  citizenship,  and  residence,  shall  have  paid  a  state  or  county 
tax. 

Illinois.  Alabama.  Missouri.  The  constitutions  of  these  states 
were  established  in  the  years  1818,  1819,  and  1820.  Their  provisions 
are,  in  general,  so  strikingly  similar  to  those  of  the  constitution  of  Mis- 
sissippi, that  it  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  enter  into  particulars.  In  Il- 
linois, the  number  of  representatives  cannot  be  less  than  27,  nor  more 
than  36,  until  the  number  of  inhabitants  within  the  state  shall  amount 
to  100,000  ;  and  the  number  of  senators  shall  never  be  less  than  one 
third,  nor  more  than  one  half  the  number  of  representatives.  In  this 
state,  also,  the  Governor,  with  the  judges  of  the  supreme  court,  con- 
stitute a  council  to  revise  all  legislative  acts;    upon  which  they  have  a 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.  215 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


qualified  negative.^session  of  the  Assembly,  first  Monday  of  Decem- 
ber, every  second  year.  In  Alabama,  annual  session,  fourth  Monday 
of  October.  In  Missouri,  meeting  of  the  As3embly,first  Monday  in  No- 
vember, every  second  year. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States.  The  United  States  were 
originally  colonies  of  Great  Britain.  At  several  different  times,  a  un- 
ion between  these  colonies  was  contemplated,  and  attempted.  In  the 
year  1643,  a  union  was  formed  between  the  New-England  colonies,  for 
certain  purposes.  In  1754,  a  more  general  union  was  attempted,  ac- 
cording to  a  plan,  which,  in  several  of  its  features,  resembled  the  pres- 
ent constitution  of  the  United  States  ;  and,  although  adopted  by  a 
convention  of  delegates  for  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  with  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor and  council  of  New  York,  it  failed,  receiving  the  approbation  of 
neither  of  the  provincial  assemblies,  nor  of  the  King's  Council. 

In  the  summer  of  1775,  after  the  troubles  with  the  mother  country 
had  commenced.  Dr.  Franklin  submitted  to  Congress  articles  of  con- 
federation, and  perpetual  union  between  the  colonies,  but  which  were 
not  then  acted  upon.  In  June  1776,  Congress  being  about  to  declare 
America  independent,  the  subject  of  a  compact  was  again  brought  for- 
ward. A  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare,  and  digest  the  form  of 
a  confederation.  This  committee,  on  the  12th  of  July  following,  re- 
ported a  plan,  consisting  of  twenty  articles.  The  gloomy  aspect  of 
American  affairs  at  that  period,  however,  prevented  Congress  from  re- 
suming the  subject,  until  April,  1777 ;  nor  was  it  finally  aodpted,  until 
the  15th  of  November,  the  same  year.  The  outlines  of  the  system 
were,  that  the  thirteen  states  formed  a  confederacy,  under  the  style  and 
name  of  "The  United  States  of  America;"  by  which  they  entered 
"  into  a  firm  league  of  friendship  with  each  other,  for  their  defence, 
the  security  of  their  liberties,  and  their  mutual  and  general  welfare, 
binding  themselves  to  assist  each  other  against  all  force  offered  to,  or 
attacks  made  upon  them,  or  any  of  them,  on  account  of  religion,  sov- 
reignty,  trade,  or  any  other  pretence  whatever." 

This  plan  of  union,  after  much  diflEiculty  and  delay,  was  adopted  by 
the  then  thirteen  colonies  ;  and,  although  defective  in  many  respects, 
the  American  people  were  held  together,  by  means  of  it,  through  their 
long  struggle  for  peace  and  independence. 

At  length,  it  was  obvious,  that  a  more  effective  plan  of  union  must 
be  adopted,  or  the  glorious  objects  of  the  Revolutionary  struggle 
would  be  entirely  lost.  To  trace  the  progress  of  measures,  which  led 
to  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  would  greatly  exceed  our 
limits.  It  is  sufficient  for  our  purpose  to  say,  that  in  the  year  1787,  a 
convention  of  delegates  from  all  the  states,  except  Rhode  Island,  met 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and  on  the  17th  of  September,  the  present 
federal  constitution  vVas  presented  to  congress,  which  body  shortly  af- 
ter sent  it  to  the  several  states,  by  which  it  was,  at  different  periods, 
adopted,  and  with  some  subsequent  amendments,  has  formed  the  ba- 
sis of  our  government  until  the  present  time. 

Legislative  Power.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  by  the  constitu- 
tion in  a  Congress,  which  consists  of  a  House  of  Representatives,  and  a 
Senate,  the  concurrence  of  both  of  which  is  necessary  to  the  making  of 


216  FAMILY 


CIVIL    POLITY. 


a  law.  A  bill  which  has  passed  both  branches,  must  be  signed  by  the 
presiding  officers,  which  being  done,  it  is  sent  to  the  President  for  his 
signature.  If  he  signs  it,  it  is  established  as  law — should  he  refuse,  he 
returns  it  with  objections.  Should  two  thirds  of  both  branches  concur, 
it  becomes  a  law  notwithstanding  the  want  of  the  President's  signature. 

The  House  of  Representatives  is  composed  of  members  from  the 
several  states,  chosen  by  the  people,  for  the  term  of  two  years,  in  such 
manner  as  each  state,  by  law,  determines.  They  are  apportioned 
among  the  different  states,  according  to  the  population — each  state,  at 
the  present  time,  according  to  an  act  of  Congress,  of  the  3d  of  March, 
1823,  sending  one  representative  for  every  40,000  persons  computed 
according  to  the  constitution.  No  person  can  be  a  representative  who 
is  not  25  years  old,  and  who  has  not  been  a  citizen  seven  years,  and 
who  does  not  reside  in  the  state  in  which  he  is  elected.  The  present 
number  of  representatives  is  216,  including  three  delegates. 

The  Senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from  each  State.  The 
present  number  is  forty-eight.  They  are  chosen  by  the  State  Legisla- 
tures for  six  years,  one  third  being  elected  biennially.  To  be  eligible 
to  a  seat  in  the  Senate,  a  person  must  be  thirty  years  of  age,  a  resident 
citizen  nine  years,  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  in  which  he  is  chosen. 

The  House  of  Representatives  has  a  presiding  officer  called  a 
Speaker,  who  is  elected  from  their  own  body.  The  President  of  the 
Senate  is  the  Vice  President  of  the  United  States. 

Besides  the  legislative  power,  which  the  Senate  has  in  common  with 
the  House  of  Representatives,  it  belongs  to  that  body  to  approve  or 
disapprove  of  appointments  made  by  the  President.  Treaties,  also, 
with  foreign  powers,  are  submitted  to  them  by  the  President ;  two 
thirds  are  essential  to  the  ratification  of  a  treaty.  The  Senate  also  acts 
as  a  judicial  court  for  the  trial  of  impeachments,  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives being  the  prosecutor. 

It  belongs  to  Congress  to  make  such  laws,  compatible  with  the  con- 
stitution, as  in  their  opinion  will  advance  the  general  welfare  of  the 
country.  "  They  are  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  imposts  and  excises  ;  bor- 
row money,  regulate  commerce,  establish  uniform  rules  of  naturaliza- 
tion, coin  money,  establish  post  roads  and  post  offices,  promote  the 
arts  and  sciences,  institute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  supreme  court, 
define  and  punish  piracy,  declare  war,  and  make  reprisals,  raise  and 
support  armies,  provide  a  navy,  regulate  the  militia,  and  make  all 
laws  necessary  to  carry  these  powers  into  effect." 

Executive  power.  The  executive  power  of  the  United  States  is  vested 
in  a  President,  who  holds  his  office  for  four  years.  He  is  chosen  by 
electors,  who  are  themselves  chosen  in  each  State,  in  such  manner  as 
the  legislature  may  direct,  and  are  in  number  equal  to  the  number  of 
Senators  and  Representatives  in  each  State. 

The  importance  of  the  mode  in  which  the  election  of  President  is 
made,  induces  us  to  insert  the  provisions  of  the  constitution,  on  this 
subject  as  amended:  "The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice  President,  one  of 
whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves.  They  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as 
President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice  President : 


ENCYCLOPEDIA.       217 

EXECUTIVE    POWER. 

and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  president, 
and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  vice  president,  and  of  the  number  of  votes 
for  each  ;  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to 
the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of 
the  Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  certificates,  and  the  votes 
shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  president,  shall  be  the  president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed  ;  and  if  no  person  have  such' majori- 
ty, then,  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding 
three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  president,  the  House  of  Represen- 
tatives shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  president.  But  in  choos- 
ing the  president,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  states,  the  representation 
from  each  state  having  one  vote.  A  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  con- 
sist of  a  member,  or  members,  from  two  thirds  of  the  states;  and  a  ma- 
jority from  all  the  states  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House 
of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  president,  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  fol- 
lowing, tlien  the  vice  president  shall  act  as  president,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  death  or  other  constitutional  disability  of  the  president. 

"(2)  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  vice  presi- 
dent, shall  be  the  vice  president,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority, 
then  from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
the  vice  president.  A  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole 
number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

"  (3)  But  no  person  constitutionally  inelligible  to  the  office  of  2)resi- 
dent  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  vice  president  of  the  United  States."  The 
qualifications  and  duties  of  the  president  will  be  noticed  in  another  page. 

Judiciary.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  is  at  present  ves- 
ted in  a  Supreme  Court,  thirty-one  District  Courts,  and  seven  Circuit 
Courts.  The  Supreme  Court  is  composed  of  a  chief  justice  and  six 
associate  justices  who  hold  a  court  in  the  city  of  Washington  annually. 
The  Circuit  Courts,  comprising  two  or  more  Districts  are  attended  by 
these  justices,  to  each  of  whom  one  is  appropriated.  He  is  assisted  by 
the  judge  of  the  district  in  which  the  court  is  held.  The  District  Courts 
are  held  by  the  district  judge.  Appeals  lie  from  the  District  to  the  Cir- 
cuit Courts,  and  from  the  Circuit  Courts  to  the  Supreme  Courts.  Each 
court  has  a  clerk,  a  public  attorney,  and  a  marshal,  all  of  whom  receive 
their  appointment  from  the  President  of  the  United  States  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  clerks',  who  are  appointed  by  the  courts.  The  judges  hold 
their  olhces  during  good  behavior,  and  their  salaries  cannot  be  diminished 
during  their  continuance  m  oflice.  The  power  of  these  courts  extends 
to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under  the  constitution,  or  laws  of 
the  United  Slates,  and  under  treaties ;  to  cases  of  public  ministers  and 
consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maratime  jurisdiction;  to  con- 
troversies between  the  states  in  which  the  United  States  are  a  party ; 
between  a  state  and  a  citizen  of  another  state ;  and  between  citizens  of 
different  states ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  state,  claiming  under  grants 
of  different  states ;  to  causes  between  one  of  the  states  or  an  American 
eitizen  and  a  foreign  state  or  citizen. 


218 


FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


PART  IX. 


STATISTICS. 


By  statistics  is  meant  a  collection  of  facts  respecting  the  state  of  socie- 
ty, the  condition  of  the  peopje  in  a  nation  or  country,  their  health,  lon- 
gevity, domestic  economy,  arts,  property,  and  political  strength,  the  state 
of  the  country,  &c. 

Although  the  ancients  appear  to  have  had  some  practical  knowledge 
of  this  subject,  yet  it  was  extremely  limited,  and  doubtless  very  imper- 
fect. As  a  science,  statistics  is  of  very  recent  origin,  having  for  its  foun- 
der Achenwall,  a  professor  of  Gottingen  University.  In  1748,  he  pub- 
lished a  valuable  work  on  statistics,  the  plan  of  which  has  served  as  the 
basis  of  several  other,  still  more  valuable  and  later  treatises. 

Hitherto,  individuals  have  paid  more  attention  to  statistical  information 
than  governments;  yet  it  would  obviously  be  for  the  advantage  of  every 
regular  government  to  provide  for  detailed  reports,  on  those  subjects, 
which  would  elicit  a  view  of  the  statistical  condition  of  the  countries 
where  they  are  estabUshed.  Most  governments  provide  for  an  enume- 
ration of  their  inhabitants  and  the  revenue ;  but,  in  respect  to  a  periodical 
census,  extending  to  all  the  important  branches  of  statistical  knowl- 
edge, it  is  believed  that  England  and  the  United  States  are  the  only  two 
governments  which  have  made  legal  provision.  In  the  former  country, 
the  first  census  of  the  above  kind  was  made  in  1811.  In  the  latter  in 
1790.     In  both  countries,  the  census  is  repeated  every  ten  years. 

V        STATISTICS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

POPULATION  OF  THE  AMERICAN  COLONIES  IN  1701. 


SOULS 

Massachusetts                        70,000 
Connecticut       .        .        .     30,000 
Rhode  Island          .                  10,000 
New  Hampshire        .         .     10,000 

New  York     . 

East  and  West  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

:  COLONIES  IN  1749. 

Pennsylvania  i 
Delaware        ^ 
Maryland 
Virginia 
North  Carolina 
South  Carolina 
Georgia     . 

SOULS. 

30,000 
.     15,000 

20,000 
.    25,000 

40,000 

.      5,000 

7,000 

New  England         .               120,000 
Middle  and  So.  Colonies       142,000 

Total  262,000 

POPULATION  OF  THI 

New  Hampshire                .    30,000 
Massachusetts                 .      220,000 
Rhode  Island                       .     35,000 
Connecticut  .        .        .      100,000 
New  York                          .  100,000 
East  and  West  Jersey    .        60,000 

142,000 

250,000 

.    85,000 
85,000 

.    45,000 

30,000 

6,000 

ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


219 


■" 

STATISTICS. 

DATES  OF  THE 

FIRST  SETTLEMENT  OF  THE  SEVERAL  COLONIES. 

Virginia   . 

1607 

Maryland 

1633 

New  York    . 

.     1614 

Connecticut 

1635 

Massachusetts  . 

1620 

Rhode  Island    . 

1636 

New  Hampshire  . 

.    1623 

North  Carolina     . 

1650 

New  Jersey 

1624 

South  Carolina 

1670 

Delaware     . 

.     1627 

Pennsylvania 

1682 

Maine 

1630 

Georgia    .... 

1733 

EXPENSE  OF  THE  WAR  OF  THE  REVOLUTION. 

During  the  war  ofthe  revolution,  commerce  being  interrupted,  no  revenue 
was  raised  from  this  branch  of  industry,  nor  had  the  Contmental  Congress 
the  power  to  lay  a  general  tax  on  commerce,  this  being  the  exclusive  pre- 
rogative of  the  several  States.  Resort  was  therefore  necessarily  had  to 
loans  and  paper  money.  Owing  to  various  causes  the  precise  amount  of 
expenditures  for  the  war  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  following  estimate  is 
supposed  to  approximate  to  the  expense  incurred.       ^ 

Estimated  expenditures  Doll's.     90ths. 

of  1775  and  1776,  in  specie,  .         .        .    20.064.666  66 

1777 24,986,646  85 

1778 24,289,438  26 

1779 10,794,620  65 

1780 3,000,000  00 

1781 1,942,465  30 

1782 3,632,745  85 

1783 3,226,583  45 

To  Nov.  1st,        1784 548,525  63 


Forming  an  amount  total  of 

To  which  should  be  added — 
Army  debt  upon  Commissioners  certificates, 
:^upp!ies  furnished  by  citizens  of  the  several  States, 
Supplies  furnished  from  the  quarter-master's  depart- 

''    ment,  commissary,  &c 

Other  supplies,  certificates  for  which  were  issued  by 

Register, 

The  foreign  expenditures,  civil,  military,  «fec. 
Estimated  expenditures  ofthe  several  States,     . 

Estimated  expense  of  the  war  in  Specie, 


$92,485,693  15 
Doll's.    90ths. 
11,080,576    1 
3,723,625  21 

.     1,159,170  5 

744,638  49 

5,000,000  00 

.  21,000,000  00 

$135,193,703  00 


EMISSIONS  OF  CONTINENTAL  MONEY. 


Old  Emission. 

Doll's.    90ths. 

nl776 

20,064,666  66 

1777 

26,426,333    1 

1778 

66,965,269  34 

1779 

149,703,856  77 

1780 

82,908,320  47 

1781 

11,408,095  00 

$357,476,541  45 

New  Emission. 
Doll's.    90ths, 


891,236  SO 
1,179,249  00 

$2,070,485  80 


220  FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


LOANS  AND  GRANTS  OF  MONEY  FROM  FRANCE. 

Livres.  Dollars. 
1778.  February  6 — Cash  received  from  sundry  indi- 
viduals up  to  this  day,  including  a  loan  from 

the  Farmers  General,           .         .         .         3,000,000  555,555 

Loan  by  the  Court  of  France  for  this  year,     3,000,000  555,555 

1779.— Loan  for  this  vear, 1,000,000  185,185 

1780.— Loan,   .        ." 4,000,000  740,740 

1781.— Loan 4,000,000  740,740 

Subsidy  from  the  Court  of  France          .        6,000,000  1,111,111 

Loan  granted  by  the  Court  in  Holland         10,000,000  1,851,851 

178-2.— Loan 6,000,000  1,111,111 

1783.- Loan,            6,000,000  1,111,111 


43,000,000  7,962,959 

TROOPS  EMPLOYED  DURING  THE  REVOLUTION. 

[From  Dr.  Holmes's  Annals.] 
Land  Forces  employed  by  Great  Britain  in  America,  1774-1780. 

1774  6,884  I  Died  and  deserted    19,381  I  Lost  of  the  army  24.717 

1775  11.319  I  Prisoners  .         5,336.  |  Lost  of  the  navy    4,314 

1776  45,865 


1777    48,616  |  24,717  |  29,031 

Naval  Force  for  the  above  Four  Ycar&. 

Men  of  war  and  armed  vessels, 83 

Complement  of  men, 22,337 

Of  which  were  lost  by  death,      ......       4,314 

Men  and  Marines  employed  hy  Great  Britain  during  the  American  War. 

Raised  for  his  Majesty's  navy,  marines  included,  from  September 29  1774. 

to  September  29,  1780. 175,990 

Of  whom  in  5  years,  beginning  with  1776  and  ending  with  1780, 

Were  killed  .       1,243  5 

Deserted        .         .        42,069 

Troops  raised  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  for  his  Majesty's  Land  Service 
(Militia  and  Fencible  Men  in  North  Britain  not  included)  from  Septem- 
icr  29,  1774, /o.Sr;/rtmZ«r  29,  1780.  ....        76,885 

Of  which  died  in  North  America  and  the  West  Indies       10,012 
Taken  prisoners,  including  those  under  the  Convention 

of  Saratoga 8,629 

Deserted 3,801 

Discharged  the  service      ......        3,885 

26,327 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


221 


STATISl'iCS. 

British  Corps  and  Recruits  sent  from  Great  Britain  or  Ireland  to  North 
America  or  tlie  West  Indies. 


1778 

3774 

1779    . 

6871 

1780 

.     10,237 

Total    20,882. 


Accomit  of  the  Ships  of  the  Line  and  Frigates,  taken  or  destroyed  during  the 
War  of  the  Resolution. 


French  ships  of  the  line  taken  by  the  British 

Do.  lost     . 

Spanish  ships  of  the  line  taken  by  do. 

Do.  lost      . 

Dutch  ships  of  the  line  taken  by  do. 

Do.  lost 

American  ship  of  the  line  taken  by  do.     . 


26 
12 


Taken  23.  lost  23.    Total  40 
French  frigates  taken  27,  American  12,  Spanish  11,  and  Dutch  2 ; — beside 

which,  5  Spanish  and  4  American  frigates  were  lost.     Total  61. 
British,  one  64  and  two  fifties  taken  by  the  French       .  ^  ^     18 

Do.  ships  of  the  line  lost 15  5 

British  frigates  taken  by  the  French  6,  by  the  Americans  1,  and  17  lost. 

Total  24. 


NAVAL  FORCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Names  and  Rate. 

When  built. 

Names  and  Rate.         When  built 

Ships  of  the  Line. 

Guns. 

Sloops  of  War. 

Guns. 

Independence 

74 

1814 

Erie       . 

18 

1813 

Franklin 

74 

1815 

Ontario 

18 

1813 

Washington 

74 

1816 

Peacock 

18 

1813 

ColumbuB          .  . 

74 

1819 

Boston 

18 

1825 

Ohio       . 

74 

1820 

Lexington 

18 

1825 

North  Carolina 

74 

1820 

Vincennes 

18 

1826 

Delaware 

74 

1820 

Warren 

18 

1826 

Frigates  of  1st  class. 

Natches 

18 

1827 

United  States     . 

44 

1797 

Falnwuth 

18 

1827 

Constitution 

44 

1797 

Fairfield 

18 

1828 

Guerrier 

44 

1814 

VandaUa 

18 

1828 

Java 

44 

1814 

St.  Louis 

18 

1828 

Potomac 

44 

1821 

Concord 

18 

1826 

Brandywine 

44 

1825 

Sdiooners,  Sfc. 

Hudson 

44 

1826 

Dolphin 

12 

1821 

Frigates  of  2d  class. 

Grampus 

12 

1821 

Congress 

36 

1799 

Porpoise 

12 

1820 

Constellation     . 

36 

1797 

Shark     . 

12 

1821 

Macedonian 

36 

1812t 

Fox 

3 

1823' 

Sloops  of  War. 

Alert  (store  ship 

,) 

1812 1 

John  Adams 

24 

1799 

Sea  GuU  (gaUiot 

,) 

1823' 

Cyane 

24 

1815 1 

*  Purchased  in. 

+  Captured. 

t2 


222 


FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


ADOPTION  OF  THE  FIRST  STATE  CONSTITUTIONS. 


1776 
1776 
1776 
1776 
1776 
1776 
1776 
1776 
1777 
1780 
1786 
1789 


Amount  of  Money  expended  in  each  State  and   Territory,  by  the  United 
States,  upon  IVorks  of  Internal  Improvement,  from  tlie  Adoption  of  the 


New  Hampshire, 

January  5, 

South  Carolina, 

March  24, 

Virginia, 

June  29, 

New  Jersey, 

July  2, 

Maryland, 

August  14, 

Pennsylvjaoia, 

September. 

Delaware, 

September, 

North  Carolina, 

December, 

New  York, 

April. 

Massachusetts, 

March, 

Vermont, 

July  4, 

Georgia, 

May, 

Federal  Constitution  to  the  1st  day  of  October,  1828. 


Maine 

Massachusetts 

Counecticut 

Rhode  Island 

New  York 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North  Carolina 

Kentucky 


$11,724 

104,042 

2,069 

.      195 

68,138 

39,728 
307,104 

10,000 
150,000 
.     1,000 

90,000 


Tennessee 

Ohio 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida     . 


Total 


il-oad  from  Cumberland  to  the  Ohio  .  .  .  1,662,246  75 
Continuationof  the  Cumberland  Road  .  .  .  453,547  86 
Repairs  of  the  Cumberland  Road  .         .         .  55,50100 

Road  from  Nashville  to  Natchez  ....  8,000  00 

Road  from  Wheeling  to  the  Mississippi  river   .         .  10,000  00 

Road  from  Missouri  to  New  Mexico  .         .         .         30,000  00 

Road  from  Mississippi  to  the  State  of  Ohio  .  .  .  5,539  35 
Road  from  Georgia  to  New  Orleans  .         .         .  5,500  00 

Roads  in  Tennessee,  Louisiana,  and  Georgia  .         .     15,000  00 

Road  from  Nashville  to  New  Orleans  .         .         .  7,920  00 

Surveys  of  Roads  and  Canals  ....  166,68149 

Surveys ofMapsandChartsoftheOhioandMississippi rivers  4,185  24 
Improving  the  Navigation  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers  103,409  72 

Mihtary  Roads  10,218  43 

Surveys  of  the  water  courses  of  the  Mississippi  river  .  11,122  04 
Road  through  the  Creek  Nation  .        .        .  3,621  01 

Opening  the  old  Natchez  road  ....  5,000  00 

Breakwater  at  the  mouth  of  Delaware  Bay     .        .        .        5,000  00 


.    4,200  00 

.     390,159  03 

108,623  88 

49,385  52 

.     8,000  00 

.       81,762  78 

22,702  24 

44,690  00 

.    48,607  95 

799,002  01 

$2,341,136  03 


Grand  Total 


$4,903,637  92 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


223 


STATISTICS. 


PUBLIC    DEBT. 

Amount  of  the  Public  Debt  of  the  United  States,  at  several  periods,  from  1791 
to  J  830,  rec/coned  on  the  first  of  January  of  the  different  years. 

,m~^  i^r.  r.-..  ^  Debt  liicreased  duHng  these  six  years  ex- 
cept 1794,  when  it  was  reduced. 
Debt  increased  by  reason  of  mihtary  pre- 
parations against  France,  previous  to  the 
year  1801. 
Debt  increased  by  the  purchase  of  Louisi- 
ana in  1803. 


In  1791 
In  1796 
In  1799 
In  1801 
In  1803 
In  1804 
In  1809 
In  1810 
In  1812 
In  1813 
In  1816 
In  1817 
In  18-20 
In  18-21 
In  182-2 
In  1823 
In  18-24 
In  1825 
In  1826 
In  18-27 
In  1828 
In  18-29 
In  1831 


$75,169,974 
81,642,-272 
77,399,909 
82,000,167 
74,731,9-22 
85,353,643 
56,732,379 
53,156,532 
45,035,133 
55,907,452 
1-23,016,375 
115,807,805 
91,015,566 
89,987,427^ 
93,546,676 
90,375,877 
90,-269,777 
83,788,452 
81,054,059 
73,987,357 
67,475,622 
58,362,135  J 
48,595,405 


Debt  at  its  minimum  in  1812 
by  the 


Debt  increased 
1816. 

Debt  much  reduced  since  1816. 


war, — maximum , 


Debt  increased  by  the  purchase  of  Florida 
.    and  a  diminution  of  the  ordinary  reve- 
nue. 


Adams'  administration  from  1825  to  1829. 


Jackson's  adm'n.  began  March  4th  1829. 


BANK   OF    THE    UNITED  STATES. 

The  charter  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States  was  granted  10th  of 
April  1816  for  20  years.  Original  capital  $35,000,000.  Stock  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  government  $7,000,000.  Parent  Bank  at  Phil- 
adelphia. Otiices  of  discount  are  established  at  the  following  places  viz. 
Portland,  Portsmouth,  Boston,  Providence,  Hartford,  Burlington,  New 
Tork,  Utica,  Buffalo,  Baltimore,  Washington,  Richmond,  Norfolk,  Fay- 
etteville,  Charleston,  Savannah,  Mobile,  Natchez,  New  Orleans,  St. 
Louis,  Nashville,  Louisville,  Lexington,  Cincinnati,  Pittsburgh. 

State  of  (lie  Bank  September  1,  1831. 


Investments. 
Capital  paid  in         $^55,000,000  00 
Circulation         .        22,399,447  52 


Public  Deposits 
Private  Deposits 
Due  to  individuals  in 

Europe 
Unclaimed  dividends 
Contingent  Fund 
Discount,    Exchange 

and  Interest 
Profit  and  Loss 


7,252,249  42 
9,115,836,47 


168,372, 
251,766 


Distribution. 
Funded  debt  $3,517  381    6 

Loans  .  .  56,895,451  9 
Mortgages  .  .  140,956  63 
Chargeable  to  Contin- 


gent Fund 
Real  Estate 


3  Due  from  Offices  and 


5,613,173,15 

614,685    7 
1,750,048  51 


$82,165,578  89 


Banks 
Expences  &c. 
Banking  Houses 
Notes  of  State  Banks 
Specie 


3,452,976  16 

2,491,892  99 

621,523    8 

259,383  50 

1,160.455  54 

2,080,442  33 

11,545,116  51 


$82,165,578  89 


224 


FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


Value  of  Imports  and  Exports  of  the  United  States,  during  the  year  tnding 
September  20,  \^d  from  and  to  each  Foreign  Country. 


Value  of 
Imports. 

Value 

OF  Exports. 

COUNTRIES. 

Domestic      Foreign 

Tntal 

Produce.       Produce. 

X  OUll 

Russia 

$2,218,995 

^51,684    $334,542 

$386,226 

Prussia 

22,935 

14.411 

. 

14,411 

Sweden  and  Norway 

1.020,910 

122,663 

126,971 

249.634 

Swedish  West  Indies 

283.049 

684,523 

23,791 

708,314 

Denmark      .... 

32,911 

73,597 

13,166 

86,763 

Danish  West  Indies 

2,053,266 

1,942,010 

282.401 

2,224,411 

Netherlands     .     .     . 

1,0.57,854 

3,095,857 

889,330 

3,985,187 

Dutch  East  Indies.     . 

121,348 

62,074 

176,318 

238,392 

Dutch  West  Indies  . 

438,132 

379,874 

18,667 

398,541 

England 

23,892,763 

21.281,334 

1,767,457 

23,048,791 

Scotland     .... 

1,024,215 

895,315 

19,493 

914,808 

Ireland 

362,511 

327,728 

366 

328.094 

Gibraltar     .... 

247,471 

301,132 

160,130 

461,262 

British  East  Indies      . 

1,229,569 

69,070 

477.629 

546,699 

British  West  Indies  . 

240,224 

1,463 

5,058 

6,521 

British  Amer.  Colonies 

577  ..542 

2,724,104 

40,805 

2,764,909 

Hanse  Towns,  &c.     . 

2,274,375 

1,998,176 

1,278,984 

3,277,160 

France 

8,838.978 

8,895,045 

2,854,350 

11,749,395 

French  West  Indies 

777,992 

1,056,639 

15,768 

1,072,407 

Bourbon 

10,502 

. 

10,502 

Hayti 

1,799,809 

814,987 

160,171 

975,158 

Spain 

803,-529 

731,605 

185,432 

917,137 

TenerifFe&other  Can's 

25,283 

42,839 

22,317 

66,156 

Manilla&  Philippine  Is. 

209.206 

10,802 

66,430 

77,232 

Cuba      .     .          .     . 

4,866.524 

3,719,263 

1,859,626 

5,578,889 

Other  Spanish  W.Ind's 

898,832 

209,780 

38,900 

248,680 

Portugal 

237,351 

42,088 

628 

42,716 

Madeira      .  '  .     .     . 

403,056 

175,074 

15,089 

190,163 

Italy  and  Malta      .     . 

1,409,588 

289,755 

611,257 

901.012 

Trieste  &  other  Ad'cp'ts 

191,896 

■  409,288 

280.200 

689,488 

Turkey,  Levant,  Egypt 

'  293,237 

27,600 

47.384 

74,984 

Mexico 

5,026,761 

495,626 

1,835,525 

2,331,151 

Central  Rep.  of  Amer. 

311,931 

123,631 

116,223 

239,854 

Honduras,Campeachy 

64,847 

12,693 

8,229 

20.922 

Colombia     .... 

1,255,310 

525,783 

241,565 

767,348 

Brazil 

2,534,467 

1,510,260 

419,767 

1,929,927 

Argentine  Republic    . 

912,114 

444.716 

181,336 

626,052 

Chili      ..... 

416,118 

890.356 

530,778 

1,421,134 

Peru 

1,004,458 

91, .542 

119.615 

211,157 

China 

4,680,847 

260,759 

1,094,103 

1,354,862 

Other  Countries     .     . 

433,623 

884,445 

337,777 

1,222,222 

Total 

74,492,527 

55,700,193 

16,658,478 

72,358,671 

^ 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


225 


STATISTICS. 


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:226 


FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


Statement  of  the  Value  of  Domestic  Exports  of  the  United  States  in  the  year 
ending  September  30<A,  1829. 

The  Sea. 
Fisheries. — 

Dried  fish,  or  cod  fisheries 
Pickled  fish,  or  river  fisheries,  her- 
ring, shad,  salmon,  mackerel 
Wiiale,  (common)  oil,  whalebone 
Spermaceti  oil  and  candles 


$747,541 

220,527 
495,163 
353,869 


The  Forest. 
Skins  and  furs 
Ginseng 
Product  of  Wood. — 

Staves,  shingles,  boar<3s 

Oak  bark,  and  other  dye 

Naval  stores,  tar,  pitch,  rosin  and 

turpentine 
Ashes,  pot  and  pearl 

Agriculture. 
Product  of  Animals. — 

Beef,  tallow,  hides,  and  h'd.  cattle 

Butter  and  cheese 

Pork  (pkl'd.)  bacon,  l£yd,  live  hogs 

Horses  and  mules 

Sheep 
Vegetable  food. — 

Wheat,  flour,  and  biscuit 

Indian  corn  and  meal     . 

R3'e  meal       . 

Rye,  oats,  and  other  small  grain  and 
pulse 

Potatoes 

Apples 

Rice       .... 


Tobacco  .... 

Cotton  .... 

All  other  agricultural  products. — 

Flaxseed        .... 

Hops  .... 

Brown  sugar 

Manufactures. 
Soap  and  tallow  candles 
Leather,  boots  and  shoes 
Saddlery  .... 

Hats 

Wax 

Sp'ts.  from  grain,  beer,  ale,  «&  porter 

Wood  (including  coaches  and  other 

carriages)       .... 


,680,403 
165,406 

377,613 
817,434 


674,955 

176,205 

1,493,629 

207,858 
10.644 


526,507 
114,396 


0,430,856 


$1,817,100 


5,972,920 
974,535 
127,004 

74,896 

30,079 

i      15,958 

2,514,370 


2,563,291 


9,709,762 


113,040 
6,917 
3,289 


692,691 
356,658 
35.765 
270,780 
132,939 
215,494 

501.946 


3.681,759 


12,273,053 

4,982,974 

26,575,311 


123,246 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


227 


STATISTICS. 

Snuff  and  tobacco      ...        1                    | 

$202,396 

Lead 1 

, 

8,417 

Linseed  oil  and  spirits  of  tarpenti 

ne 

30,442 

Cordage 

7,984 

Iron           .... 

223,705 

Spirits  from  molasses 

166,740 

Sugar  refined    . 

50,739 

Chocolate 

1,759 

Gunpowder 

171,924 

Copper  and  brass 

129,647 

Medicinal  drugs 

101,524 

$3,301,550 

Cotton  and  piece  goods. — 

Printed  and  colored 

145,024 

While            .... 

981,370 

Nankeens       .... 

1,878 

Twist,  yarn,  and  thread 

3,849 

All  other  manufactures  of 

127,336 

Flaz  and  hemp.— 

1,259,457 

Cloth  and  thread     . 

2,166 

Bags,  and  all  manufactures  of 

14,954 

Wearing  apparel 

91,108 

Combs,  and  buttons 

76,250 

Brushes     

3,150 

Billiard  tables  and  apparatus 

3,443 

Umbrellas  and  parasols 

22,067 

Leather  and  morocco  skins,  not  sold, 

per  pound      .... 

80,173 

Fire  engines  and  apparatus 

2,832 

Printing  presses  and  types 

12,908 

Musical  instruments 

8,868 

Books  and  maps 

29,010 

Paper,  and  other  stationary 

25,629 

Paints  and  varnish     . 

21,133 

Vinegar     

%k 

5,953 

Earthen  and  stone  ware 

5,592 

Manufactures  of  glass 

49,900 

Do.       .  tin     . 

1,757 

Do.          pewter  and  lead 

5.185 

Do.          marble  and  stone 

2,647 

Do.          gold  and  silver  and 

gold  leaf 

11,250 

Gold  and  silver  coin 

612,886 

Artificial  flowers  and  jewelry     . 

21,627 

Molasses            .... 

1,992 

Trunks 

11,248 

Brick  and  lime 

3,717 

Salt 

. 

26,648 

Articles  not  distinguished  in  returns.^' 

2,414,550 

Manufactured 

309,100 

Raw  produce 

221,544 

530,650 

Total 

55,700,193 

228  FAMILY 


STATISTICS. 


TOTAL   POPULATION    OF  THE  EARTH. 


The  Population  of  the  Earth,  together  with  the  geographical  square 
miles,  by  the  most  recent  and  respectable  authorities  is  as  lollows : 


■' 

Surface. 

Inhabitants. 

Europe     . 

2,793,000 

227.700.000 

Asia     . 

.  1-2,118,000 

390,000.000 

Africa 

8,516,000 

60,000.000 

America 

.  11,046,000 

39,000,000 

Australasia    ^    . 

3,100,000 

20,300,000 

Total    27,573,000 

737,000,000 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  EARTH  DIVIDED  ACCORDING  TO  THEIR  RELIGIOUS 
BELIEF. 

The  two  following  estimates  are  according  to  the  geographers  Malte- 
Brun,and  Hassel. 

Malte-Brun.  Hassel. 

Cathohcs        ....        116,000,000  134,000.000 

Greek  Church            .        .        .      70,000,000  62,000,000 

Prostestauts            .         .        .          42,000,000  55,000,000 


Total  of  Christians    228,000,000  251 ,000,000 

Jews 4,000,000  3.000.000 

Mahometans           .        .        .        100,000,000  120,000,000 

Pagans               .      ,.        .        '    310,000,000  550,000,000 

Total  ofinhabitants  of  the  Globe    642,000,000  924,000,000 


First  part  contains      ....  -  240  Pages. 

Second  part  "  -----      228     do. 

Whole  number    468     do. 


14  DAY  USE 

RJETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

ThJs  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 
Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  {irior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subiect  to  immediate  recall. 

Ke  ificJ  of  FALL  Quarti^r 

—^niC  DEC    &  IP- K^. 


SEC.  cm.  SEP  19  78 


(R^oi^W^^Zl  Uai«ng2g|»S«i> 


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